Text i

In physics, classical mechanics (also known as Newtonian mechanics) is one of two

major sub-fields of mechanics. The other sub-field is quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics
is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the influence
of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical
mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjectsin science, engineering and technology.  Some
authors often consider Newtonian mechanics, along with Lagrangian
mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics, as the three main formalisms of classical mechanics.
Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to
parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies.
Within classical mechanics there are sub-fields, including those that describe the behavior
of solids, liquids and gases. Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results when
studying large objects and speeds not approaching the speed of light. When the objects being
examined are sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of
mechanics: quantum mechanics. This sub-field adjusts the laws of physics of macroscopic
objects for the atomic nature of matter by including the wave–particle
duality of atoms and molecules.

The term classical mechanics was used in the early 20th century. It describes the
system of physics started by Isaac Newton and many contemporary 17th century natural
philosophers. It is also built upon the earlier astronomical theories of Johannes Kepler, based
on the precise observations of Tycho Brahe and the studies of terrestrial projectile
motion of Galileo. Since these aspects of physics were developed long before the emergence
of quantum physics and relativity, some sources exclude Einstein's theory of relativity from
this category. However, a number of modern sources do include relativistic mechanics, which
in their view represents classical mechanics in its most developed and accurate form.
The earliest development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian mechanics.
It consists of the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical methods invented by
Newton, Leibniz and others. Later, more abstract and general methods were developed,
leading to the reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian
mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These advances, made predominantly in the 18th and
19th centuries, extend substantially beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use
of analytical mechanics
 Some Greek philosophers of antiquity, among them Aristotle, founder of Aristotelian
physics, may have been the first to maintain the idea that "everything happens for a reason"
and that theoretical principles can assist in the understanding of nature. While to a modern
reader, many of these preserved ideas come forth as eminently reasonable, there is a
conspicuous lack of both mathematical theory and controlled experiment, as we know it.
These later became decisive factors in forming modern science, and their early application
came to be known as classical mechanics. The first published causal explanation of the
motions of planets was Johannes Kepler's Astronomia nova published in 1609. He concluded,
based on Tycho Brahe's observations of the orbit of Mars, that the orbits were ellipses. This
break with ancient thought was happening around the same time that Galileo was proposing
abstract mathematical laws for the motion of objects.
He may (or may not) have performed the famous experiment of dropping two
cannonballs of different weights from the tower of Pisa, showing that they both hit the ground
at the same time. The reality of this experiment is disputed, but, more importantly, he did
carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an inclined plane. His theory of
accelerated motion derived from the results of such experiments, and forms a cornerstone of
classical mechanics.

TEXT II
Newton founded his principles of natural philosophy on three proposed laws of motion:
the law of inertia, his second law of acceleration and the law of action and reaction; and hence
laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Both Newton's second and third laws were given
the proper scientific and mathematical treatment in Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, which distinguishes them from earlier attempts at explaining similar
phenomena, which were either incomplete, incorrect, or given little accurate mathematical
expression. Newton also enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular
momentum. In mechanics, Newton was also the first to provide the first correct scientific and
mathematical formulation of gravity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.
The combination of Newton's laws of motion and gravitation provide the fullest and
most accurate description of classical mechanics. He demonstrated that these laws apply to
everyday objects as well as to celestial objects. In particular, he obtained a theoretical
explanation of Kepler's laws of motion of the planets.
Newton had previously invented the calculus, of mathematics, and used it to perform
the mathematical calculations. For acceptability, his book, the Principia, was formulated
entirely in terms of the long-established geometric methods, which were soon eclipsed by his
calculus. However, it was Leibniz who developed the notation of
the derivative and integral preferred today.

After Newton, classical mechanics became a principal field of study in mathematics as

well as physics. Several re-formulations progressively allowed finding solutions to a far greater
number of problems. The first notable re-formulation was in 1788 by Joseph Louis Lagrange.
Lagrangian mechanics was in turn re-formulated in 1833 by William Rowan Hamilton.
Some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be resolved by more
modern physics. Some of these difficulties related to compatibility with electromagnetic
theory, and the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. The resolution of these problems led
to the special theory of relativity, often included in the term classical mechanics.

Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics or quantum theory),

including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory
of nature at the small scales and energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.
Classical physics (the physics existing before quantum mechanics) derives from quantum
mechanics as an approximation valid only at large scales. Quantum mechanics differs
from classical physics in that: energy, momentum and other quantities are often restricted
to discrete values (quantization), objects have characteristics of
both particles and waves (i.e. wave-particle duality), and there are limits to the precision with
which quantities can be known (uncertainty principle).
Quantum mechanics developed from Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body
radiation problem, and Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which offered a quantum-based theory to
explain the photoelectric effect. Early quantum theory was profoundly re-conceived in the
mid-1920s by Erwin Schrodinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and others. The modern
theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them,
a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability
amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle.
Important applications of quantum theory include quantum chemistry, superconducting
magnets, light-emitting diodes, and the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as
the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such as magnetic resonance
imaging and electron microscopy. Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena
are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-molecule DNA.
Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries,
when scientists such as Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens and Leonhard Euler proposed a
wave theory of light based on experimental observations. In 1803, Thomas Young, an
English polymath, performed the famous double-slit experiment that he later described in a
paper titled On the nature of light and colours. This experiment played a major role in the
general acceptance of the wave theory of light.
In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays. These studies were followed by the
1859 statement of the black-body radiationproblem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion
by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system can be discrete, and the 1900
quantum hypothesis of Max Planck. Planck's hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed
in discrete "quanta" (or energy packets) precisely matched the observed patterns of black-
body radiation.
In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body
radiation, known as Wien's law in his honor. Ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this
result by considerations of Maxwell's equations. However, it was valid only at high frequencies
and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies. Later, Planck corrected this model using
Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now
called Planck's law, which led to the development of quantum mechanics.
Following Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported
1859), Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric
effect (1905, reported 1887). Around 1900-1910, the atomic theory and the corpuscular
theory of light first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be
viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation, respectively.

TEXT III
Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and
emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself.
In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer
rather than a sizable discovery.  However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's
quantum hypothesis realistically and used it to explain the photoelectric effect, in which
shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. He won the 1921
Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light
could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete quantum of
energy that was dependent on its frequency.

.
The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the
20th century by Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Louis de Broglie, Arthur
Compton, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul
Dirac, Enrico Fermi, Wolfgang Pauli, Max von Laue, Freeman Dyson, David Hilbert, Wilhelm
Wien, Satyendra Nath Bose, Arnold Sommerfeld, and others. The Copenhagen
interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted.
In the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard
formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published
results that closed the old quantum theory. Out of deference to their particle-like behavior
in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be called photons (1926). It
was found that subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves are neither simply particle
nor wave but have certain properties of each. This originated the concept of wave–particle
duality.
By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work
of David Hilbert, Paul Dirac and John von Neumann with greater emphasis
on measurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, and philosophical
speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines
including quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics, and quantum
information science. Its speculative modern developments include string
theory and quantum gravity theories. It also provides a useful framework for many
features of the modern periodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors
of atoms during chemical bonding and the flow of electrons in computer semiconductors,
and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies.
While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is
also needed to explain some macroscopic phenomena such
as superconductors, and superfluids.
The word quantum derives from the Latin, meaning "how great" or "how much". In
quantum mechanics, it refers to a discrete unit assigned to certain physical quantities such
as the energy of an atom at rest.The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy
with wave-like properties led to the branch of physics dealing with atomic and subatomic
systems which is today called quantum mechanics. It underlies
the mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed
matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational
physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, nuclear chemistry,
and nuclear physics.
Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding the behavior of systems
at atomic length scales and smaller. If the physical nature of an atom were solely described
by classical mechanics, electrons would not orbit the nucleus, since orbiting electrons emit
radiation (due to circular motion) and would eventually collide with the nucleus due to this
loss of energy. This framework was unable to explain the stability of atoms. Instead,
electrons remain in an uncertain, non-deterministic,  probabilistic wave–
particle orbital about the nucleus, defying the traditional assumptions of classical
 mechanics and electromagnetism. Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four
classes of phenomena for which classical physics cannot account:

 quantization of certain physical properties

 quantum entanglement
 principle of uncertainty
 wave–particle duality

The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert
space (crucially, that the space has an inner product) and that observables of that system
are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space—although they do not tell us which
Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a
quantitative description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is
the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce
to those of classical mechanics when a system moves to higher energies or, equivalently,
larger quantum numbers, i.e. whereas a single particle exhibits a degree of randomness, in
systems incorporating millions of particles averaging takes over and, at the high energy limit,
the statistical probability of random behaviour approaches zero. In other words, classical
mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known
as the classical or correspondence limit. One can even start from an established classical model
of a particular system, then attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that would give
rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit.
When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose
correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known
model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for
the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic
oscillator.
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the
replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein–Gordon
equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many
experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of
the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory
required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field
(rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory, quantum
electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction. The
full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic
systems. A simpler approach, one that has been employed since the inception of quantum
mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a
classical electromagnetic field.
.

TEXT IV
Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely
high degree of accuracy. According to the correspondence principle between classical and
quantum mechanics, all objects obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics
is just an approximation for large systems of objects (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a
large collection of particles). The laws of classical mechanics thus follow from the laws of
quantum mechanics as a statistical average at the limit of large systems or large quantum
numbers. However, chaotic systems do not have good quantum numbers, and quantum
chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.
Quantum coherence is an essential difference between classical and quantum theories as
illustrated by the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox — an attack on a certain
philosophical interpretation of quantum mechanics by an appeal to local realism. Quantum
interference involves adding together probability amplitudes, whereas classical "waves" infer
that there is an adding together of intensities. For microscopic bodies, the extension of the
system is much smaller than the coherence length, which gives rise to long-range
entanglement and other nonlocal phenomena characteristic of quantum systems. Quantum
coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though an exception to this rule may
occur at extremely low temperatures (i.e. approaching absolute zero) at which quantum
behavior may manifest itself macroscopically. This is in accordance with the following
observations:

 Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the

quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of
atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity
of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter
are all results of the interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.
While the seemingly "exotic" behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and
relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with particles of extremely small size
or velocities approaching the speed of light, the laws of classical, often considered
"Newtonian", physics remain accurate in predicting the behavior of the vast majority of
"large" objects (on the order of the size of large molecules or bigger) at velocities much
smaller than the velocity of light.
Quantum mechanics does not admit a completely precise description, in terms of both
position and momentum, of an initial condition or "state" (in the classical sense of the word)
that would support a precisely deterministic and causal prediction of a final condition. In this
sense, advocated by Bohr in his mature writings, a quantum phenomenon is a process, a
passage from initial to final condition, not an instantaneous "state" in the classical sense of
that word. Thus there are two kinds of processes in quantum mechanics: stationary and
transitional. For a stationary process, the initial and final condition are the same. For a
transition, they are different. Obviously by definition, if only the initial condition is given, the
process is not determined.  Given its initial condition, prediction of its final condition is
possible, causally but only probabilistically, because the Schrödinger equation is deterministic
for wave function evolution, but the wave function describes the system only probabilistically.

For many experiments, it is possible to think of the initial and final conditions of the
system as being a particle. In some cases it appears that there are potentially several spatially
distinct pathways or trajectories by which a particle might pass from initial to final condition. It
is an important feature of the quantum kinematic description that it does not permit a unique
definite statement of which of those pathways is actually followed. Only the initial and final
conditions are definite, and, as stated in the foregoing paragraph, they are defined only as
precisely as allowed by the configuration space description or its equivalent. In every case for
which a quantum kinematic description is needed, there is always a compelling reason for this
restriction of kinematic precision. An example of such a reason is that for a particle to be
experimentally found in a definite position, it must be held motionless; for it to be
experimentally found to have a definite momentum, it must have free motion; these two are
logically incompatible.

.TEXT V
General relativity and quantum mechanics
Even with the defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of general relativity and
quantum theory being indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence,
and while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to their
primary claims), they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent,
cohesive model.
Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between
general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular
applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue
in physical cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant "Theory of Everything" (TOE).
Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of
20th and 21st century physics.
 Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored for many years in
the attempt to discover a theory underlying everything. This TOE would combine not only the
different models of subatomic physics, but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature -
the strong force, electromagnetism, the weak force, and gravity - from a single force or
phenomenon. While Stephen Hawking was initially a believer in the Theory of Everything,
after considering Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem, he has concluded that one is not
obtainable, and has stated so publicly in his lecture "Gödel and the End of Physics" (2002).
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum
mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debates and many interpretations. Even
fundamental issues, such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability
amplitudes and probability distributions, took decades to be appreciated by society and many
leading scientists. Richard Feynman once said, "I think I can safely say that nobody
understands quantum mechanics." According to Steven Weinberg, "There is now in my
opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics."
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, did not accept some of
the more philosophical or metaphysical interpretations of quantum mechanics, such as
rejection of determinism and of causality. He is famously quoted as saying, in response to this
aspect, "God does not play with dice".] He rejected the concept that the state of a physical
system depends on the experimental arrangement for its measurement.
He held that a state of nature occurs in its own right, regardless of whether or how it
might be observed. In that view, he is supported by the currently accepted definition of a
quantum state, which remains invariant under arbitrary choice of configuration space for its
representation, that is to say, manner of observation. He also held that underlying quantum
mechanics there should be a theory that thoroughly and directly expresses the rule
against action at a distance; in other words, he insisted on the principle of locality. He
considered, but rejected on theoretical grounds, a particular proposal for hidden variables to
obviate the indeterminism or acausality of quantum mechanical measurement. He considered
that quantum mechanics was a currently valid but not a permanently definitive theory for
quantum phenomena. He thought its future replacement would require profound conceptual
advances, and would not come quickly or easily.

Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of
our universe. Quantum mechanics is often the only tool available that can reveal the individual
behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter
(electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and others). Quantum mechanics has strongly
influenced string theories, candidates for a Theory of Everything (see reductionism).
Quantum mechanics is also critically important for understanding how individual atoms
combine covalently to form molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is
known as quantum chemistry. Relativistic quantum mechanics can, in principle,
mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can also provide quantitative
insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are
energetically favorable to which others and the magnitudes of the energies involved.
Furthermore, most of the calculations performed in modern computational chemistry rely on
quantum mechanics.
In many aspects modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are
significant.

TEXT VI
Electronics
Many modern electronic devices are designed using quantum mechanics. Examples
include the laser, the transistor (and thus the microchip), the electron microscope,
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The study of semiconductors led to the invention of
the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable parts of
modern electronics systems, computerand telecommunication devices. Another application is
the light emitting diode which is a high-efficiency source of light.

Many electronic devices operate under effect of quantum tunneling. It even exists in the
simple light switch. The switch would not work if electrons could not quantum tunnel through
the layer of oxidation on the metal contact surfaces. Flash memory chips found in USB
drives use quantum tunneling to erase their memory cells. Some negative differential
resistance devices also utilize quantum tunneling effect, such as resonant tunneling diode.
Unlike classical diodes, its current is carried by resonant tunneling through two potential
barriers (see right figure). Its negative resistance behavior can only be understood with
quantum mechanics: As the confined state moves close to Fermi level, tunnel current
increases. As it moves away, current decreases. Quantum mechanics is vital to understanding
and designing such electronic devices.
Quantum computing
A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to
perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Instead of
using classical bits, quantum computers use qubits, which can be in superpositions of states.
Quantum programmers are able to manipulate the superposition of qubits in order to solve
problems that classical computing cannot do effectively, such as searching unsorted databases
or integer factorization. IBM claims that the advent of quantum computing may progress the
fields of medicine, logistics, financial services, artificial intelligence and cloud security.[81]
Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to
transmit quantum information over arbitrary distances.
Macroscale quantum effects
 While quantum mechanics primarily applies to the smaller atomic regimes of matter and
energy, some systems exhibit quantum mechanical effects on a large scale. Superfluidity, the
frictionless flow of a liquid at temperatures near absolute zero, is one well-known example. So
is the closely related phenomenon of superconductivity, the frictionless flow of an electron gas
in a conducting material (an electric current) at sufficiently low temperatures. The fractional
quantum Hall effect is a topological ordered state which corresponds to patterns of long-
range quantum entanglement. States with different topological orders (or different patterns of
long range entanglements) cannot change into each other without a phase transition.
Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions of celestial
objects. Historically, celestial mechanics applies principles of physics (classical mechanics) to
astronomical objects, such as stars and planets, to produce ephemeris data. As an
astronomical field of study, celestial mechanics includes the sub-fields of Orbital
mechanics (astrodynamics), which deals with the orbit of an artificial satellite, and Lunar
theory, which deals with the orbit of the Moon. Modern analytic celestial mechanics started
with Isaac Newton's Principia of 1687. The name "celestial mechanics" is more recent than
that. Newton wrote that the field should be called "rational mechanics." The term "dynamics"
came in a little later with Gottfried Leibniz, and over a century after Newton, Pierre-Simon
Laplace introduced the term "celestial mechanics." Prior to Kepler there was little connection
between exact, quantitative prediction of planetary positions,
using geometrical or arithmetical techniques, and contemporary discussions of the physical
causes of the planets' motion.
.

As with classical mechanics, the subject can be divided into "kinematics"; the
description of motion by specifying positions, velocities and accelerations, and "dynamics"; a
full description by considering energies, momenta, and angular momenta and
their conservation laws, and forces acting on particles or exerted by particles. There is
however a subtlety; what appears to be "moving" and what is "at rest"—which is termed by
"statics" in classical mechanics—depends on the relative motion of observers who measure
in frames of reference.
Although some definitions and concepts from classical mechanics do carry over to SR,
such as force as the time derivative of momentum (Newton's second law), the work done by a
particle as the line integral of force exerted on the particle along a path, and power as the time
derivative of work done, there are a number of significant modifications to the remaining
definitions and formulae. SR states that motion is relative and the laws of physics are the same
for all experimenters irrespective of their inertial reference frames. In addition to modifying
notions of space and time, SR forces one to reconsider the concepts of mass, momentum,
and energy all of which are important constructs in Newtonian mechanics. SR shows that
these concepts are all different aspects of the same physical quantity in much the same way
that it shows space and time to be interrelated.
 Consequently, another modification is the concept of the center of mass of a system,
which is straightforward to define in classical mechanics but much less obvious in relativity -
see relativistic center of mass for details.

TEXT VII

Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points,

bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the mass
of each or the forces that caused the motion. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often
referred to as the "geometry of motion" and is occasionally seen as a branch of
mathematics. A kinematics problem begins by describing the geometry of the system
and declaring the initial conditions of any known values of position, velocity and/or
acceleration of points within the system. Then, using arguments from geometry, the
position, velocity and acceleration of any unknown parts of the system can be
determined. The study of how forces act on masses falls within kinetics. For further
details, see analytical dynamics.
Kinematics is used in astrophysics to describe the motion of celestial bodies and
collections of such bodies. In mechanical engineering, robotics,
and biomechanics[7] kinematics is used to describe the motion of systems composed of
joined parts (multi-link systems) such as an engine, a robotic arm or the human
skeleton.
Geometric transformations, also called rigid transformations, are used to describe the
movement of components in a mechanical system, simplifying the derivation of the equations
of motion. They are also central to dynamic analysis.
Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the kinematic quantities used to describe
motion. In engineering, for instance, kinematic analysis may be used to find the range of
movement for a given mechanism, and working in reverse, using kinematic synthesis to design
a mechanism for a desired range of motion. In addition, kinematics applies algebraic
geometry to the study of the mechanical advantage of a mechanical system or mechanism.

Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies engineering, physics, and materials

science principles to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It is one
of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines.
The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of core areas
including mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis,
and electricity. In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such
as computer-aided design (CAD), and product life cycle management to design and
analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and
others. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation
of machinery.
Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the
18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the
world. In the 19th century, developments in physics led to the development of mechanical
engineering science. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today
mechanical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas as composites, mechatronics,
and nanotechnology. It also overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical
engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical
engineering, industrial engineering, and other engineering disciplines to varying amounts.
Mechanical engineers may also work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically
with biomechanics, transport phenomena, bio mechatronics, bio nanotechnology, and
modeling of biological systems.
The application of mechanical engineering can be seen in the archives of various ancient and
medieval societies. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287–212 BC) influenced
mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) created the first
steam engine (Aeolipile). In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and
invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears.
The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020–1101 AD) incorporated
an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before
escapement devices were found in medieval European clocks. He also invented the world's
first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.
During the Islamic Golden Age (7th to 15th century), Muslim inventors made remarkable
contributions in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his
famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206, and presented many
mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which
now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft.
During the 17th century, important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechanical
engineering occurred in England. Sir Isaac Newton formulated Newton's Laws of Motion and
developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to publish his
works for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues, such as Sir Edmond
Halley, much to the benefit of all mankind. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with
creating Calculus during this time period.
 TEXT VII
During the early 19th century industrial revolution, machine tools were developed in
England, Germany, and Scotland. This allowed mechanical engineering to develop as a
separate field within engineering. They brought with them manufacturing machines and the
engines to power them. The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was
formed in 1847 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, thirty years after the civil engineers
formed the first such professional society Institution of Civil Engineers. On the European
continent, Johann von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the first factory for grinding
machines in Chemnitz, Germany in 1848.
In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed
in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society
of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first
schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military
Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based
on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.[9]
Mechanical engineers research, design, develop, build, and test mechanical and thermal
devices, including tools, engines, and machines.
Mechanical engineers typically do the following:

 Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve the
problem.
 Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices using analysis and computer-aided
design.
 Develop and test prototypes of devices they design.
 Analyze the test results and change the design as needed.
 Oversee the manufacturing process for the device.
Mechanical engineers design and oversee the manufacturing of many products ranging from
medical devices to new batteries. They also design power-producing machines such as electric
generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines as well as power-using
machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.
Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers to help create and analyze
designs, run simulations and test how a machine is likely to work.[23]
Many mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have
begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their existing design
and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This
method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the
ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces
and tolerances.
Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle
management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis
tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and
manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the
design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other
constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing
hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few. In addition, CAE
analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by
hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.
As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen
in mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE
programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around
existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes
home for the day. They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently
explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary
design problems.

Sub disciplines
The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many
mechanical engineering science disciplines. Several of these sub disciplines which are typically
taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most
common application of each. Some of these sub disciplines are unique to mechanical
engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other
disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several
of these sub disciplines, as well as specialized sub disciplines. Specialized sub disciplines, as
used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training
than undergraduate research. Several specialized sub disciplines are discussed in this section.
Mechatronics is a combination of mechanics and electronics. It is an interdisciplinary
branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is
concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In
this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms,
and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a
mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin
the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it
to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to
the computer.

TEXT VIII

Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in
industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be
of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To
create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of
motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).
Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on
labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them
economically, and to ensure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots,
especially in Automotive Industries and some factories are so robotized that they can run by
themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space
exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications,
from recreation to domestic applications.
Structural analysis
Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering)
devoted to examining why and how objects fail and to fix the objects and their performance.
Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static
structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being
analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for
failure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and
unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic
crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation)
until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.
Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a
part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some
plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be
employed to determine the cause.
Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when
designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those
published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.
Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed
parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.

Thermodynamics and thermo-science

Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering,
including mechanical and chemical engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study
of energy, its use and transformation through a system. Typically, engineering
thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another. As an example,
automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into
mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.
Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat
transfer, thermofluids, and energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to
design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
systems, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and others.

TEXT IX

Design and drafting

Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers design

products and create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a
computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to
manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent
information. A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may
be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional
process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three
dimensions.
Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either
manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Optionally, an engineer may also
manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing
rarity, with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers
primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and
other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.
Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other
branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD
software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD).

Areas of research
Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in
order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems. Some
technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below (see
also exploratory engineering).
Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer
devices are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers
like SU8. Examples of MEMS components are the accelerometers that are used as car airbag
sensors, modern cell phones, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used
in biomedical applications.
Friction stir welding (FSW)
Friction stir welding, a new type of welding, was discovered in 1991 by The Welding
Institute (TWI). The innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins materials
previously un-weldable, including several aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in the
future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology to
date include welding the seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle external tank, Orion Crew
Vehicle test article, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX
Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious assault ships, and welding the wings and
fuselage panels of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation among an increasingly
growing pool of uses.
Composites

Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide

different physical characteristics than either material separately. Composite material research
within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing (and, subsequently, finding
applications for) stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to reduce weight,
susceptibility to corrosion, and other undesirable factors. Carbon fiber reinforced composites,
for instance, have been used in such diverse applications as spacecraft and fishing rods.
Nanotechnology

At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology—one speculative

goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials
via mechanosynthesis. For now that goal remains within exploratory engineering. Areas of
current mechanical engineering research in nanotechnology include nanofilters,
nanofilms, and nanostructures, among others.
 TEXT X

Biomechanics
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such
as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells. Biomechanics also aids in creating prosthetic
limbs and artificial organs for humans.
Biomechanics is closely related to engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering
sciences to analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian
mechanics and/or materials sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of
many biological systems.
Over the past decade the Finite element method (FEM) has also entered the Biomedical
sector highlighting further engineering aspects of Biomechanics. FEM has since then
established itself as an alternative to in vivo surgical assessment and gained the wide
acceptance of academia. The main advantage of Computational Biomechanics lies in its ability
to determine the endo-anatomical response of an anatomy, without being subject to ethical
restrictions. This has led FE modelling to the point of becoming ubiquitous in several fields of
Biomechanics while several projects have even adopted an open source philosophy
(e.g. BioSpine).
Computational fluid dynamics
Computational fluid dynamics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics
that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid
flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of
liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed
supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved. Ongoing research yields software that
improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or
turbulent flows. Initial validation of such software is performed using a wind tunnel with the
final validation coming in full-scale testing, e.g. flight tests.
Acoustical engineering
Acoustical engineering is one of many other sub disciplines of mechanical engineering
and is the application of acoustics. Acoustical engineering is the study of Sound and Vibration.
These engineers work effectively to reduce noise pollution in mechanical devices and in
buildings by soundproofing or removing sources of unwanted noise. The study of acoustics can
range from designing a more efficient hearing aid, microphone, headphone, or recording
studio to enhancing the sound quality of an orchestra hall. Acoustical engineering also deals
with the vibration of different mechanical systems.
Applied mechanics (also engineering mechanics) is a branch of the physical
sciences and the practical application of mechanics. Applied mechanics describes the response
of bodies (solids and fluids) or systems of bodies to external  forces. Some examples
of mechanical systems include the flow of a liquid under pressure, the fracture of a solid from
an applied force, or the vibration of an ear in response to sound. A practitioner of the
discipline is known as a mechanician.
Applied mechanics describes the behavior of a body, in either a beginning state of rest
or of motion, subjected to the action of forces.[1]Applied mechanics, bridges the gap between
physical theory and its application to technology. It is used in many fields of engineering,
especially mechanical engineering and civil engineering. In this context, it is commonly
referred to as Engineering Mechanics. Much of modern engineering mechanics is based
on Isaac Newton's laws of motion while the modern practice of their application can be traced
back to Stephen Timoshenko, who is said to be the father of modern engineering mechanics.
Within the theoretical sciences, applied mechanics is useful in formulating new ideas and
theories, discovering and interpreting phenomena, and developing experimental and
computational tools. In the application of the natural sciences, mechanics was said to be
complemented by thermodynamics, the study of heat and more generally energy, and electro
mechanics, the study of electricity and magnetism.

TEXT XI
Some facts about cars

Honda Prelude was the first mass produced car that featured a mechanical 4-wheel
steering system. In its debut year it beat every car in the slalom test, including Porsche and
Ferrari.

The Soviet Union allowed theaters to play The Grapes of Wrath because of its depiction
of the plight of the poor under capitalism, but it was later withdrawn because Russian
audiences were amazed that even the poorest Americans could afford a car.

In 2002 a car was reported running off the road in Surrey, England by multiple
witnesses. Police arrived, but found no signs of a crash. After a careful search the car and
driver were finally found but it was determined the accident occurred 5 months earlier.

In 2007, 20-year-old Florida kid named Ryan Holle was sentenced to life without parole
for lending his car to a friend, who then murdered an 18-year-old girl.

Residents of Churchill, Canada leave their cars unlocked to offer an escape for
pedestrians who might encounter polar bears on Main Street.
 Little Tikes, red and yellow Cozy Coupe toy car reached 6 million units in sales by its 25th
anniversary in 2004, and was called the “world’s best-selling car for much of this decade” by
The New York Times in 1998, outselling the Honda Accord and Ford Taurus.

It is legal in California to drive a motorcycle between two cars in their lane (lane
splitting) and only 53% of state residents know that it is legal.

The first car to use a rear-view mirror was driven by inaugural Indy 500 winner Ray
Harroun in 1911 to see the cars catching up behind him.

In 1941, more than three million cars were manufactured in the United States. Only 139
more were manufactured during World War 2.

The US gas guzzler tax that was designed to discourage fuel-inefficient vehicles only
applies to cars, but not SUVs, trucks, and vans, since they were rarely used as passenger cars
when the law was passed in 1978. The law has since not been updated to reflect modern
times.

About 75% of the cars that Rolls Royce has ever produced are still on the road.

In 2006, the Indy Car Series switched over to Honda engines and since then, there have
been no Indy Car engine failures.

  .

You can instantly cool down a car that has been sitting under the sun by rolling down
the window on one side and opening and closing the door on the other side five to six times.

Bridget Driscoll received instant notoriety when she stepped off the curb and into the
history books on August 17th 1896. Mrs Driscoll, a 44 year old housewife, who was travelling
from Old Town, Croydon to a folk-dancing display in Crystal Palace, became the first
pedestrian in the UK to be killed by a car. She was hit by a demonstration car travelling at
4mph. She died within minutes of receiving a head injury .

The ignition on all Porsches is located on the left side of the wheel. This is because back
when Porsche was primarily a racing team, the driver could save a fraction of a second by
starting the car with his left hand, while simultaneously switching the car into gear with his
right hand.

In 1924 a Ford cost $265.00.

 The first car radio was invented by Paul Gavin.

Red cars are prohibited in Shanghai China.

After being used in the movie “Gone in 60 Seconds,” the 1967 Shelby Mustang GT-500
as one of the most famous cars ever.

The first speeding ticket was issued in 1902.

Mr. Allen Swift of Springfield Mass drove his 1928 Rolls Royce Roadster `for 82 years.

The first traffic death was in 1896.

The first coin operated parking meter was installed in Oklahoma City in 1935.

Ferrari can only produce 14 cars a day.

Toyota produces 13,000 vehicles a day.