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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2000-01-0932
David R. Lancaster
General Motors Powertrain Group
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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Copyright © 2000 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
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2000-01-0932
David R. Lancaster
General Motors Powertrain Group
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Improved detection of combustion knock and pre-ignition the industry. Cost of these devices is generally high and
enables safe operation closer to MBT spark advance, the hostile thermal and mechanical environment of the
while cylinder pressure sensing provides outstanding combustion chamber introduces serious durability
detection of misfire and partial burn cycles for the full concerns.
range of engine operating conditions. As future
Non-intrusive sensors [21-35] do not require direct
automotive engine systems become more complex,
access to the combustion chamber. Pressure is detected
cylinder-pressure-based control enables reduced
indirectly by sensing stress in an existing engine
dependency on expanding open-loop calibrations and
component (e.g., head bolt). Because of their integration
may simplify calibration requirements while speeding the
into existing components, non-intrusive devices are
overall calibration process.
generally lower cost than intrusive sensors. However,
A variety of cylinder-pressure-based engine control signal quality depends strongly on the mechanical load
systems has been reported in the literature [3,4,5,6]. path of the resulting package and is often below
Generally, cost, packaging, and durability considerations requirements. In-spark-plug devices [36-43] have been of
have limited production applications of these systems. interest since they do not require an additional access
Some systems have also been compromised by poor port to the combustion chamber. Significant engineering
sensor signal quality or algorithm design, both of which resources have been applied recently to develop an
may limit system performance and functionality, and integrated spark plug pressure sensor as part of the
reduce system benefits. ignition subsystem. Unfortunately, use of piezoelectric,
fiber optic, or magnetostrictive sensing technology has
The most common type of cylinder pressure sensors are
not resulted in a practical, low-cost, in-spark-plug device.
intrusive devices that package through the combustion
chamber wall [7-20]. While intrusive sensors are evolving Algorithms for cylinder-pressure-based engine control
into smaller designs, production viability of packaging have been developed with various control functionality,
these sensors within the crowded space of an engine and pressure sensor, sampling, and processing
cylinder head remains a formidable challenge throughout requirements. Location of Peak Pressure (LPP) [44-53] is
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a well-known algorithm that is relatively easy to The current work offers a new solution to the technical
implement and does not require calibrated sensors. For and commercial limitations of other pressure-based
strong mixtures, control of LPP to a predetermined MBT engine control systems. The technology developed
target can provide effective spark-timing control. This reduces the cost and complexity historically associated
approach has reduced applicability for dilute mixtures, with cylinder-pressure-based engine control systems,
such as at idle or for high EGR rates, and can not be while providing increased control functionality. The
used effectively for control of EGR, A/F, or other engine control algorithm used is based on fundamental
control variables [53]. combustion principles, is computationally efficient, and
greatly reduces requirements on the pressure sensor
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) may be
system. The pressure sensor used is a piezoelectric,
calculated by sampling the cylinder pressure waveform
non-intrusive device that has potentially excellent
during the combustion event. Toyota produced an engine
durability with estimated cost between one half to one
control system [54,55] based on this approach using a
quarter the cost of competitive intrusive sensors. This
single intrusive pressure sensor mounted in cylinder #1.
paper presents the control system, control algorithms,
Cylinder pressure measurements were sampled four
and the sensor system. Test results for spark-timing
times during the expansion stroke as an estimate of
control, dilution control, A/F balancing, misfire and knock
IMEP. JECS also developed a similar system on a 3.0l V6
detection, and the cold start are shown. Improvements in
using a spark plug load washer in each cylinder [56]. The
vehicle fuel economy, NOx emissions, and HC emissions
algorithm is useful for monitoring engine torque
are reported.
fluctuations for indication of combustion dilution limits
[57,58,59] and for detection of misfired cycles. However,
IMEP has limited application for other engine control
PRESSURE-RATIO MANAGEMENT
functions.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES – Rassweiller and
An empirical method called the “moment algorithm” Withrow [68] showed that the mass burn fraction (MBF)
[60,61,62] was developed to estimate the mixture A/F for an engine could be determined from the fractional
ratio by applying pattern recognition techniques to the pressure rise due to combustion. The algorithm used in
cylinder pressure waveform. The “shape information” the current work is based on this principle and is called
contained in the cylinder pressure waveform was Pressure-Ratio Management (PRM) [69,70,71]. For each
quantified by calculating the first, second and third combustion event, the algorithm provides determination
moments of pressure vs. crank angle, and using these as of combustion phasing and combustion dilution.
inputs to an estimator algorithm. The gain and bias of the
To illustrate PRM, the fired cylinder pressure and the
pressure sensor were not required and a reasonable
“motored pressure” that would exist if combustion did not
correlation between A/F and engine variables was
occur are shown in Figure 1a. The pressure ratio (PR) is
demonstrated. The calculation procedure, however, was
defined as the fired pressure divided by the motored
computationally intensive and was not extended to other
pressure and is shown in Figure 1b.
control functions such as spark timing control.
Another approach to engine control using cylinder PR(θ) = P(θ) / Pmot(θ) (1)
pressure is the “difference pressure” technique
developed by Bosch [18, 63,64]. The difference pressure The PR has unity value before combustion and rises
(DP) is defined as the difference between the measured during combustion to a final pressure ratio (FPR) which
combustion pressure and the calculated motored depends on the amount of heat release per unit charge
pressure for the same cycle. The difference pressure mass. The increase in the final pressure ratio is called the
integral (DPI) is the integral of DP between top-dead- modified pressure ratio, MPR.
center (TDC) and 180 crank-angle-degrees (CAD) after-
top-dead-center (ATDC) and was used for misfire MPR = FPR – 1 (2)
detection, spark timing control, and dilution limit
detection. The algorithm offers the benefit of insensitivity The fractional rise in the pressure ratio is an estimate of
to pressure sensor bias but conversely, requires a sensor the mass burn fraction. The accuracy of the estimate is
with known gain (calibrated). influenced only slightly by heat transfer and piston motion
[70]. Since the pressure ratio is, by definition, a
It is generally recognized that excellent measures of
ratiometric measure of cylinder pressures, PRM
knock intensity may be obtained from cylinder pressure
algorithms do not require the gain of the pressure sensor.
measurements, depending on the pressure sensor type
The bias of the pressure signal (voltage) is computed
and mounting location within the engine [1,65,66,67].
using two compression samples with the assumption of
Nissan produced a system on a 3.0l V6 that used ring
polytropic behavior [70]. Therefore, PRM is inherently
load washers mounted under each spark plug to detect
insensitive to many of the common errors in pressure
individual-cylinder combustion knock [34,35]. Owing to
measurement. Importantly, this enables use of low-cost
improved knock detection from cylinder pressure
pressure sensors for practical implementations of the
measurements, knock system performance can be
system.
improved and the knock calibration may be simplified.
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Table 3. SPB Cylinder Pressure Sensor Specifications for Use with PRM.
Parameter Value Units
Operating Conditions
Operating Temperature Range -55 to 150 C
Maximum Exposure Temperature 200 C
Working Cylinder Pressure Range 0 to 8.3 MPa
Burst Pressure 13 MPa
Mechanical Characteristics
Sensor Static Preload Range 3300 to 11000 N
Dynamic Load (at max. pressure, nom.) 1100 N
Installation Torque Range 40 – 55 Nm
Frequency Response ~20 kHz
Electrical Characteristics
Constant Current Input 1.0 – 2.0 mA
Supply Voltage 11 – 16 V
Power Supply Noise Rejection 30 dB
Output Voltage Range 0 – 10 V
Low-Frequency Cutoff (3 dB down) 0.1 to 0.2 Hz
High-Frequency Cutoff (3 dB down) 28 to 32 kHz
Output Ground Insulation (min.) 2 Mohm
Output Capacitance (max.) 100 pF
Power-Up Delay (from “key on”) 75 ms
Design specifications for the Spark-Plug-Boss Sensor thermal expansion equal to that of the aluminum cylinder
used with Pressure-Ratio Management are listed in Table head. The shell is nickel plated to prevent thread galling
3. An error sensitivity analysis was performed to and corrosion.
determine some of the specifications in Table 3. The
values listed may be adapted to suit specific engine
control applications.
Figure 6. Cross Sectional view of SPB Sensor Figure 8. SPB Sensor Signal Plotted as a Function of
the Kistler 6125 Signal.
The piezoceramic element generates a charge signal
proportional to the applied dynamic force. The charge The piezoceramic material used in the sensor is a
signal is conducted along a metalized trace on the modified lead-zirconate, lead-titanate composition
bonnet to an integral electronic amplifier located on the specially developed for excellent output linearity and
bonnet inner diameter. The amplifier converts the charge stability at high operating temperature. Extensive tests
signal into a low-impedance voltage signal. The voltage were performed to develop and characterize the
signal (output) is conducted through a metalized through- electromechanical properties of this material. Results
hole to an annular output terminal on the bonnet outer showed that (1) output was insensitive to static preload;
diameter. This permits installation of the sensor in any (2) non-linearity and hysteresis combined were less than
rotational position for non-indexed connection to the 1.5 percent of full scale over the temperature range; and
wiring harness. (3) degradation of charge constant at 13.7 MPa prestress
and 150 C was about 2.3 percent per age decade. This
material exhibited the most linear response
characteristics in tests conducted with materials from
leading piezoceramic suppliers worldwide.
To minimize system cost and complexity, and provide
high signal quality, a new, high-temperature, integral
electronic amplifier was developed. The amplifier circuit
schematic is shown in Figure 9. The amplifier utilizes
lateral MOSFET transistor technology and Surface Mount
Technology (SMT) for high-temperature and high-density
circuit packaging. The amplifier operates from a
constant-current supply located in the engine control unit
(ECU). A single wire connected to the sensor provides
power to the amplifier and returns a signal to an electrical
interface at the ECU. This enables reduced sensor and
Figure 7. SPB Sensor and Kistler 6125 Signals Plotted connection system costs. The amplifier tolerates contact
as a Function of Crank Position for One resistance as high as 10 ohms, which further enables
Combustion Event at Part Throttle. robust, low-cost connection system designs. Figure 10
shows a modular connection system developed as part of
Typical sensor signal characteristics for one combustion this work. The electrical mechanization for the system is
event are shown in Figure 7 for part-throttle operating shown in the next section.
conditions. Discontinuities in the sensor waveform are Measured response characteristics for the electronic
due to intake and exhaust valve loading on the system compared to SPICE model predictions are shown
combustion chamber. Differences between the signals in Figures 11 and 12. Linearity is excellent and bandpass
during the valves closed region are due to gain and bias characteristics are very stable over the operating
differences of the signals. As a measure of sensor temperature range. The amplifier satisfies
linearity, the sensor signal in Figure 7 is plotted as a electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements
function of the Kistler 6125 signal (Figure 8). Deviations including electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection and is
from the straight line connecting the endpoints of this plot immune to damage from DC sources. The amplifier, as
indicate that sensor errors are small relative to the ideal fabricated on polyimide flexible substrate, has been
linear response (the primary requirement for PRM).
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Figure 18 also shows the dilution parameter, DILPAR for Because of this, and in order to maintain acceptable
these data. DILPAR is basically MPR that is corrected for driveability, open-loop systems must be calibrated with
combustion phasing effects (see equation 5). Figure 18 lower levels of EGR than the engine can tolerate. Even
shows that DILPAR is relatively invariant for this steady for moderate levels of EGR, engine operation may be
state operating condition. This means that DILPAR can compromised by misdelivery of EGR and improper spark
essentially provide a one-cycle estimate of combustion timing for the mixture delivered. Closed-loop control
dilution. The observed variability of DILPAR in Figure 18 using cylinder pressure measurements provides precise
is attributed to system noise and real A/F variations regulation of spark timing and EGR, resulting in optimum
caused by fuel control based on an exhaust oxygen engine efficiency and minimum emissions.
sensor.
Closed-loop, MBT, spark-timing control was implemented
Additional tests were performed to measure the accuracy by controlling PRM10 to a nominal target value of 0.55.
of the SPB Sensor System for the range of engine Modifications to the PRM10 target were made for special
operating conditions encountered in the FTP test. operating conditions and were input as calibration
“Maximum errors” for PRM10 and MPR as measured for parameters in a lookup table. For decels, PRM10 target
100 consecutive cycles are reported as shown in Figures values were reduced to maintain good combustion
19 and 20. Average errors for these conditions are much stability. PRM10 target values were also automatically
less. Correlation coefficients are also shown. These modified if knock was detected or if pre-ignition was
results establish the validity of the SPB Sensor system detected. PRM10 target values may also be reduced to
for use with Pressure-Ratio-Management. reduce NOx emissions although with an associated
efficiency loss.
Closed-loop EGR control was implemented using
Method 2, Dilution Control. Spark advance targets for the
best efficiency mixtures were determined in off-line
experiments and were input into a look-up table. Method
3, Dilution Limit Detection, was used simultaneously to
limit EGR rates if combustion instabilities or partial-burn
cycles were detected. For good transient control of EGR,
additional improvements were incorporated including 1)
accurate EGR lift control with improved valve stability, 2)
use of an EGR transport delay model, and 3) adaptive
learning for the EGR valve lift table.
Figures 21 and 22 show HC emissions, NOx emissions,
and fuel efficiency as a function of the PRM10 target
Figure 19. PRM10 Errors for Simulated FTP Test. value at 1800 rpm and part throttle. Figure 21 is for EGR
disabled with a corresponding MBT spark advance of 30
CAD BTDC. Figure 22 is for heavy EGR corresponding to
the best efficiency mixture and an MBT spark advance of
52 CAD BTDC. The data shows that control of PRM10 to
a target value of 0.55 does provide the best efficiency
operation for conditions with and without EGR. Heavy
EGR, corresponding to the best efficiency mixture,
improved engine efficiency by 5 percent and reduced
engine-out NOx emissions about 70 percent. Engine-out
HC emissions were increased about 40 percent. For
systems without EGR or for systems with moderate EGR,
spark retard is normally used to suppress engine-out
NOx. This may reduce efficiency an additional 2 to 3
percent relative to operation with the best efficiency
mixture and MBT spark timing.
Figure 20. MPR Errors for Simulated FTP Test. Federal Test Procedure (FTP) tests were performed to
evaluate the performance of the engine and control
ENGINE CONTROL APPLICATIONS system for urban driving. These results establish that
high levels of EGR can be used to improve fuel economy.
CLOSED-LOOP SPARK TIMING AND EGR For any vehicle application, the net benefit of EGR on
CONTROL – Conventional open-loop engine control fuel economy depends on transmission characteristics
systems are inherently unable to compensate for and power-to-weight ratio of the engine and vehicle.
manufacturing variations, aging and wear, fuel properties,
and some environmental factors like humidity [49].
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Figure 31. MPR vs. IMEP at 4000 rpm and Zero Brake
Torque.
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outside the knock interval and may be windowed out to 25 kHz (all modes of knock) and windowed from 0 and
using available signal processing techniques. Since the 90 CAD ATDC. The integrated result over this window
SPB Sensor is located relatively far from the engine was recorded as knock intensity.
block, sensitivity to block noise is generally low.
Figures 34, 35, and 36 show measured knock frequency
spectra for the SPB Sensor, a flush-mounted 6125 Kistler
transducer, and a flat response knock sensor,
respectively, at 1200 rpm. Spectra were obtained for
multiple windowed knocking cycles for light knock (0.25
to 0.5 bar, peak-to-peak), medium knock (0.75 to 1 bar,
peak-to-peak), heavy knock (2.7 to 3.3 bars, peak-to-
peak), and no knock.
The spectra indicate that the dominant first
circumferential mode is clearly detected by the SPB
Sensor, the Kistler, and the knock sensor. This shows
that the SPB Sensor is sensitive to the first mode of
knock even though a node of acoustic resonance for this
mode exists on the chamber centerline. For heavy knock,
Figure 35. Knock Frequency Spectra for Flush-Mounted
the Kistler spectra indicates a strong mode at about 10
Kistler 6125 Transducer at 1200 rpm for Light,
kHz, but this mode was only weakly detected by the SPB
Medium, Heavy, and No Knock.
Sensor and the knock sensor. The Kistler spectra also
indicate a weaker mode at 12 to 13 kHz, which may be
the first radial mode of knock. The SPB Sensor and the
knock sensor also detect this weaker mode. Interestingly,
the SPB Sensor uniquely reveals a strong mode at about
18 kHz. This may be an axial mode of knock theoretically
centered at 18 to 19 kHz. The spectral width is quite
wide, as desired, and may be due to the dependence of
resonant frequency on piston position. High-frequency
knock modes are generally desirable for knock detection
because of their potentially high signal-to-noise ratios.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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4,736,724, 1988. Mark Sellnau is a Senior Staff Research Engineer
58. Mortara, W., and Canta, C., “Engine Stability working in the Combustion and Engine Systems Group at
Sensor”, SAE Paper 830428, 1983. Delphi R&D. He was formerly employed at GM Research
59. Morita, et al., “Air/Fuel Ratio Control System for Labs for over 14 years in the areas of cylinder-pressure-
Internal Combustion Engine and Method Therefore”, based engine control, engine combustion and emissions,
US Patent 4,543,934, 1985. and advanced engine technologies. He holds 6 patents in
60. Gilkey, J., “Fuel-Air Ratio Estimation from Cylinder the field.
Pressure in an Internal Combustion Engine,” Phd. He received a degree of Bachelors of Science in
Thesis, Standford University, August, 1984. Mechanical Engineering at the Univ. of Michigan, Ann
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from Cylinder Pressure Time Histories,” J. of Engineering at MIT.
Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Dec.
1985. For additional information, contact this author at:
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