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SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS, INC.

Two Pennsylvania Plaza, New York, N. Y. 10001

A Method of Calculating the

Heat Dissipation from Radiators
to Cool Vehicle Engines
R. A. Beard and G. J. Smith
Associated Engineering Developments Ltd.

Automotive Engineering Congress

Detroit, Mich. 710208
January 11-15, 1971
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710208

A Method of Calculating the

Heat Dissipation from Radiators
to Cool Vehicle Engines
R. A. Beard and G. J. Smith
Associated Engineering Developments Ltd.

MANY PAPERS AND ARTICLES have been published on the
subject of heat transfer. This situation has arisen because,
with perhaps the exception of a few simple cases, the heat
transfer processes are not easily described by purely theoret
ical considerations. Most practical problems have to be inves
tigated extensively in order to produce sufficient empirical
data for design purposes. The heat exchanger designer,
therefore, has to decide which of the many design curves and
correlations appearing in the literature can be applied to his
particular problem and the amount of confidence that he can
place in calculations based on them.
The design of radiators for water-cooled vehicle engines is
no exception to this state of affairs, and whole textbooks
have been written on the subject of compact heat exchangers.
However, the relatively simple method to be described for
calculating the heat dissipation from radiators gives results of
acceptable accuracy for most purposes. It takes into consid
eration all the relevant factors, such as fluid flowrates, fin
geometry, louvering, and details of construction that are
important in assessing performance. Almost all the equations
and relationships used have been published in some form
before, but here many of them are applied to physical condi
tions different from the experimental universe for which they
were originally developed. The application to radiators is
fully justified by comparison of the calculations with
experiment.
Many factors influence the performance of an engine cooling
system. For instance, the vehicle styling features can give rise
to maldistribution of air flow and poor ram characteristics. In
some vehicles the critical condition for cooling can occur when
the engine is delivering full power; in others it can be the
maximum torque condition or even the state when the engine
is at idle.
The position and shape of the space allowed for the radiator
by the vehicle manufacturer often determines which of these
conditions is the most troublesome and sometimes dictates
the type of radiator to be used. In any heat exchanger where
one (or both) of the fluids is a gas, the power required to over
come fluid friction is comparable with the heat transfer rate,
and the pressure drop of the system becomes an important
consideration. In the case of the vehicle radiator, it is not
only the resistance caused by the matrix but also the shape of
the air ducts before and after the radiator, and the fan charac
teristics, that will control the air flow. Clearly it is not
possible to discuss vehicle cooling without reference to
particular installations. However, at some stage in the design

ABSTRACT

Several basic heat transfer equations have been utilized to
enable the calculation of the thermal performances of vehicle
radiator cores. The application of the calculation procedure
to the two types of radiator matrix in general use has been
shown in some detail, and results using these methods have
been compared with experimental values. These correlations
have shown that the calculation procedure can be used with
confidence to predict matrix dissipations for Reynolds
numbers in the water tubes of less than 1000, as found in
automobile heater cores, as well as for the larger Reynolds
numbers in the water tubes typical of automobile radiator
cores.
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process the engineer must decide on the heat dissipation
required for a particular application, and in this paper atten
tion is confined to methods of calculating these dissipations.
THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
The equations that express the heat dissipation, Q, from a
radiator are as follows:
Eq. 1 relates the rate of heat transfer for unit area at some
point in the radiator to the temperature difference, ?T, be
tween the hot and cold fluids. Eq. 2 follows from considera
tions of the heat flow where ha and hw, are the heat transfer
coefficients on the air and water sides, respectively, and Ke is
the thermal conductivity of the radiator material of tube wall
thickness te and area Aw. The overall heat transfer coefficient,
U, is based on the total external surface area (air side) At, and
surface effectiveness, Z. These equations, and the assumptions
from which they are derived, will be familiar to heat exchanger
designers and need no further elaboration. The real problem
in calculating radiator performance is finding satisfactory
methods of estimating the heat transfer coefficients.
WATER-SIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT - A
substantial quantity of data appears in the literature on the
heat transfer to and from fluids flowing in tubes. The fluids
include gases, steam, water, and liquid hydrocarbons at a
variety of temperatures, pressures, and flowrates. The results
correlate well (1)* by the equation:
For gases, the relation holds for Reynolds numbers (Re w)
from 2100-500,000, but for liquids, the lower limit on
Reynolds number is about 5000. Below a Reynolds number
of 5000 the data apparently diverge from the above equation.
The use of Eq. 3 to calculate the water-side heat transfer
coefficient presents some complications. Most of the experi
mental data refer to flow in tubes of circular section. How
ever, there is some evidence to suggest that the equivalent
hydraulic diameter concept may be used for the diameter
terms when noncircular section tubes are involved. Radiator
tubes generally have a rectangular section with length-to
width ratios of up to 10:1, and data available for tubes with
length-to-width ratios of up to 8:1 agree well with Eq. 3.
*Numbers in parentheses designate References at end of
paper.
The Reynolds number of the water flow is below 5000 in
many practical conditions. For example, in a typical 1.5
liter car, the Reynolds number in the radiator tubes would not
exceed 5000 until the engine speed is about 3000 rpm; but
even then the flow in some of the tubes may not have reached
these conditions, because of poor distribution in the end
tanks. These difficulties can be overcome by confining cal
culations to high water flowrate conditions; but often low
flowrate cases are of most interest and in automobile heater
cores the Reynolds number is unlikely to exceed 1000.
However, it will be demonstrated that calculations using Eq. 3
give a reliable guide to dissipation even at very low flowrates.
AIR-SIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS - The air
side heat transfer coefficient could also be evaluated from
Eq. 3. However, this presents problems when one attempts to
take into account the turbulence induced by louvering the
fins. It has been found that a theoretically developed equation
for the heat transfer from a flat plate can be used to calculate
the air-side transfer coefficient and this can be adapted to
approximate to the effects of louvers.
The equation for the local heat transfer coefficient for a
flat plate was obtained by Pohlhausen (2) as follows:
The symbols have the meanings given in the Nomenclature.
The equation gives the heat transfer coefficient, hy, at
some point that is distance y from the leading edge of the
plate. It will be noted that the heat transfer decreases as y
increases. This is because the laminar boundary layer thick
ness increases with distance from the leading edge. The
purpose of louvers in the fin is to give a series of leading edges
to the air flow, thereby increasing the heat transfer coef
ficient immediately downstream of each louver.
Pohlhausen (2) also developed an equation for the mean
heat transfer coefficient over the whole length of the plate:
Here L represents the length of the plate. It is assumed that
the heat transfer coefficient given by Eq. 4 approximates to the
heat transfer coefficient for the air duct in a radiator. For a
plain, unlouvered fin, L is then the core depth along the fin,
parallel to the air flow.
The heat transfer coefficient for a louvered fin (hal) is
given by:
For evenly spaced louvers L* is the distance between each
louver. Louvers, however, are seldom evenly spaced and an
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3
approximate equivalent length for the louvers can be ef iciency, but Harper and Brown (3) and Gardner (4) give
calculated from: a review of these. The

where the array Li represents the distance between the (n 1)

louvers, such that the sum Li is equal to the fin

depth, L.
The louvers usually extend for only part of the total perim
eter of a duct. Thus, part of the duct will behave as though
it were louvered; this part will have a heat transfer coefficient,
that may be calculated by Eq. 5 and the remainder will
behave like a plain, flat plate with a transfer coefficient as
calculated by Eq. 4. In practice, it has been found satis
factory to use a mean of the two coefficients based on the
fraction of the perimeter of the duct that is louvered. If R is
the fraction of the total perimeter cut by the louvers, then a
mean heat transfer coefficient (hm) is given by:
fin ef iciency, ?, only applies to the fin surface area, that
is, the secondary surface area, As. The primary surface area,
Ap, the area of the tubes in contact with both the water and
the air, will have an ef iciency of 100%. Thus, the sur face
effectiveness, Z, for unit area of the external area, Aa,
is given by: or
PROCEDURE

This simple mean of the two heat transfer coefficients may

seem to be an oversimplification in estimating the effects of
louvering. Also, the treatment of the air duct by the theory de FOR CALCULATING HEAT DISSIPATION The
veloped for an isolated flat plate indicates that furtherjustifi
cation of the analysis is required. However, the calculated object of the calculations was to determine the impor tant
performance figures have shown such satisfactory agreement features of radiator designs so that the calculation pro cedures
with wind tunnel tests for dissipation curve shapes in all could be used to make recommendations for im provements
cases and dissipation values for the majority of cases that
further justification is deemed unnecessary. in design that would be subsequently verified by wind
FIN EFFICIENCY AND SURFACE EFFECTIVENESS Before
tunnel tests. It was necessary to specify some standard conditions
the air-side heat transfer characteristics are completely defined, of comparison for dif erent cores, and these were a mean
the surface effectiveness must be calculated. The term
water temperature of 180 F and an inlet air temperature to
the core of 80 F. LOGARITHMIC
arises because the fins of the radiator are being cooled at MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE Referring ag in
such a rate that there will be a temperature gradient along the to Eq. 1, it wil be noted that it still remains to calculate
fins normal to the air flow. The
the temperature dif erence between the air and water, ?T.
fin ef iciency is defined as the ratio of the actual dis sipation Clearly, under normal working conditions, the air is
from the fins to the dis ipation obtainable if the fins are heated as it passes through the radiator core and the water is,
maintained at a uniform temperature equal to the tube wall in turn, cooled. The temperature difference therefore varies from
temperature. Harper and Brown (3) and others have derived position to position within the radiator and a mean temperature difference
equations for the efficiency of fins attached to the primary must be calculated. Integration of the dif erential equation
surface at one edge only. These fins are similar to those relating the temperatures of the two fluids yields
on air-co led motorcycle engines, for example. How ever, the required mean temperature difference, and this is
the fins on a typical radiator are attached to the water tubes quite simple in the cases of concurrent and counter current flow
at both ends. This gives rise to a modifed boundary condition heat exchangers. For these types of heat ex changers the
when the dif erential equation for the temperature distribution mean temperature difference is known as the logarithmic mean
is solved by the method of Harper and Brown (3). The temperature difference (LMTD) and for the countercur ent flow
temperature gradient, instead of being zero at the tip of the fin, case is given as: given as:
is zero at a point half-way between the water tubes. This leads
to the term H/2 in the fin ef iciency expression. Unfortunately,
space will not permit a ful discussion of the simplifying
assumptions necessary to the derivation of the fin
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where Tw and Ta are the water and air temperatures, res
pectively, and subscripts i and o refer to inlet and outlet
conditions.
A vehicle radiator is not, however, a countercurrent flow
heat exchanger; it is a single-pass, cross-flow exchanger, that
is, an exchanger with the two fluids flowing approximately
perpendicular to each other. Bowman, Mueller, and Nagle (5)
considered the conditions when the LMTD may be applied to
the cross-flow problem and published correction factors.
Small 6 × 6 in. test sections were used for the wind tunnel
tests ofradiator cores. The fall in water temperature across
these is small, and it would appear from the data of Bowman,
et al., (5) that the errors are not great if Eq. 7 is used as it
stands. The mean temperature difference then reduces to the
following:
Experience has shown that if water flow rates are suffi
ciently high, the water temperature change may be neglected
altogether. This simplification will be considered again, but
it is important to be able to express the LMTD as a function
of only one unknown variable:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND MATERIALS The
density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity of water do not
vary very greatly with temperature, and published values of
these properties at a temperatue of 180 F were used in the calculations.
The most difficult properties to determine were those
of the air. This is partly because the air properties change
with temperature, but more particularly because the air
temperature rise through the core can be considerable. The actual are usually louvered. Determining the heat transfer areas necessary
air temperature rise, however, depends on the air velocity
and the particular core in question, so that the air properties
have to be expres ed as a function of temperature. Simple
linear relationships can be used to expres the air viscosity
and thermal conductivity from 80 F using published data.
It is easier in practice to combine the conductivity in the
familiar Prandtl number. The equations used are: The
units of the viscosity are lb/ft - hr. These
are, of course, rough-and-ready relations, but nevertheles
very useful. The specific heat of air, which does not
change rapidly with temperature, can be assumed a con stant.
The density does change significantly with relatively small
changes of temperature but appears in the equations combined
with a velocity term and is then, in effect, a mas flowrate
that is constant in a closed section wind tunnel. METHOD
OF SOLUTION OF HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS
- The equations that have been detailed above enable
the solution of Eq. 1 in terms of the air temperature rise.
The additional equation required for the complete solution
for the heat dissipation comes from the heat balance on
the air side: The
calculation of the heat dissipation is then merely a proces
of solving a set of simultaneous equations. The most convenient
way to do this is to assume an air temperature rise
and calculate the cor esponding dissipation. This value for
the dis ipation can then be used to calculate a further estimate
of the air temperature rise from Eq. 8. This iterative process
can be continued until each successive estimate of the air
temperature rise differs from the previous estimate by less
than some specified amount. The iterative loop is well behaved,
and usually only four or five iterations are required to
reach a satifactory solution. The quantity of calculations involved
is considerable and the IBM 1130 computer at Cawston
House was utilized, with FORTRAN as the pro gramming
language. TYPES
OF RADIATOR DESIGN Before
comparing the calculated performance of a radiator with
that measured in a wind tunnel, it is perhaps important to
consider the geometry of radiator cores. Two types are almost
universally used: the simplest, from the point of view of
analysis of heat transfer, is the cor ugated-fin type, illus trated
in Fig. 1. Usual y there are two, three, or four rows of water
tubes across the depth of the core that are fabricated from
brass foil. These tubes are soldered to the copper fins, which
for Eq. 2 pres nts no particular difficulties. It wil be
noted that only ratios of areas are required and so these can be
conveniently evaluated for a smal section rather than for the
whole radiator. radiator.
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The other design of core commonly in use is the plate
fin type. The tubes are usually staggered across the depth of
the core, as shown for a three-row sample in Fig. 2. Cores
with louvered fins usually have three or four rows of water
tubes but plain or dimpled fin versions, with as many as eight
rows, are sometimes used in commercial vehicles. Although
this type of core has a lower dissipation for a given weight of
material compared with the corrugated-fin type, it does have
a high dissipation for a given frontal area. It therefore finds
favor in applications where space is very limited, for example,
in transverse engined vehicles with the radiator at the side.
Heater cores also are usually of this type, since it is very ro
bust and able to withstand surprisingly high water pressures.
Difficult features of the plate-fin design for estimating ther high rate of heat transfer, however, will be produced by the
mal performance are the regions where adjacent tube rows
overlap. In these areas, some allowance has to be made for
the close proximity of the water tubes and for the heat
flow in the fins, which is not entirely normal to the air flow-an sections 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8 for the plate fin, the fin height
implicit assumption in the derivation of the air-side heat trans is less than H and Eq. 6 must be amended accordingly.
fer coefficient and fin efficiency. Some empirical data have
been published on the heat transfer from banks of finned
tubes, but most of the data refer to tubes of circular section
and do not take into account any louvering.
The method for the plate-fin cores is to divide the fin into a
number of sections and to evaluate the dissipation from each
section. The actual heat dissipation is then given by the sum
of the dissipations for each section. Fig. 3 shows the nine
sections necessary for analyzing the performance of the
three-row plate-fin core. Section 1 is from the leading edge of
the fin to the last louver before the second row of tubes.
Section 2 is from the louver that terminates section 1 to the
nose of the second row of water tubes. Section 3 covers the
region of overlap between the two rows of water tubes; and
section 4 is from the end of the first row of water tubes to
the next louver, and so on. Section 6 is similar to section 2,
section 7 to section 3, etc; and section 9 corresponds to sec
tion 1. Any plate-fin core, with any number of rows of tubes,
can be divided into sections in this way.
The difficult regions for analyzing the heat transfer are now
5
covered by sections 2, 3, and 4 and sections 6, 7, and 8.
Sections 2, 4, 6, and 8 may be treated as simple, plain fins
with a one-dimensional temperature gradient; it is necessary,
however, to take due account of the effects of the adjacent
tubes on prime area, fin efficiency, etc. Sections 3 and 7 are
assumed to be simple, one-dimensional heat flow problems;
however, the tube pitch across the width of the core is half
that for other sections, which gives rise to higher air velocities.
Eq. 4, to calculate the mean air-side heat transfer coefficient,
takes into consideration turbulence created by the leading
edge of a plain surface. Sections 3, 4, 7, and 8 do not have a
leading edge, and calculated values of the heat transfer coef
ficients for these sections might be thought to be too high. A
turbulence created by the overlap of the tubes in these regions.
A small point to note is that in the equation for the fin
efficiency, the term H/2, half the fin height, arises; but in
THE WIND TUNNEL-EXPERIMENTAL
The wind tunnel, used for experimental evaluation of heat
transfer characteristics of radiator matrices, is of the parallel
section type, approximately 6 inches square (see Fig. 4). The
heat transfer is measured both on the air and water sides.
AIR-SIDE DISSIPATION - Air density is calculated as a
variable, dependent on air temperature and barometric pres
sure, and the specific heat of air as a function of air temper
ature alone. An electronic remote-reading anemometer (1
in Fig. 4) is used to measure air flow. Since the anemometer
is mounted in the airstream after the radiator core, the air
parameters used to normalize the velocity are, of course, those
of the heated air. The air inlet and air outlet temperatures are
measured separately by means of two wire girds (2 and 3),
which form arms of two Wheatstone bridges. Thus, the inlet
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6
air temperature used for calculation of mean temperature dif
ferences is obtained directly, whereas the air temperature
difference is obtained indirectly as the difference in the two
readings. From these parameters the air-side dissipation can
be calculated. This is usually normalized to 100 F mean tem
perature difference and factored to a square foot frontal area
in the calculations. The result is then in a form suitable for
direct comparison with results obtained from theoretical
calculations.
WATER-SIDE DISSIPATION - The specific heat and density
of water are calculated from their temperature dependence
relationships. Water flow is measured on a variable area
flowmeter of the appropriate range. Water temperature dif
ference is measured by two differential thermocouples (4-7),
in series, reading directly on to a microvoltmeter. The water
inlet temperature is measured using a mercury in glass ther
mometer (12 in Fig. 4). This measurement is used for calcu
lating mean temperature difference, which is usually of the
order of 100 F. It also gives the temperature required in the
calculations for density and specific heat; extreme accuracy is
not required in either application.
GENERAL
Heat balances of the order of 0.5-3% are consistently
achieved; any improvement on this would involve complex
monitoring systems and much tighter control of initial water
and air temperatures.
For tests on radiator cores a waterflow of 16.8 gpm per ft
width of core is used. The airflow is in the range 10-60 ft/
sec face velocity and is obtained using centrifugal fan (8),
with shutter (9) closed and throttling shutter (10). For tests on
heater cores a waterflow of 2.88 gpm per ft width of core is
used. The airflow is in the range 1-10 ft/sec face velocity and
is achieved using an axial fan (11) with shutter (10) closed and
throttling shutter (9).
The water pressure drop through the core was measured
using an inverted U-tube. The air pressure drop through the
core was measured on an inclined manometer with air pres
sure tappings (13 and 14) taken upstream and downstream of
the core, as shown in Fig. 4.
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF CALCULATIONS
Two examples of performance curves for the plate-fin
type of core are shown in Fig. 5. Both the cores had fin
densities of 16 fins/in. but one had three rows of water tubes
and was 1.5 in. deep, whereas the other core had four rows and
was 2 in. deep. The dissipation figures are for 80 F air inlet
temperature and 180 F mean water temperature conditions
and are based on one square foot of frontal area. The water
flow rate of 16.8 gpm per ft width of core gave Reynolds
numbers for the water of 5500 for the three-row core and
4200 for the four-row core. The maximum difference be
tween the calculated and experimental performance shown in
Fig. 5 was about 8%, but agreement was appreciably better
than this over much of the range of the air velocities shown.
Fig. 6 shows the calculated and experimentally determined
performance curves for two corrugated-fin-type cores with
9 and 10 fins in. Both cores were 1.25 in. deep and had 16
louvers per fin. The water flowrate of 16.8 gpm per ft width
of core gave a Reynolds number in the water tubes of approx
imately 11,000. Comparison of the experimental and calcu
lated curves show a maximum error of about 10%.
The flowrates for both air and water for the performance
curves in Figs. 5 and 6 are typical of the operating range of a
vehicle radiator. The flowrates through an automobile heater
core are much lower, and it may be supposed that many of the
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assumptions made during the calculations are no longer valid
under these conditions. For example, the water flowrates
through a heater core will give a Reynolds number below
1000, which presents uncertainties in the method of determin
7
ing the water-side heat transfer coefficients. Also, at such low
flowrates, the fall in water temperature across even a 6 X 6 in.
test core is not really small enough to be neglected in calcula
ting the mean temperature difference. There are equally far
reaching objections to the air-side heat transfer calculations
under conditions of high air temperature rise through the core.
However, Fig. 7 shows the performance curves for the four
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8
row plate-fin core at a water Reynolds number of about 700 = Core depth, dimension of fins parallel to air flow
L
and low air velocities. The calculations, made using the same =LMTD Logarithmic mean temperature difference
equations used for high flowrate conditions, show just as good L*
= Thermally equivalent length between louvers
agreement with the experimentally determined dissipations. = Nusselt number for water
Nuw
Much of the authors' effort has been directed toward the
development of adhesive-bonded aluminum radiator cores. Pra Prandtl number for air
=
These are very similar in design to the corrugated-fin type = Prandtl number for water
Prw
already described. Fig. 8 shows, as examples, the calculated = Heat dissipation
Q
performance curves for aluminum cores 1, 2, and 3 in. deep, = Ratio of louvered perimeter to total perimeter for
R
giving Reynolds numbers in the water tubes of approximately an air duct
9100, 6000, and 3900, respectively.
The authors have experience of testing a large number of
Rew Reynolds number for water
=
cores, and the calculations have without fail predicted the te Tube wall thickness
=
dissipations with satisfactorily close agreement. Figs. 5-8 are tf Fin foil thickness
=
typical of the correlations to be expected from the methods = Air temperature
Ta
described. The practical work has not been confined in any
way to the effects of changes in fluid flowrates on perform Tw Water temperature
=
ance, and cores with a wide variety of geometries have been U Overall heat transfer coefficient
=
tested. The effects on heat dissipation of changes of core = Air velocity through core
Va
depth, fin height and pitch, number of louvers, water tube
size, and foil thickness can all be calculated with confidence.
= Approach air velocity in wind tunnel (face velocity)
Vf
Work currently in progress is directed toward the theoret
y Distance from leading edge of plate or fin
=
Z Surface effectiveness
=
ical prediction of the air pressure drops through various = Water-to-air temperature difference
?T
types of radiator cores. It is hoped to report this work, to = Air temperature rise through core from 80 F
?Ta
gether with experimental verification, at a later date.
= Water temperature fall through core about mean of
?Tw
180F
NOMENCLATURE
= Fin efficiency
?
A = Area = Viscosity of air
µa
Aa = Air-side heat transfer area (secondary surface area) ?a Density of air
=
Ap p = Primary surface area ACKNOWLEDGMENT
rtt At = Total external surface area (Aa + Ap)
Aw = Water-side heat transfer
area The Directors of Associated Engineering Developments Ltd.
Aw kindly gave permission for the publication of this paper. The
B B = A
function
authors were also fortunate in having access to some un
a CPa = Specific heat of
air published papers by M. Bush of Coventry Radiator and Press
fins ha = Heat transfer coefficient for unlouvered work Co. Ltd.

fins hal = Heat transfer coefficient for louvered

REFERENCES
coef icient hm = Mean air-side heat transfer
1.M. Fishenden and O. A. Saunders, "An Introduction to
hw = Water-side heat transfer coefficient Heat Transfer." London: Oxford University Press, 1950.
hyy = Local heat transfer coefficient at distance y from 2.E. Pohlhausen, Zeitschrift fur angewandte Mathematik
leading edge und Mechanik, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 115, 1921.
H = Fin height between two water tubes, normal to 3.D. R. Harper and W. B. Brown, National Advisory
direction of air flow Committee for Aeronautics, Report 158, 1922.
Ka = Thermal conductivity of air 4.K. A. Gardner, ASME Transactions Vol. 67, p. 621,
1945.
Ke = Thermal conductivity of radiator tube wall 5.R. A. Bowman, A. C. Mueller, and W. M. Nagle, ASME
Kf = Thermal conductivity of radiator fins Transactions, Vol. 62, p. 283, 1940.

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