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892054

An Analysis of Ignition Delay.

Heat Transfer and Combustion
During Dynamic Load changes
in a Diesel Engine
C. S. LIn and D. E. Foster
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Department of Mechanical Engineering

International Fuels and Lubricants

Meeting and Exposition
Baltimore, Maryland
September 25-28, 1989
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892054

An Analysis of Ignition Delay,

Heat Transfer and Combustion
During Dynamic Load changes
in a Diesel Engine
c. s. Lin and D. E. Foster
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ABSTRACT new EPA emission standards, Which are to be

measured on a transient test cycle, Which are
In this paper we report the results scheduled to become law in 1991 and 1994
of experiments done during the transient provide added incentive to develop a complete
operation of a single cylinder Cummins NH understanding of the similarities and
engine. The data taken include cycle resolved differences of the combustion and heat
pressure, combustion chamber surface transfer between steady state and dynamic
temperatures and ignition delay. The data operation.
was taken during a special type of engine This paper addresses the issue of
operation in which the engine was repeatedly combustion and heat transfer during the
hopped from one load to another. In this way dynamic operation of a single-cylinder,
cycle to cycle variations could be averaged direct-injection, quiescent-chamber diesel
out by ensemble averaging individual cycles engine. We have restricted ourselves to the
after the step load change. For analysis of study of in-cylinder phenomena; the change of
the heat transfer a unique finite difference air deli very due to the turbocharging system
temperature probe was developed to delineate or the change of fuel deli very caused by a
the 3-D heat transfer effects in place of the governor are not included. Our purpose was to
standard 1-D assumptions and a new analysis identify the magnitUde of changes in
technique was developed to calculate the characteristics such as ignition delay, heat
instantaneous heat flux during the transient. release rates, instantaneous heat flux, etc.
Analysis of the data indicates that the as the engine undergoes a dynamic adjustment,
combustion reaches an equivalent steady state and to determine the time required for
condi tion wi thin 2000 engine cycles after the observed changes to reach their respective
load change. The exhaust port temperatures, steady state value.
and therefore the exhaust enthalpy of course
take much longer to reach their respective BACKGROUND
steady state values. The heat release rate
and peak rate of pressure rise quickly jump Combustion and heat transfer studies in
(Within ~ cycles) to values close to the direct injection diesel engines during dynamic
steady state values and reach their steady operation have not been reported extensively
state value Within 2000 cycles. For cycle in the literature.
simulations we show that the thermal response Watanabe, et a1. (1)* have studied the
of the engine caribe accurately modelled as an dynamic behavior of a variety of engines
exponential response with two, a long and including IDI (Indirect Injection). DI-NA
short, time constants. (Direct Injection-Naturally Aspirated) and
DI-Te (Direct Injection-Turbocharged). The
dynamic operating condition was a step change
in the fuel pump rack posi tion wi th a linear
HISTORICALLY. MOST OF THE DIESEL ElIGINE engine speed increase. Although noise
RESEARCH has been focused on steady state emission was the focus of this paper, some
operation. Most of the transient stUdies have
been focused on turbocharger response.
However in practice the diesel engine spends * Numbers in parenthesis designate references
most of its time in transient operation. The found at the end of the paper.

** C. S. Lin is presently with Cmmnins Engine Co.

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2 B92054

interesting work on combustion was also TABLE 1

reported. They found that during acceleration Engine Specifications
in a DI-NA the ignition delay increased by two
crank angle degrees and the rate of change of Cycle 4-Stroke
pressure (dp/dt) increased two to three times Bore 139.7 rnm (5.5 in.)
relative to steady state operation. It was Stroke 152.4 mm (6.0 in.)
also reported that the combustion phenomena Compression ratio 13.4
observed during acceleration could be Displacement 2.336 ~ (142.5 in. 3 )
reproduced during steady state operation by Rated output 50 kW (67 hp) at 1900 RPM
using a lower coolant temperature. The Combustion chamber Quiescent type
authors suggested that the combustion Fuel Injector PTD injector
characteristics of acceleration deviates from Number of orifices 8
steady state mainly because of the lower Orifice diameter 0.2 mm
cylinder wall temperature. Spray angle from head 18°
Saw a (2) discussed the behavior of Spray plume cone angle 20 -25° Cl

exhaust smoke under accelerating conditions Valve timing

similar to those of Watanabe. The results not Intake valve opens at 23° before
only show that during acceleration the smoke TDC
level was much higher but also that the peak closes at 33° after
pressure was higher and there was a larger BDC
premixed burning portion of the heat release EXhaust valve opens at 46° before
diagram. BDC
Samria, et al. (3) reported that the closes at 39° after
ignition delay was longer by three crank angle TDC
degrees and the first peak in the heat release
rate diagram (the portion of premixed burning)
was higher during acceleration than in steady
state (similar to Watanabe's). However the
ignition delay data were questionable due to
low resolution of the crank angle marker (2°).

INSTRUMENTATION AND APPARATUS

ENGINE DESCRIPTION AND SPECIFICATIONS - Pressure
Transducer
The engine used in this research was a single
cylinder version of the Cummins NT855
Valve
commercial engine. . The NT855 model is an Recess
in-line six-cylinder turbocharged engine
currently used in the heavy-duty diesel truck
market. The conversion of the engine to a
single cylinder was done by Cummins Engine
Company. Except for the block, crankshaft,
and flywheel the original parts and engine
specification were retained. A cog belt drive
(which replaced the valve train gears) and
primary balancing shafts (for single cylinder
balancing) were added to complete the
modifications. The specifications of the
engine are given in Table 1.
The original NT8S5 cylinder head had four
valves, two intake and two exhaust valves and
a complicated coolant and fuel passage design.
To make room for our heat flux probe and
pressure transducer we modified the head by Bore:
removing an intake and exhaust valve on the
exhaust port side of the head. A schematic of
the top view of the cylinder head is given in
Figure 1. The heat fluX probe, shown with its Figure 1
fi ve surface thermocouples. is located at the Locations of the pressure transducer and
edge of the piston bowl. instrumentation plug, top view
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3
892054

IN-CYLINDER INSTRUMENTATION The

cylinder pressure was measured with an AVL
model 8QP500ca pieza-electric transducer along
with an AVL model 3059 charge amplifier.
The most unique transducer used in this
work was our heat flux probe. In the more
common heat flux probe a single surface
thermocouple and a backside thermocouple are
used along with a fourier decomposition of the
data to calculate the average and instantane- COOLAl"T
m COOU1!T
ous heat flux. In this analysis one assumes 'UT
that the heat transfer is one dimensional. I
Annand and Ma (4) have suggested that the one [NSTRUYENTATlON
PLUG
dimensional approach is not valid and that
multiple point temperature measurements are (51 J-TYP£
SURFACZ:
needed to make isothermal plots to oalculate TlttIUl.OCOUPU:S

the heat flux. Whitehouse (5), Sisling and CONSTIo1lTAll'T Wlltt

ttlR aACl< SIDZ: llnfC.
Woshni (6) and Huang (7) also found that the
resul tant averaged heat flux needs to be L.It-'lHir-:,:\:====p"=-_PLUO W.ADZ:
\- 01" tOT CARBON
corrected if a one dimensional analysis is ='-
used. Rather than thermally isolate the heat
flux probe. to insure that the energy flow in I- 17.8--l
the probe is one dimensional, and risk COPPER GASKET

~
disturbing the temperature field, we designed
a new finite difference heat flux probe 1 .
Figure 2a shows the construction of the
3-D heat flux probe. The probe body is a 6.35 4.76
mm (1/4 inch) thick low carbon steel (SAE 4.76
1020) disk with known thermal properties (8).
The properties of the disk are similar to the unit: mm
gray cast iron of the cylinder head (8). Five
small holes. 4.76 mm apart were drilled into
the disk. The five J-type coaxial surface
thermocouples were then silver soldered into
the holes. The protruding portions of the
surface thermocouples were then ground flush
wi th the probe surface. Junctions of all of
the thermocouples were brought about by ~ T.
vacuum-depositing a thin layer of chromium Z (6.35mm)
(approximately 1 ~ thick) onto the surface of '.
the probe4 Finally a coolant chamber with t T,
passages for engine coolant was built into top x> T,
of the probe assembly. The Whole probe was X (4.76mm) -',
then clamped from the top into the instrumen-
tation plug as shown in Figure 1.
Wi th this new probe the temperature
data from each surface thermocouple can be
time averaged and used with the backside
temperature in a six node 3-D finite
difference calculation of the average heat
flux from the engine cylinder at that Figure 2a & b
location. A schematic of the model and the Three-dimensional heat flux probe assembly
equation'for calculating the average heat fluX and the finite difference model used
are given in Figure 2b. Once the probe was in the analysis
constructed it was calibrated with an oven
soak and an ice bath. It's accuracy was found DYNAMIC LOAD CONTROL - There are numerous
to be typical of surface thermocouples, always types of dynamic operation; the engine can
within 1 K of the thermometer with which the undergo a speed change at constant load, a
probe was compared. load change at constant speed or a simul tan-
eous load and speed change for example.
In this work the dynamic load change was
The authors are gratefUl to Professor simulated by subjecting the engine to a step
Borman \,i th Whom the original idea of this change in load while holding the engine speed
probe resides. as constant as our dynamometer would allow.
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4 892054

calibration of flow rate versus speed and fuel

line pressure.

700,--------------------,
measured fuel line pressure
before, during and arler
'l600 cycle 03 ..... , slep-up process
mall PIl£.SS. liE
~ and high load steady stoic

•H 500 \
•
~
~

IIIGl! PRE:!!.!. FUEL •

&.:: 400
LOll' PRESS, m:
ItO V .I.e-.../'

;;
~ 200 low load steady statc
W" PRESS. FUEL

'00 -+-,--__,_~____.-~_,,--__,_~____.,___~_,__~.,----.--j
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540
Crank Angle (deg)

Figure 3
Schematic diagram of fuel supply system
for step load
Figure 3 shows a schematic representation
of the fuel system we used to bring about the
step change in load. The two fuel tanks,
pressurized by inert gas cylinders, were used
to replace the fuel supply pump in the
original system. The two solenoid valves, one
normally closed, one normally open, were
installed so that one or the other of the fuel
supply tanks would aiways be supplying the
fuel to the injector. The
activate in approximately 10 ms. This results
in the fuel pressure at the inlet of the
engine reaching its new level in apprOXimately
50 ms. Fifty milliseconds is slightly shorter
than the period of one engine cycle.
By controlling the solenoids the engine
load could be stepped up or down in a
repetitive or lIsingle shot" operation. When
operated in this fashion there would be one
intermediate CYCle, during which the step load
change was occurring, before the fuel flow
reached the new load condition. Pressure
traces of the fuel line pressure are shown in
Figure 4. It is readily seen that by the
second cycle after the step load change the
fuel flow rate is identical to that of the
steady state at the new load.
During the dynamic response of the engine
the instantaneous fuel flow rate was estimated
by assuming that the fuel flow could be
treated as quasi-static. The pressure at the
cylinder head fuel inlet was monitored using a
T-Hydronics model TH-2V strain gage pressure
transducer with a built in amplifier. Using
·this pressure and the engine speed the fuel
flow rate was taken from a steady state
Figure 4
Fuel line pressure before, during and
after step up operation
OTHER MEASUREMENTS AND DATA ACQUISITION -
The start of injection was determined by
monitoring the output of strain gages mounted
on the push rod between the rocker arm and the
injector.
The intake air flow was controlled via a
set of choked flow nozzles which fed a large
surge tank. Under dynamic conditions the
solenoid valves engine speed would change slightly (approxi-
mately 2%). This would perturb the steady
state condition of the surge tank and piping
down stream of the choked nozzles. Adjust-
ments for this change in storage of the mass
of air was made by monitoring the surge tank
pressure, assuming ideal gas behavior and
performing a mass balance on the system.
The intake air was not heated for any of
these tests. The intake temperature of
approximately 300 K is lower than the typical
air intake temperatures of a turbocharged
engine wi thout an aftercooler. However
some air-to-air aftercoolers can prOVide
temperatures in this range for continuous
rated load conditions (9).
Two different PC based data acqUisition
systems were used during the experiments.
Eight channels of temperature pressure and
injector link load were taken at 0.5 crank
angle intervals using a PEl Incorporated data
acquisition systems. The data of fuel line
pressure, engine speed, intake and exhaust
surge tank pressures, exhaust port wall
temperature and the back side temperature of
the heat flux probe were taken using a low
speed (6 kHz) data acquisition system, a PC
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892054 5

based system with a DT2805 Data Translation

board. Complete details of the experimental
set-up and the data acquisition system can be
found in reference 10.
500.,------------,
EXPERIMENTAL MATRIX AND PROCEDURES - It -;;
was expected that the changes in combustion,
ie. ignition delay, rates of pressure rise,
'"
':::'400
/
heat release rates etc., and heat transfer '"Ci 300 <>-<HHHl ~tep up lron:lienl

.."
= low 1000 ,teaoy ,tote
that occurred during the dynamic transient
would be small. Early tests indicated that
200 + _ high load steady stole
j-1480

1470
cycle to cycle variation were large enough to
1 460:::l
obscure the changes we were looking for. To
overcome this problem we devised a lThopping" 1 450ll:: '"
1440
control strategy to run the dynamic load
change many times in succession. In this d 150 +-------------r 1430
procedure we operated the engine to steady ~149 J
state at the initial load, then upon command 0.. 148
from a controller a step change in load was ~ 147
brought about and the new load was held for 15 -' 146
engine cycles and then the engine was returned E.• 145 +-------------+ 180--;;

t~~::T~;
to the original load for 950 cycles before the
"hop" was repeated.
Individual cycles of data are recorded
with the data acquisition system while the
engine is operating in the 15 cycle step. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
After this "hopping" has been repeated 50 ; Cycle No. !
times and the indiVidual cycles have been low load ,.,. high lond :I.'.
recorded we form ensemble averages of the
individual cycles of data after the step. In
this way we are attempting to average out Figure 5
cycle to cycle variation to examine the trends Engine control parameters before, during
of combustion and heat transfer during the and after step up operation
dynamic response.
The response of the engine to a dynamic
load change requires more than 15 cycles to
reach the new steady state. To establish the

F~-
overall rate at which the engine reaches the
new steady state operating condition we ran
longer term transient responses in which
the data was taken in short bursts of 30 =>
_
low lood ,teody ,tote
high lood ~teody ,tote "0
•
consecutive cycles at 750 cycle intervals.
Also data was taken for 500 consecutive cycles F'
. . .- "
3.6
"-
~
t'

after the step load change to provide informa- f- 3.5 ~

tion on the cycles in the mid-range of the
transient.
In addition to the dynamic response data
•
"0
""
"0

-
3.4 ...
~
we also took sets of data during cold motor- ~0.15 • <
ing. These data sets were conducted wi th a
clean heat flux probe and with a probe which
had steady state surface deposits from the "
~
~ 0.08
0.14
F
different loads tested in our experimental
matrix. By comparison of the temperature
"
_ 0.06

.."• • • . . .- 0.65

0.55 :::
o
response for the clean and surface deposi ted 0.450.:
•
probe we were able to correct for the
O.3Sg
attenuation and phase lag of the deposit. F
In all of the tests reported the fuel , , 0.25
used was Amoco Premium #2 diesel fuel. 2 .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Cycle No. t
low lond ,.,. high lond ,.:!!.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

OVERALL ENGINE BEHAVIOR - Figures 5 and 6 Figure 6

show the overall engine response during the Air flow rate, air delivery, fuel delivery
first 11 cycles of a step change in load from and equivalence ratio before, during
an equivalence ratio of 0.3 to 0.6. In these and after step up operation
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

892054
6

figures the step is triggered at cycle number cycles after the step up in load. The peak
zero, cycle number one is the intermediate cylinder pressure jumped immediately to the
cycle in which the fuel pressure has not yet steady state value but then decreased
reached the new high load value and cycle slightly. We believe that this was caused by
number two is the first cycle of the new the changing fuel delivery per cycle. We also
load. This is easily seen in the top graph of believe that this was responsible for the
Figure 5. One can also see from the figure decrease in IMEP shown in the figure. What
that our dynamometer control allowed a slight is interesting is that the ISFC which is
(approximately 2%) increase in the engine proportional to fuel delivery per cycle
speed during the first 11 cycles.. Also shown diVided by the IMEP jumped from the steady
are the slight decrease in the intake surge state value at low load (202 g/kW-hr) to the
tank pressure, due to the increased engine high load steady state value and remained
speed and fixed inlet flow through the choked approximately constant.
flow nozzles, and the increased back pressure IGNITION DELAY - The ignition delay of
as a result of the higher load. the individual cycles during the dynamic
In Figure 6 one observes that the air response are shown in Figure 8. For these
flow into the engine is increased on a per data the ignition delay was determined by
unit time basis because of the increased speed measuring the time from the start of
but when considered on a per cycle basis it injection, determined by the link load data,
remained approximately constant. Because the to the point of 10% of the maximum heat
Cummins PT injection system relies on the fuel release rate [a technique found to be very
pressure and time available to fill the sensitive by Van Gerpen (11)). The data shown
injector volume to determine the fuel delivery in Figure 8 were obtained by ensemble
per cycle the increased engine speed caused a averaging the ignition delays of the 50
slight decrease in the fuel deli very per individual cycles of data of that particular
cycle. The combination of the above effects cycle number after the step change in load.
caused a slight decrease in the equivalence It is readily apparent from the figure that
ratio from cycle to cycle, primarily driven by the ignition delay during the dynamic response
the decrease in fuel delivery per cycle. is longer than the steady state high load
value and the time response to reach the new
steady state is much longer than 10 cycles.

I ] ]1- 9,52!.
.•
9.6_
10.0 - , - - - - - - - - - - - ,

j ]
I J 1 1 ]
1 1
t 9.4 ~
_ _ ,lep up tron"enl
_
=
/1;911 IOCld steady state
j 1 • 9.5 row lood ste.:ldy stole
T
1 1-'9.3 :;
..
_ _ ,Iep up lrar",eflt j J
10'W _ h'9h h;lod' ,telldy ,11I1e
load T
.$ • .$. • 99.~ eonfiden<;.e inleNal I- 9.2
" "i'
"'t:l 9.0
99.9lt confide nee ;nlervQI

6. 89 1iP &

."
1170 9.1 u
~
~
.•
_1160

~ 1150
I T I
~J C
8.5 -~
i
~ 1140 10-
J 1 111 1 o
:.:: 8.0
:!
1130
lOlld
G.o.
1 j 1 1 'a
S80kPa ~
1120 203 7.5

,/,w-hhttmtJ
T~;.'O'd 1 [1 I ! r 11t
202 ]'
I
201 ~
7.0 +--r-r-r-r-r-r-,--,r--r--rl
200~ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
199 ~ lOl'
\
load 5.:1.
Cycle No. biSh load ~.:I.
00
198 -

, , , , .'-
197
2 3 4 S 6 7 a 9 10 Figure 8
~ Cycle No. t Ignition delay during step up and
10'" load ~.:I. higb loo.d ~.~,
at high load steady state.

Figure 7 RATE OF PRESSURE RISE AND HEAT REl.EASE -

Cylinder pressure, IMEP and ISFC during The rate of pressure rise is considered to be
step up and at high load steady state a main source of engine combustion noise j the
faster the pressure rise the higher the noise.
Figure 7 shows the measured peak cylinder A comparison of the rates of pressure rise
pressure, IMEP, and IFSC for the first 10 between the high load steady state and a
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

7
892054

representati ve cycle of the step-up transient surface temperatur'e swing changed and how the
(cycle #3) is shown in Figure 9. It is noted instantaneous and average heat flux changed
that the largest maximum rate of pressure rise during the dynamic response.
during the step-up transient was 17% higher
than that of steady state. The relationship
between the rate of pressure rise and the
sound level depends on engine structure, no
general correlation is available. However,
the results of this research are consistent 0.0500 ow 00 seo y soe
With the results of Watanabe et al. (1). ~
~
sle up transienl ~cycle #3)
h lood
'"'"
hig sleady sole

~
0.0400
~

1:0 0,8 - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
'"
W
~

0,0300 it
'"
~ 0.7
0. 0.6
- slep up tronsienl (cycle OJ)
----- high lood s!l~ody slole
- - - low lood steady stole
'"•
~

~ 0.0200
::0 IX:
0.5
~
00 0.4
iil 0.3
'"::::
~
N 0.0100

~
m
~
0.2 ,
,, ,,
a•
~ 0.0000
N 0
0.1 Z
"" -0.0
>, ,
-0.0100 in====CJTr====1T'"'=T=":'"!=='!!'"=cr
U -0.1 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540
~ Crank Angle (deg)
0-0.2
1l -0.3
•
~ -0.'1 -In.n=!:'.:'='''''~F~':'''"''.:!:"''~!:"''~!:"''"'';'!:"''"'';'!:"''m;\ Figure 10
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 50 70 Normalized heat release rates of low load,
Crank Angle (deg)
high load steady state and
step up cycle 93
Figure 9
Rate of cylinder pressure rise of step up
cycle 93 vs. high load and low load
steady state
480..,..----------------,
Heat release rate calculations were done
using a one zone heat release model similar to
that originally proposed by Krieger and Borman
(12). The results of the heat release
analysis for the low load steady state, the 4,0
high load steady state and cycle number three g .l----'
of the dynami c res ponse are shown as •
~
normalized heat release rates in Figure 10. 3 ~teody ,tote
It is observed that the premixed burning r: 440
~
-high lood
_Iron~iel'lt cycle~ alter ~tep
No.1 thn; No,10
up:
fraction and the peak of the heat release rate -low load .steady .state (before !Itep up).
were significantly higher during the dynamic ""a (from bottom to top)

response than they were at the steady state ;:.

high load condition. We estimate that 13.3% tv 420
of the fuel was consumed in the premixed .:::•
N
burning portion of the dynamic response as
opposed to 9.8% in the high load steady state "
OJ

condition. These results can be explained by 400

the larger ignition delay observed during the
dynamic response relative to the high load
steady state (13), These results are also
consistent with' an analysis we did in which 380+-~-r_~- .....-~-r_~c--:-I
the additional fuel injected during the longer -180 a 1130 360 540
Crank Angle (deg)
ignition delay was calculated from a fuel
delivery curve for our injector.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND HEAT TRANSFER -
The data of surface temperature was analyzed. Figure 11
We examined the average surface and backside Surface temperature response before, during
temperatures and how they changed, how the and after step up operation
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892054
8

The surface temperature history measured probe. Finally we considered the correction
by the center surface thermocouple is shown in due to the soot deposit on the probe by
Figure 11. The lowest curve is the low load determining the phase shift and attenuation
steady state, the next 10 curves above it are ttlrough a comparison of the cold motored tests
from the transient cycles after the step-up t of clean and deposited probe surfaces (10).
and the curve at the very top is that of the
high load steady state. Excluding cycle 111 TA8LE 2
which is an intermediate cycle. the magnitude Averaged heat flux correction
of the temperature swing jumped from its low
load to its high load value almost immediately l-D Correc- 3-D %*
following the load change. But the cycle Load result tion result Diff
averaged surface temperature rose gradually
due to the thermal capacity of the metal.
During this part of the dynamic response the Low 253.49 -18.56 234.93 7.9%
back side temperature did not change. These High 585.27 -218.64 366.63 59.6%
data are plotted in Figure 12 in terms of the
magnitude of the temperature swing and the unit: kW/m 2
average surface temperature.
* based on 3-D
r------------~""460 g
cent~r surface thermocouple 450 ~
lH><>-O-Q step up transient HO{:.
=> low laod steady stote
- high load steady stote 430 ~
I 99.9~ confidence interval
420 ;
.:: N
•
4000 :r-------------------,
high load steady stole
'\ - - - - wilhout correction
"'o
410 "'0
Os
~ 3000
3500

( .
II
I
wilh 3-0 correction
- - with 3-D & soot depOSit
effect corrections
400 ;}J .!l1 f !
.::. 20 - F ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + 3 9 0 ~ " -2500- !t
" II '~
a"" "" ::f
r;::2000- I ~
i l
'E
"' 15
r r r rf ~ 1500
~
f
I ~
!
0. j j j j1 ~ 1000 : II
eo
E-
o '0
.~.....
~
~
500.
._
;;;J~/
."".,.•';
,. I
\\ .
~J~,.*.- •...\ ~II.'-\ ~.~ •••• ,

.::• "' 0
•
"
"' 5 -j,-,-,--,---r-,-,.-,-,--,,-.--\ o 90 180 270 360 450 5<0
,
Ion' load
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5.S.
Cycle No. higb land f '.0.
CranlC Angle (deg)

Figure 13
Figure 12 Surface heat flux with and without
Cycle averaged surface temperature and surface correction at high load steady state
temperature swing before, during and
after step up operation The results of these calculations are
sununarized in Table 2 and Figure 13. In both
With the data of the steady state end Table 2 and Figure 13 the data analyzed was
points we calculated the average heat flux at for steady state operation. In Table 2 it is
the location of the heat flux probe. These observed that the three dimensional effects
calCUlations were done by resolving the are small at low load (7.9%), but very large
surface temperature data into its sine and at high load (the 1-D assumption over predicts
cosine harmonics via a fourier transformation the heat transfer by almost 60%). This can be
and then solving the analytical problem of a explained in terms of the averaged surface
steady state heat transfer on to which a temperatures at the surrounding surface
periodic perturbation was superimposed (1~). thermocouples 2, 3, ~ and 5 in Figure 2b. On
The temperature data of the center thermo- average these temperatures were higher, by as
couple was used in these calculat ions. In much as 13 K for thermocouple ~, than the
addition we also performed a three dimensional average center temperature. That is, there
six node finite difference calculation using was a lateral energy flow from the edges
the five surface thermocouples and the one towards the center at the heat flux probe.
back side thermocouple of the heat flux This three dimensional heat flux could be
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

892054 9

attributed to the heterogenous nature of the depends solely on the forcing function, which
flame and/or the location of the probe in the was determined from the surface temperature
cylinder I at the edge of the piston bowl. It data, and the homogeneous solution was written
might also be attributed to the cylinder head in terms of a series summation of eigen-
structure and the heat flux probe structure. functions and eigenvalues. The advantage of
Based on this finding, one would not expect to this method is that if the material properties
be able to evaluate the global heat transfer are treated as constant the solution for the
of the combustion chamber by local measure- eigenfunctions and eigenvalues only need to be
ments. However the local measurements can determined once.
serve as a good indicator of engine heat Furthermore, since the overall solution
transfer trends When operating conditions are is analytical there is no need to sUb-divide
changed. the time steps of the calculation. We assumed
Figure 13 displays the high load steady that the material properties were constant,
state surface heat flux for three analysis fit the surface temperature data with a linear
techniques, as a one-dimensional calculation, interpolation between data points, which then
wi th the three dimensional correction and became our forcing function and solved the
with the three dimensional and soot layer system of equations at one crank angle degree
corrections. These data were obtained by intervals. He compared the results wi th
assuming that the cyclic portion of· the heat the fourier decomposition method and the
flux could be treated as one dimensional. finite difference approximation for steady
That is the cyclic heat flux is calculated in state operation. The results of the three
the standard way, Fourier decomposition of techniques were essentially identical. Under
the instantaneous temperature data, for both dynamic response, when the analytical solution
the three dimensional probe and the one is not applicable, the exact solution was
dimensional probe. The correction to the 40 times faster than the finite difference
magni tude of- the heat transfer is made by off solution using a Crank-Nicolson numerical
setting the three dimensional curve by the routine (10).
correction calculated from the finite A comparison between the steady state
difference approximationj the steady state instantaneous heat flux at low load steady
calculation in this case. state, high load steady state and the third
Finally the data are shifted and scaled cycle of the dynamic response are shown in
by a phase angle and ratio determined from the Figure 14. Hhat is most striking about this
cold motoring tests of the clean and soot figure is that the instantaneous heat flux of
deposited probe. This is the curve labelled the third cycle of the dynamic response is
3-D and soot deposit effects in Figure 13. In very close to that of the steady state high
Figure 13 one observes that toe correction to load. Note also that the peak value of the
the heat flux necessary to account for the heat flux for the dynamic cycle was higher
surface deposit is relatively small (a 4.2% than the corresponding value for the steady
increase in the amplitude and a 4.7 CA advance state operation.
in phase).
Calculation of the surface heat flux
during the dynamic response required a
different calculation procedure. The method 4000,----------------------,
of fourier decomposition would not work
because it depends on a steady state operating
·'"a
• 3500--
-
- - - - low lood ~(eody :itote
- - step up transient
(cycle #3)
.. high lood steady slole
condi tion. Morel et a1. (15) have used a ~JOOO :
finite difference descretization of the energy -" -
-2500 ::.
equation to solve transient problems. We did M -
not use this approach because the fine node ~ 2000': ,,
spacing required near the combustion chamber
surface and the continually changing boundary
~
tll 1500- ,,
conditions resulted in excessively long •
::0 ,
1000 ,,
computational times. •o ,
Instead we used an exact solution ~ 500
M __ ;::::-. _
technique. A brief overview of the approach
is given below, a more detailed explanation is ~ 0 f":::::------------.-:.:.::.::.::..::::=~::::::-=~
given in Appendix A. The energy equation for
each nodal system was rearranged into matrix o 20 40 60 80 100 120
form. The general form of the matrix included Crank Angle (deg)
a thermal capacitance term, a conductance term
and a forcing function. The solution to this
set of linear ordinary differential equations Figure 14
was expressed as the sum of homogeneous and Comparison of surface heat flux at low load,
particular solutions. The particular solution high lo~d steady state and step up cycle #3
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892054
10

Table 3. First Law Analysis of Step Up Transient and High Load Steady State

C.A. P (kPA) T (K) Mass (g) U (J) Wk (J) Qtotal (J)

SS 161 363 3.67 610 0 0

33 TR 160 358 3.71 645 0 0
(IVC) dirf -1 -5 0.04 35 0 0

SS 3612 889 3.67 2102 -1447 -45

162 TR 3497 852 3.71 2055 -1392 -18
(INJ) dirf -115 -37 0.04 -47 55 27

SS 564 1155 3.82 -3206 2590 1225

314 TR 531 1079 3.86 -3321 2588 1379
(EVO) dirf -33 -76 0.04 -115 -2 154

Remarks: SS - high load steady state

TR - step up transient
diff - TR minus SS
WK - work out put as positive, integrated from rve
Qtotal - total heat transfer out as positive, integrated from lVe

FIRST LAW ENERGY BALANCE - The data shown

,--- --,:500 ~ in Figures 1l.l and 15 are for the local heat
e
t:.450 ;;-
flux at the probe position. We also performed
a first law analysis of the data during the
2:. closed portion of the cycles. The results of
400 >l
= this analysis for cycle 113 (TR) and the high
&: load steady state (S8) are presented for
350 ...
• intake value closing (IVC). start of fuel
............... step up transient ~ injection (INJ) and exhaust valve opening
= law load ~teody ~tate 300 o
_ high load steady state u
(EVa) in Table 3. Since the work (WK) and
1=
,•
250 ';: total heat transfer (Qtotal) are integrated
fE4500 +- f200 '" ,j quantities it is necessary to choose a

"'"
'-
..... 4000
" reference point, IVC was chosen for this. The
lower cylinder pressure for the transient
cycle at . INJ along wi th the lower gas
", temperature, which caused longer igni tion
~ 3500 delays, are seen by looking in the first and
• second columns of the table. The most
'"
: ; 3000
u
r
. 90z confidence interval
interesting resul ts are the calculated total
~ 1 global heat transfer. It is shown that the
~ 2500 total heat transfer for the transient cycle
was higher at both INJ (lVC to INJ) and EVO
"
~ 2000 f'-r----,----.-,---r-,-.--.---.-,-J, (IVC to EVa). There was approximately a 12.6%
1 2 3 4. 5 5 7 8 9 \0 I
t Cycle No. high land I.,..,. increase in the heat transfer in the transient
lOTI" load !S.:!.
operation compared to the steady state.
A comparison between the value of the
Figure 15 global heat transfer calculated via the first
Averaged and maximum surface heat flux before, law and that calculated using the results of
during and after step up operation the heat flux probe were consistent in trend
but different in magnitude. For our data the
Figure 15 shows the maximum and avera.ge estimate of the heat transfer from the probe
heat flux during the first 10 cycles of the was consistently 65% to 70% of the magnitude
transient. Again it is apparent that the heat of the first law results.
flUX jumped almost immediately to values that OVERALL LONG TERM RESPONSE OF THE ENGINE
are slightly higher than the steady state In order to obtain long term transient
values. data, longer than the first ten CYCles, an
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
892054
intermediate range and a long time transient
set of tests were conducted. The approach
followed for both the intermediate and long
transient tests was to take 30 consecutive
cycles of data then let an interval of cycles
pass before taking data again. These 30 cycle
data bursts were then ensemble averaged to
g1 ve a representative cycle for that portion
of the transient; it was assumed that changes
during these 30 cycles were small relative to
the change over the entire transient.
intermediate range, data were taken continu-
ously from 0 to 500th cycle, then cycle #151 -
180, 11251 - 280, 11351 - 380, and 11451 " 480
were taken for ensemble averaging. For the
long transient case the data acquisition
systems were set up to take 30 consecutive
cycles as a set at 750 cycle intervals. A approximately 2000 cycles.
total of 15 sets of data were taken and then
ensemble averaged.
Time (sec)
o 50 ,00
CoOo-tXI measured t:yt:!e oyeroged surface temperature
1)<>-1)0.'" measured back side junction temperature
- - - lilted curve lor surface lemperaturc
r""J90. 78+J9.(I-exp( -1/5.768))+ 19.6(1-exp(-1/70.66))
l:temp.{K) Uime{sec}
o SOD 1000
Cycle No.
step-up
Figure 16
Cycle averaged surface temperature and back
side junction temperature of long transient
step up test results
Figure 16 g1 ves the cycle averaged
surface and backside temperatures during
the transient. The most rapid change in
temperature occurred during the first 100
cycles, and after approximately 2000 cycles
the surface temperatures were essentially
steady state. We determined that a double
time constant exponential fits the data very
accurately:
T = 390.78 • 39.0*(1-exp(-t/5.768))
• 19.6*(1-exp(-t/70.66))
11
where
T cycle averaged surface temperature (K)
t = time (sec.).
Such an expression could be useful in heat
transfer models for dynamic operation.
The data for ignition delay, maximum rate
of cylinder pressure rise J premixed burning
fraction, localized instantaneous and total
heat transfer were analyzed in the same manner
For the as the average surface temperature (Figure
16). The reSUlting profiles were very similar
to Figure 16 in their characteristics.
In all cases the most rapid change
occurred during the first 100 cycles, with the
rate of change decreasing and asympotically
approaching the new load steady state value in
This suggests to
us that a double time constant experimental
response, analogous the one fit to the
temperature data of Figure 16, may be
appropriate for modelling the general behavior
of engine dynamic response.
An analogous set of data was taken for a
condi tion of dynamically changing from a high
load to a low load. The results and
conclusions were identical to the step up
results in their characteristics. The only
difference was in the direction of change.
The interested reader is referred to reference
1'10 200
10 for these results.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has reported the resul ts of
experiments run to quantify the response and
combustion characteristic of a single cylinder
diesel engine during a dynamic adjustment to a
step change in load. The data were analyzed
by ensemble averaging indiVidual cycles after
a sequence of load changes from a repeti ti ve
"hopping" operation. The heat transfer data
were corrected for three dimensional heat
1500 transfer "effects and the effects of surface
deposits on the heat flux probe. It was
observed that:
1. The peak cylinder pressure, IMEP and ISFC
responded immediately by essentially
jumping to the new steady state value.
2. The ignition delay during the response to
a step increase in load was longer than
the corresponding steady state value.
This difference was attributed to the
lower gas temperature at the time of
injection. He believe that the higher
level of heat transfer was ultimately
responsible.
3. The maximum rate of pressure rise, the
peak heat flux and the premixed burning
fraction all increased during the dynamic
response. The higher rate of pressure
rise will tend to cause more noise and
the higher premixed burning fraction may
impact the transient cycle NO x .
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892054
12

if. Under high load conditions the data 8. CRC Hand Book of Tables for Applied
indicates that the heat transfer could be Engineering Science, P.. 7~, CRC Press,
over estimated by as much as 60% if a one Inc., 1980
dimensional analysis is assumed. 9. Huehn, W., Berendes, H., Sauerteig, J.
5. The surface temperature swing was not E., "Charge Air ~ooling· for Deutz Diesel
affected by the dynamic operation. The Engines - System Arrangements and Effect
cycle averaged temperatures responded on Performance and Emissions", SAE paper
more slowly. taking approximately 2000 861943
cycles to reach the new steady state 10. Lin, C.. S., "Experimental Study of
value. Combustion and Heat Transfer of a Diesel
6. The cycle averaged temperature responded Engine Under Dynamic Operating
in a manner that could accurately be Conditions,1I Ph.D. Thesis, Mechanical
modelled with a double time constant Engineering Department, University of
exponential decay. Although not shown, Wisconsin - Madison, 1988.
this double time constant exponential 11. Van Gerpen, J .. , IlThe Effects of Air
response was also discussed for the Swirl and Fuel Injection System
dynamic response in ignition delay rate J Parameters on Diesel Combustion ll , Ph.D.
of pressure rise, premixed burning Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Depart'""
fraction and global heat transfer. ment, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
1984
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12. Krieger R.B., Borman, G.L.,"The Computa-
tion of Apparent Heat Release for
This work was supported through a Internal Combustion Engines, II ASME, 66-
research contract (DAAE-07-84-C-R063) of WA/DGP-4
TACOM. Partial support was also obtained from 13. Murayama, T., Miyamoto, N., Tsuda, T.,
the V.W. Engine Research Center which is Suzuki, M., Hasegawa, S. I., "Combus tion
funded by the Army Research Office as a Center Behaviors Under Accelerating Operation of
of Excellence for Advanced Propulsion. We are An IDI Diesel Engine". SAE paper 800966.
grateful for their support. 1980
11t. Overbye, V., Bennethum, J., Uyehara, 0.,
REFERENCES Myers, P.. , IlUnsteady Heat Transfer in
Engines, II SAE Transactions, vol. 9, pp.
1. watanabe, Y., Fuj isaki, H., Tsuda, To, 461-494, 1961
"01 Diesel Engine Becomes Noisier at 15. Morel, T., Keribar, R., Blumberg, P.,
Acceleration The Transient Noise "Cyclical Thermal Phenomena in Engine
Characteristic of Diesel Engine ll • SAE Combustion Chamber Surfaces,lI SAE 850360.
paper 790269, 1979
2. Sawa, N., f1Transitional Character of
Diesel Engines ll • Nai Nan Ki Kan APPENDIX
(Internal Combustion Engine I Japan), P.
57. Vol. 19. No. 235.1980.4.1980 ONE DIMENSIONAL SURFACE HEAT FLUX
3. Samria, W. K.. , Kostin, A. K., Larionov, ANALYSIS IN AN ENGINE UNDER DYNAMIC OPERATING
V. V., Kvasov, E. E., "Study of Heat CONDITIONS '- One standard method of calcu-
Release Rate in Diesel Engine Cylinder lating the instantaneous heat flux at the
Under Unsteady Regimes", 8 NCICEC-83. combustion chamber surface is the Fourier
paper HT-1, 1983 decomposition method (14). For this approach
ll. Annand, W. J. D., Ma, T. Ho, to be applicable the engine operation must be
"Instantaneous Heat Transfer Rates to the steady state. In the case of an engine
Cylinder Head Surface of a Small transient one must use a different technique.
Compression-Igni tion Engine", proc. Morel et al. (15) used a finite-difference
Inst •• Mech. Engrs., Vol. 185, pp. 976- model with the Crank-Nicolson algorithm to
987, 1971 solve for the cyclic energy flow under dynamic
5. Whitehouse, N.. D., "Heat Transfer in a condi tions. Oue to the rapidly changing
Quiescent Chamber Diesel Engine", Proc. temperature at the combustion chamber surface
Inst. Mech. Engr., Vol. 185. pp. 963-975. the node system near the surface for the
1971 finite difference scheme must be very finely
6. Sihling, K., Woschni, G., "Experimental spaced (on the order of a micron).. This
Investigation of the Instantaneous Heat reSUlts in extremely small time steps (in the
Transfer in the Cylinder of a High Speed hundredths of a crank angle) to ensure
Diesel Engine", SAE paper 790833, 1979 stability and accuracy.
7. Huang, J. C., "Diesel Engine Cylinder The nodal system used in this work is
Gas-Side Heat Transfer to a Ceramic shown in Figure A.. 1. The first node size, D1 ,
Surface", Ph .. D.. Thesis, University of at the combustion chamber surface, is
Wisconsin-Madison, 1986 specified and the total number of nodes, n, is
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

13
892054

chosen. Then a node slzlng factor, F, is Where

calculated such that n nodes will fit into the
total length L in the following manner: p: density of the material
c: heat capacity
L D1 + D2 + ••• + On
. °1 (1/2 + F + F 2 + .,. + Fn - 2 + Fn - 1 /2) o for i;e:j

In the analysis for this paper n was chosen to

be 30 and 01 was chosen as 1/100 of the S is an n x n matrix for the conductance term
penetration depth; the penetration depth was
defined as the depth at which the temperature S11 = k/(D l +D 2 /2)
swing was 10% of the surface temperature
swing. S12 • S21 • -S11

PO 2.303 !(2a/w) Sii • k(1/0i_1/2+Di/2)+1/(Oi/2+0i_1/2)

where
PD penetration depth where i '" 2, n-'
a thermal diffusivity
w angular speed

Sij '" 0 except for the elements mentioned

above

T is an n x 1 matrix for temperature

temperature at each node

•
T' is an n x matrix for temperature
derivatives
GBS Back
SIde Side T!
1

DID2 D~ D4. D.
where e is time
L

Node Size:
R is an n x , forcing function matrix for
Dr=DlxF>c2 energy input terms. This matrix is made up
Dl =DI-IXF (I_:\n_l) of zeros until boundary conditions are
DIl=D_txF/2 considered.
F: conslnnl multiplying factor BOUNDARY CONDITIONS - The 1st and nth
node temperatures are known in this case,

Figure A.1. gas boundary temperature

Physical model of one-dimensional
finite difference heat transfer back side junction temperature
calculation in an engine
Since T5 and Tb are measured values, they
Once the nodal system had been can be treated as constants or as functions of
established an energy balance was written for time within the time step of calCUlation.
each node. In our case this resulted in
thirty first order differential equations. ,. In the case of a constant forcing
Rearranging these into' matrix form, they function, Ts and Tb are constants within
appear as: the time step (see Fig. A.2). Given this
condition, we can alter the equation by
C T' + S T R
multiplying e", S", Cnn and Snn by a by
8
a large number, say 10 , and replacing R,
where

C is an n x n matrix for the capacitance term

by 10 8Sl!T s and Rn by 10 8SnnTb. Then the
first equation and the nth equations will
become
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14 892054

108 C (dT Id8)+10 8 S T +S 1 T

nn n nn n n- ,0 n-1
or

T =T when 8=0
1 s
Ts
C (dT Id8)+S T = S T
no n nn n nn b

The solution for the above two equations

is

Tl r-- time step

Figure A.2.
Constant surface temperature
approximation in between the time steps
The above procedure diminishes the effect
of the off diagonal terms of the matrix
and uncouples those differential equations
from the rest of the system of equations.
It is used commonly for convenience in
code description and nodal point indexing.
For our data we treated the backside
thermocouple as constant during the time Ts
step.

2. If Ts is not treated as constant within

each time step (see Figure A.3), the
forcing function can be represented as a
polynomial:

i) If a linear profile is assumed,

r-- time step

T
s
=A + B8 Figure A.3
Polynomial function approximation
then Rl = 108s11 (a+B8) of surface temperature in
between the time steps
a and b are coefficients to be
determined. b = B,

The equation for the 1st node becomes then

8
R1 = 10 S11«A=B(C 11 /S 1 ,))+B8).
C11 (dT 1/dS)+Sl,T 1 = S11(a+b8)
T = T when 8 = O. ill One could continue by using a cubic
1 5
spline fit between the measurements
Substitution of T = A+B8 into the
above equation yields: T = A + B8 + C8 2 + D8 3
5
C B+S (A+B8) S11(a+b8) and form the corresponding expres-
11 11
sion for C11 , with the result being
Le.
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15
892054

Tp can be expressed as T + T 8
pO p1
where TpO and Tp1 are constant
matrices which are determined by

Le.
Once the temperatures at all the nodes
are obtained, the surface heat flux can be S T R
p1 1
calculated as the summation of the capacitance
term Qc of the 1st node and the conduction S TpO Ha - CT
pl
term Qk from the 1st node to the 2nd node,
i.e. , iii) I f Ts is a 3rd order spline fit
curve then R can be decomposed into
where R + R 8 + R 8
O 1 2
2
+ ~83
and Tp can be expressed as
2
T + T 8 + T 8 + T 83
pO pl p2 p3
which results in

THE EXACT SOLUTION METHOD S T R3

p3
Since the governing equation is a 1st S T p2 R2 - 3C Tp3
order linear differential equation, the
solution can be expressed as the sum of a S Tp1 R1 - 2C Tp2
separate homogeneous solution and a particular
solution, that is, S TpO Ro - C Tp1 •

THE HOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION

where The homogeneous solution Th should be of
the form
Tp particular solution n
i~l d i Xi exp(-A i 8l
Th homogeneous solution which satisfies

where Xi are normalized eigenfunctions, i=l,n

Ai are eigenvalues, i=l,n

THE PARTICULAR SOLUTION
d i are coefficients to be determined.
The particular solution Tp depends solely i=l .n which satisfy the folloWing
on the forcing function R. homogeneous equation

If T5 is constant wi thin the time C (X (-A.lexp(-A 8ll + S (X. exp(-A.8))

i 1 i 1 1
o
step then R = constant maxtix and Tp'
is also a constant matrix determinea i •e. S Xi = Ai C Xi
by
Xi and Ai were calculated from a matrix
S T = R. manipulation computer subroutine. Note that
P the eigenfunction Xi and eigenvalues Ai depend
iil If T5 is an interpolated linear on the material properties through capacitance
function, then R can be decomposed and conductance matrices C and S. The
into con::ibj3.nts di are determined by initial
cOOditions
'- .:
at e = 0,

where RO and R1 are constant

matrices.
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16 892054

2500
and from the orthogonality of Xi - - Analyticol Solution
N ........ Eleoct Method, Linearly
•• Interpol Forcing Funct.
~ 2000 btwn CA's, Nd= 100

t;;
1500
or M

r";:
~
1000
Since the exact solution method solves ••
0:
the equation analytically, there is no need to 500
sUb-divide each crank angle into small time •
0

steps. Subdividing the time steps does not •

~
w a
'""
change the results. For the case of constant
material properties, the eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions need only be calculated once, -500
130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270
which is the time consuming part of calcula- Crank Angle (deg)
tion. The remainder of the calculation takes
little time, so that the whole calculation is
fast • Figure A.~.
Comparison of surface heat flux
RESULTS OF THE CALCULATION calculated by (1) analytical method
(2) exact solution method using linear
Since there is no need to sub-dl vide the forcing function between crank angles,
time step with this method the time step used first node thickness is
was always one crank angle degree (the sampl- 1/100 the penetration depth (TDC = 180)
ing resolution). The surface temperature in
the forcing function R was treated as a
constant, a linear function, and a spline
fitted function. Our results indicated that
the linear interpolation was better than the
constant and that the spline fit of the
surface temperature did not increase the
accuracy over the linear interpolation. In
our work we used the linear interpolation and
those are the results reported here.
To evaluate the accuracy of the exact
method we solved a steady state engine problem
so we could compare the resul ts to the
analytical solution (Fourier decomposition).
A comparison is shown in Figure A.~ for a node
size determined by the first node being one
hundredth of the penetration depth (Nd=lOO).
The analytical and exact method are essential-
ly indistinguishable. The same degree of
accuracy was obtainable using the Crank-
Nicolson finite difference approximation.
However there was a big difference in computa-
tional time. On our Micro Vax computer the
above calculation for 720 CA took apprOXimate-
ly 30 seconds. This was approximately ~O
times faster than the Crank-Nicolson solution
time. The computational benefit came from not
having to take such small time steps in the
computation and by being able to assume that
the material properties of the engine were not
changing during the cycle.