EACC 2005 Frankfurt, Germany

2nd European Automotive CFD Conference 29 - 30 June 2005

Prediction of Heat Transfer to the Walls in Direct

Injection (DI) Diesel Engines
F. Payri, X. Margot, A. Gil, J. Martín
CMT-Motores Térmicos
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain

ABSTRACT
This paper presents an analysis of the heat transfer from gases to the cylinder walls of Direct
Injection (DI) Diesel engines by means of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The aim of
this study is to evaluate the parameters that are significant in the heat transfer and to
improve the predictions obtained with a zero-dimensional thermodynamic model currently
used in the automotive industry for combustion diagnosis.

First, several tests with retarded start of injection have been carried out on two geometries,
in order to study the heat transfer to the walls during the compression stroke before ignition.
The comparison of these CFD results with those obtained from the zero-dimensional model
showed that the latter over-predicted or under-predicted the heat transfer depending on the
swirl level in the engine. The knowledge gained from the CFD results was used to obtain
better correlations to represent the influence of the swirl and thus improve the zero-
dimensional heat transfer model in the pre-combustion phase.

The capability for the CFD calculations to predict heat transfer during the whole closed
engine cycle taking into account the combustion has then been explored. To avoid large
calculations including the reactive combustion process, the effects of the combustion in
terms of heat release and changes in species concentrations is simulated by means of
source terms in the corresponding equations. With this methodology it is possible to
accurately predict the pressure and temperature of the gases enclosed in the cylinder and to
obtain a good estimation of the heat transfer to the walls.

Keywords: Diesel Engine, Direct Injection, Exhaust Emissions, In-cylinder Combustion, CALMEC

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years the Diesel engine has become the most efficient power-train for automotive
transport applications. However, the new emissions legislation, Euro IV and more recently
Euro V have set extremely low exhaust emissions limits, which are very difficult to
accomplish with current technology. Hence, numerous studies aiming at a deeper
understanding of the physics underlying Diesel air-fuel pre-mixing [[1] [2] and combustion
have been undertaken [3] [4], using recent developments in experimental techniques [5],
simulation and diagnosis models.

Combustion diagnosis models based on the instantaneous in-cylinder pressure

measurements (usually referred to as thermodynamic models) are valuable tools. Such
models calculate the rate of heat released (ROHR) and the instantaneous temperature in the
chamber by solving the equation of state and the first law of thermodynamics. The ROHR
provides precise information about the combustion evolution, thus allowing for a proper
characterization of the combustion process. In this way, clear relationships between
operating conditions and engine output (emissions and performance) may be established,

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which are useful for predictive models. Additionally, it is possible to calculate the
instantaneous heat flow to the chamber walls with a heat transfer model such as that
described in [6][[7]. This is an important issue in the solution of the First Law, but it is also
important since it provides information relevant for the thermal characterization of the engine.

Diagnosis models are limited by the simplified hypotheses introduced in the sub-models and
the uncertainties related to the experimentally adjusted parameters. It is often very difficult to
validate experimentally some of the assumptions made in the thermodynamic models
because there are no adequate measuring devices or installations. The heat transfer to the
cylinder walls has been studied for many years but continues to be an important source of
error ([8], [[9]). Computer improvements have led to the development of very powerful CFD
codes that produce reliable results. These have become a very valuable tool for heat transfer
calculations, especially as they can provide more complete information on the in-cylinder
flow pattern and behaviour than experiments or simple models.

In this paper, FLUENT is used to calculate in-cylinder flow in real Direct Injection (DI)
engines and to analyze the heat transfer to its walls. Different working points are considered,
so that the influence of the swirl level in the chamber and of the engine speed on the heat
transfer is studied. Results of the CFD calculations are compared to those obtained with an
in-house thermodynamic diagnosis model (CALMEC, [10]) currently used in the automotive
industry, to evaluate its adequacy for modern engine operating conditions. The insight
gained with the more exact CFD solutions is used to propose improvements to the diagnosis
model.

2. ENGINE GEOMETRY DEFINITION

Two engines with different characteristics have been used in this study, one large with 2.0 l
displacement (engine(a)), another small one of 0.4 l (engine(b)). The cylinder head is
equipped with two and four valves respectively. A sketch of the combustion chamber of both
engines is shown in Figure 1. The main specifications of the engines are summarized in
Table 1.

Figure 1: Scheme of the geometry of the combustion chamber. engine (a) and engine (b).

Table 1. Specifications of the engines considered.

engine (a) engine (b)

Bore x Stroke x Db (mm) 123 x 156 x 76 75 x 88 x 47.1
Con. rod length (mm) 228 137.2
Engine speed (rev/min) 1500 [1000, 3000]
Compression ratio 16.24 17.8
MSN 1.31 2.15
IVC (c.a.d.) 27 24

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3. THERMODYNAMIC DIAGNOSIS MODEL

The thermodynamic diagnosis model used in this work is the one zone model proposed by
Armas [10]. The main input of the diagnosis model is the in-cylinder pressure, measured with
a piezoelectric transducer and filtered along with some mean variables.

The diagnosis model calculates the First Law between Intake Valve Closing (IVC) and
Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO), considering the chamber as an open system because of the
blow-by and fuel injection. Along with the equation of state and first law, several sub-models
to calculate instantaneous volume, mass and heat transfer are used. The model uses some
fundamental hypothesis:

• The pressure is uniform in the combustion chamber.

• The fluid is assumed to be a perfect gas and a mixture of air, gaseous fuel and
stoichiometric burned products.

• Correlations based on the temperature are used to calculate the sensible internal
energy of the gas mixture.

• Woschni-like equation [10] is used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient.

Calculation of the instantaneous in-cylinder mass

The trapped mass at IVC mIVC is the total admitted mass of air m and Exhaust Gas
f
Recirculation (EGR) mixture mEGR plus the residual gas of the previous cycle mres minus the
short circuit mass mcc during valve overlap. During the compression-expansion strokes, the
in-cylinder mass is calculated considering the instantaneous injected fuel m f and the blow-
by mbb , as is shown in Equation 1:
α α
mIVC = mair + mEGR + mres − mcc + ∫
IVC
dm f − ∫ dm
IVC
bb
(1)

where α is the crank-angle.

Heat transfer calculation

The diagnosis model uses a variation of the expression proposed by Woschni [[6]] [[7]] to
calculate the heat transfer coefficient. This equation – (2), Armas [[10]]– includes the swirl in
a different way than the original to provide more realistic predictions in direct injection Diesel
engines.
0.8
⎛ ∀ ⋅ TIVC ⎞
hwall = 0.012 ⋅ D −0.2
⋅P 0.8
⋅T −0.53
⋅ ⎜ C1 ⋅ V p + C 2 ( P − P0 ) ⎟ (2)
⎝ PIVC ⋅∀ IVC ⎠

where C1 is the term that includes the swirl term, as is shown in Equation 3. A simple model
is proposed to calculate the instantaneous tangential velocity cu (α ) during the cycle by
means of a trigonometric function x p (α ) , see Equation 4:
c u (α )
C1 = C w 1 + C w 2 (3)
Vp

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cu (α ) = x p (α ) ⋅ cu ,TDC (4)

Energy balance

Finally, the First Thermodynamics Law for open systems is applied to obtain ROHR,

( )
ROHR = − Pd∀ − dQwall − mc duc + h finj − u f dm fev − Rc ⋅ T ⋅ dmbb (5)

The fuel term represents the injection flow work, evaporation and heating up to the gas
temperature. The fuel enthalpy refers to the injection conditions whereas fuel internal energy
refers to the evaporated fuel at in-cylinder conditions.

4. IN-CYLINDER CALCULATIONS

4.1 Methodology

The finite volume CFD code FLUENT has been used to solve the discretized Navier-Stokes
equations ([11], [12]). The Renormalization-group (RNG) k-ε turbulence model [12] is used
for closure, with enhanced wall functions [12], as these are better adapted to solve the near-
wall flow. The 2nd order upwind differencing scheme is used for the momentum, energy and
turbulence equations.

The calculations begin at IVC, at the end of the intake stroke and finish at the beginning of
injection. The initial values for pressure and temperature have been obtained from
experimental tests, with both variables considered as homogeneous in the whole domain.
It is considered that at IVC the air inside the cylinder has a solid body motion. The value of
the rotational speed at IVC is obtained from steady flow experiments [13] [14], following a
method based on that described by Tippelmann [15] to calculate the Swirl Number SN:

2
1 ⎡ V p (α ) ⎤
π
MSN = ∫ SN (α ) ⎢ ⎥ dα (6)
π 0 ⎢⎣ Vp ⎥⎦
The initial turbulence energy and turbulence dissipation rate have been extrapolated from
other CFD studies [13] carried out with similar engines.

Constant temperature boundary conditions have been assigned separately for the head, the
cylinder wall and the piston crown that form the walls of the combustion chamber. The
temperature on each of these walls has been obtained by averaging the temperature
measured experimentally in various points of the combustion chamber walls.

The blow-by is also considered by including in the continuity equation a source term, which
models the flow that escapes from the cylinder to the crank case during the piston motion
and has been measured experimentally.

The instantaneous mass-averaged properties of the air –pressure, temperature, turbulence,

swirl number– have been obtained by numerical integration over the whole domain using
Equation 7:

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∑ Ψ (α ) ∀ ( α ) i i
ρ (α ) i
Ψ (α )avg = i
n
(7)
∑ ∀ (α ) i ρ ( α ) i
i

The instantaneous heat transfer coefficient at each surface of the cylinder has also been
obtained by means of Equation 8:

•
Q walli
hwalli = (8)
(
Awalli ⋅ T air − Twalli )
•
Where Q walli is the total heat transfer rate to surface walli , Awalli is the area and Twalli the
temperature of the surface. T air is the mass averaged temperature of the fluid in the cylinder,
Equation 7.

The total heat transfer exchanged has been calculated by integrating in time the heat
transfer rate at each surface, between IVC and SOI as shown in Equation 9:

SOI •
Q=∫ Q ⋅ dθ (9)
IVC

4.2 Computational grids

Due to the symmetry of the cylinder and piston bowl configuration with respect to the central
axis, the problem can be reduced to calculating the flow in a two-dimensional (2D)
axisymmetric computational domain, which includes the cylinder and the piston bowl, as
shown in Figure 2. The number of cells varies from around 13,000 cells at TDC of
compression, to 70,000 cells at IVC. Quad cells have been preferred for the grid generation,
since they provide better accuracy and stability than tetrahedral cells.

Figure 2: Computational grid at TDC (engine b) and detail in the boundary layer zone.

For both engines the computational sub-domains –cylinder and piston bowl– are
decomposed and meshed independently. This strategy obtains a good quality grid while
reducing significantly the meshing time. The connectivity between the different zones is

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achieved by means of arbitrary interfaces [12]. The mesh motion is achieved by extruding
the cells of the cylinder from a layer that is separated from the boundaries to avoid a heat
transfer rate distortion that appears when the activation and deactivation of cells happen
close to the walls.

In order to ensure grid independence and improved accuracy of the results, additional
calculations with 4 different grid densities in the core of the geometry but also in the
boundary layer were performed with the geometry of engine (b). The number of quad cells
was varied from 7900 to 13000 at TDC, so that the cell height changed from 0.02mm to
0.004 mm in the first row of the boundary layer. The results have been compared in terms of
y+ and heat transfer rate at TDC (Figure 3).

For meshes with cell heights in the first row of the boundary layer larger than 0.006 mm,
there are considerable differences between the solutions in terms of heat transfer rate.
However, the heat transfer rate changes very little – less than 0.5%– for the solutions
obtained with cells finer than 0.006 mm in the boundary layer. This can be explained by the
fact that the boundary layer turbulence can be properly resolved with this near-wall cell size,
as is confirmed by the value of y+, which is about 1.5, as generally recommended for the
enhanced wall functions. Hence, the mesh used for the calculations corresponded to that
with a first row cell height of 0.006 mm.

Figure 3: Results of the grid independence study in terms of y+ and heat transfer rate.

4.2 Description of cases

Calculations on several working points on both geometries have been carried out to analyze
the evolution of the heat transfer to the walls during the compression stroke (before Start Of
Injection, SOI). The initialization conditions imposed at IVC and the wall temperatures at
each surface imposed as boundary conditions in the case of engine (a) are summarized in
Table 2.

Table 2. IVC conditions and temperatures of the walls. Experimental data for engine (a).

n (rev/min) MSN PIVC (bar) TIVC (K) Tcyl (K) Thead (K) Tpist (K)
1500 0.0 1.625 349.5 376.6 442.8 468.3
1500 0.28 1.614 346.7 374.9 436.0 459.9
1500 0.88 1.605 344.4 373.0 433.2 455.7
1500 1.31 1.597 345.0 373.9 432.3 454.5
1500 1.94 1.612 347.0 374.0 433.2 455.8
1500 3.24 1.637 351.2 374.7 435.9 459.3
1500 5.33 1.679 358.4 376.0 441.6 466.9

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On the other hand, calculations varying the engine speed as well as the intake pressure –
and therefore, the air enclosed in the cylinder–, and the MSN have been performed with
engine (b). The initial and boundary conditions are also summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: IVC conditions and temperatures of the walls. Experimental data for engine (b).

n (rev/min) MSN PIVC (bar) TIVC (K) Tcyl (K) Thead (K) Tpist (K)
1000 0.8 0.9912 325.15 375.8 382.8 412.5
1000 2.14 0.9912 325.15 375.8 382.8 412.5
1000 4.0 0.9912 325.15 375.8 382.8 412.5
2000 2.14 1.189 331.88 375.5 383.0 410.2
3000 0.80 1.706 354.7 380.1 391.2 417.3
3000 2.14 1.706 354.7 380.1 391.2 417.3
3000 4.0 1.706 354.7 380.1 391.2 417.3

The chamber wall temperatures in the case of engine (b) were measured with 40
thermocouples installed in the cylinder head (23) and block (19) and 2 thermistors in the
piston. However, the boundary wall temperatures considered in the calculations are mean
values obtained from these measurements. In the case of engine (a) direct measurements
were not available and a correlation adjusted from experimental data provided by the engine
manufacturer was used.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Calculations without Combustion

The influence of the MSN on the heat transfer during the compression stroke is analysed in
this section. The study is mainly focused on engine (a), because more experimental data are
available with the engine working at different swirl levels, although some tests have been
carried out with engine (b) to enlarge the study. In all the tests the injection process is
delayed by +6 c.a.d. from TDC, so it is possible to compare directly the experimental and
calculated thermodynamic state of the air in the cylinder at the end of the compression
stroke, because the combustion occurs at a later stage.

Figure 4 represents an example of the evolution of the pressure and temperature during the
compression stroke for the working point with a MSN equal to 1.31 –the default original
value– of engine(a) as calculated by FLUENT and CALMEC. Both programs yield the same
results for both variables. FLUENT and CALMEC provide the same results for both variables.
In Figure 5 the variations of pressure and temperature at TDC with the MSN are
represented, as obtained by means of the CFD calculations and the thermodynamic
diagnosis model CALMEC respectively.

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Figure 4: Pressure and temperature during the compression stroke. MSN=1.31. engine (a).

Figure 5: Variation of pressure and temperature at TDC for various working points. engine
(a).

The modification of the swirl number SN has a direct effect on the pressure and temperature
levels achieved in the cylinder during the compression stroke. The heat transfer rate by
convection increases with higher SN, i.e. with higher tangential velocities. In addition, the
whole structure of the flow in the cylinder is modified when the SN changes [13][16]. These
results show that the FLUENT and the CALMEC calculations yield comparable results in
terms of pressure and temperature, with maximum differences of 2%. Taking into account
that the temperatures of the walls have been defined from the experiments, it is therefore
possible to compare the heat transfer Q exchanged between the fluid and the engine, as
obtained with the CFD calculations –calculated with Equation 9 – and the thermodynamic
diagnosis model [10]. The comparison is shown in Figure 6. As expected, Q increases for
high swirl numbers due to the higher tangential velocity levels.

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Figure 6: Total heat transfer [IVC⇒SOI], engine (a)

Both methods provide similar results for medium swirl numbers, from which it can be
deduced that the diagnosis model –based on the heat transfer coefficient calculated with the
Woschni-like equation [10] – is well adapted in this interval. However, results differ
significantly for low and high swirl number values. The CFD complete flow calculation shows
that the squish-swirl interaction leads to deformed tangential velocity profiles (see Figure 7)
for low-swirl levels [13] [16]. In the periphery and near the cylinder head the radial flow
causes an important decrease of the tangential velocity, and therefore of the heat transfer.
This is not taken into account by the solid body rotation assumption made in the
thermodynamic diagnosis model. Neither does it take into account that, when the swirl is
important, the flow in the combustion chamber does not strictly follow the solid body rotation
assumption either [13] [17]. Hence, the heat transfer increase due to the larger tangential
velocity is not taken into account in the diagnosis model.

Figure 7: Tangential velocity profiles at TDC for high and low MSN values in engine(a).

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5.2 Re-adjustment of the thermodynamic model

In order to improve the predictions of the thermodynamic model during compression stroke
(before auto-ignition) some modifications to the Woschni-like equations have been proposed
and implemented based on the CFD results. These modifications are centred on the term
that represents the velocity of the gas in the Woschni equation.

As a result of previous work by these same authors, who performed three-dimensional

calculations of the in-cylinder flow for several engine geometries [13][14][17], some
correlations have been defined [14], whereby the SN in the cylinder at TDC is expressed as
a function of some geometrical parameters of the engine and of the MSN measured in a
steady flow test rig (see Equation 10):
2
SNTDC ⎡ D ⎤
F= = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ kMSN (10)
MSN ⎣ Db ⎦

where kMSN is defined as the quantity of angular momentum that is not dissipated during the
compression stroke, which can be correlated as an exponential function – Equation 11 –, as
shown in Figure 8.

k MSN = exp ( 0.200679 ⋅ MSN 0.4312 ) (11)

Figure 8: Correlated variation of the KMSN parameter as a function of MSN

In addition, an empirical function x p (α ) has been defined, which accurately predicts the
evolution of the MSN during the compression and expansion strokes in motored conditions.
This function is based on the results of CFD calculations carried out with a wide range of
engines, from rapid small to heavy duty engines, and for various working points (see
[13][14][17]), that have been validated against experimental measurements.
Figure 9 shows the evolution of the SN calculated by means of CFD and by means of
Equation 12.

1 1
x p (α ) = + 40
(12)
F ⎡ ⎛ α ⎞⎤ 1
⎢ cosh ⎜ ⎟⎥ +
⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦ F −1

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Figure 9: Temporal evolution of the SN during the compression stroke.

The other significant re-adjustement in the Woschni-like equation concerns the constants
Cw1 and Cw2. In the old version of the thermodynamic model Cw2 –the term of swirl, see
Equation 3 – had a constant value of 0.2, and the value of the Cw1 was adjusted by means of
the comparison of the heat transfer calculated with Equation 2 and the heat transfer
calculated by means of the first law of thermodynamics. If there is no combustion, the first
law of thermodynamics for an open system can be written as follows:

dQw = − P ⋅ dV − mc ⋅ duc − Rc ⋅ T ⋅ dmbb (13)

Equation 13 is used to obtain the heat transfer from the experimental pressure measured in
motoring tests. There are two reasons to adjust the value of Cw2 during the adjustment:

1. It is not very coherent to maintain Cw2 constant during the adjustment of Cw1 because
the relative weight of the speed and swirl terms in Equation 2 will be different if
different engines are considered.

2. The CFD results presented above show (see

3. Figure 10) that the influence of the MSN on the heat transfer is much greater than
that calculated by means of Equation 2 with Cw2 = 0.2 and the adjusted value of Cw1.
The modifications in the Woschni-like equation have been verified for both engines (a) and
(b) at different working points and with different swirl levels and engine speeds, see

Table 2 and Table 3. The values of Cw1 and Cw2 were re-adjusted by minimizing the
difference between the total heat transfer between IVC and SOI calculated by the Woschni-
like equation and the CFD calculations.
Figure 10 shows the results before and after the adjustment of Cw1 and Cw2.

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Figure 10: Total heat transfer between IVC and SOI calculated with CFD (red) and CALMEC
before (blue) and after (black) the optimization of Cw1 and Cw2

The ratio Cw1/Cw2 obtained in engine(a) is 1.85 and 1.6 in engine(b). The difference between
this value and the ratio before the re-adjustment procedure –larger than 10– in both
geometries is very significant. Since the ratio Cw1/Cw2 is similar for both engines, a constant
mean value of 1.7 has been taken for the adjustment of Cw1 and Cw2 in motoring tests.

5.3 Calculations with Combustion.

Once both models have been adjusted for non-reacting flow, additional calculations with
engine (b) have been performed to investigate the capability of FLUENT to simulate the heat
transfer to the walls of the cylinder during the combustion process.

The methodology is basically the same as that presented in section 4. However, since the
calculations now cover the interval between IVC and EVO, the combustion process must be
included. This is simulated in a simple way by including a source term in the energy equation
to take into account the heat release during the combustion process. Additional source terms
for the basic species that are involved in the combustion –air, fuel and burnt gases, as well
as for the blow-by– are included to reproduce the variation of each component during the
combustion process.

In Figure 11, the source terms mentioned above are represented for one of the working
points. On the left, the energy source term to simulate the variation of the heat release
generated during the closed cycle is shown, and on the right, the variation of mass of each
species included in the species transport equations.

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Figure 11: Example of the imposed source terms to simulate respectively heat release (left)
and species (right).

Four tests at different engine speeds -1500 and 3000 rev/min- and different loads were
available for this study. The initialization conditions imposed at IVC and the mass of fuel
injected in this case is summarized in Table 4. The instantaneous fuel mass injected in the
cylinder in the four cases is represented in Figure 12.

Table 4:IVC conditions and temperatures of the walls. Experimental data for engine (b).

n (rev/min) Load pmi (bar) PIVC (bar) TIVC (K) m fuel (g/cc)
1500 ⇓ load 5.90 1.08987 346.2 12.800
1500 ⇑ load 14.49 1.63893 353.7 31.152
3000 ⇓ load 4.60 1.71988 362.9 9.444
3000 ⇑ load 12.94 2.00111 365.1 25.756

Figure 12: Instantaneous mass of fuel injected at different working points.

In Figure 13 the temporal evolution of the pressure and temperature during the whole closed
cycle is represented for the cases of high load, as obtained by means of FLUENT and
CALMEC respectively. It is worth mentioning that the total energy generated during
combustion is forced to be the same in both models. It is also the case for the composition of
the gas enclosed in the cylinder. So, as we expected, the CFD calculations reproduce
exactly the thermodynamic evolution of the gases inside the cylinder.

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Figure 13: Pressure and temperature evolution during closed cycle for high load cases.

Figure 14 represents the total heat transfer rate to the walls (in J/º) for the cases studied. It is
clear that during the compression stroke both models predict the same heat transfer rate due
to the re-adjustment procedure presented above, but also during the first part of the
combustion process. Furthermore, the trends during the rest of the cycle are sensibly the
same, though some differences have been found that need to be explored.

On the one hand, although the average thermodynamic state of the gases is the same with
both methods, there are phenomena, such as the turbulence and three-dimensional effects
of the flow that are not taken into account in the thermodynamic diagnosis model CALMEC
but are in FLUENT. On the other hand, CALMEC is based in the empirical Woschni’
equation, which is supposed to include implicitly phenomena such as radiation of soot
particles or injection effects. These have not been incorporated in the CFD modeling
because the simplification of the combustion process used does not allow for predictions of
soot emissions. However, when integrating in time during the whole cycle, the total heat
transfer rate shown in Figure 14, the difference between both models is less than 8%.

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Figure 14: Heat transfer rate during the closed cycle.

6. CONCLUSIONS

A CFD study for the analysis of the heat transfer of gases to the walls of the cylinder of direct
injection Diesel engines has been carried out. For this work two different geometries at
different working conditions have been calculated. The FLUENT predictions have been
compared with those obtained from the thermodynamic diagnosis model CALMEC
developed in-house.

This analysis has led to the formulation of more accurate empirical expressions that take into
account the influence of the swirl on the heat transfer. These expressions have been
implemented in the diagnosis model, and with a re-adjustment procedure of the coefficients
in the Woschni equation, lead to an improvement in the predictions of the diagnosis model
CALMEC during the compression stroke, and before the auto-ignition.

Additional calculations have been performed to investigate heat transfer to the walls of the
cylinder during the combustion process. Additional source terms have been included in the
energy and species transport equations to simulate the effects of the combustion in a
simplified way. The results show that it is thus possible to accurately reproduce the
thermodynamic state of the gases enclosed in the cylinder during the closed cycle. Also, the
heat transfer to the walls calculated for the whole closed cycle with FLUENT is similar to that
calculated with the improved diagnosis model CALMEC. The differences observed can be
attributed to phenomena such as turbulence, the spray evolution, the radiation of soot
particles which are treated differently in both models. For instance, turbulence is included
implicitly in the Woschni-like equation, and not modeled in FLUENT, as well as radiation,
which is ignored in the FLUENT calculation. These phenomena are supposed to play a
significant role in the thermo-fluid-dynamic processes that take place in the cylinder of Diesel
engines during the whole closed cycle and they will have to be further analyzed in the near
future.

REFERENCES

[1] Higgins B., Siebers D., Aradi A. “Diesel-Spray ignition and premixed-burn behavior”.
SAE Paper 2000-01-0940, 2000.

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[2] Kobori S., Kamimoto T. Aradi A. “A study of ignition delay of diesel fuel sprays”. Int. J.
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