LECTURE NOTE FOR CHEM 101

– Mr. E. N. Dim

2017/2018 Session

INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC STUCTURE (CONTINUATION)

1. Determination of masses (Mass Spectrometer)

a) Isotope, Mass Number, Atomic Number

2. Quantum Theory (Brief Description)

a) Dual Nature of Matter (De Broglie)

b) Planck’s Theory
c) Photoelectric Effect
d) Atomic Spectrum (H2)
DETERMINATION OF MASSES (MASS SPECTROMETER)

Mass Spectrometry is the process by which the atomic mass of atoms or molecules is determined. A
mass spectrometer is used to;

 Identify the presence of isotopes

 Measure the relative abundances of isotopes
 Measure the relative atomic masses and the relative molecular masses
 Identify unknown compounds

The result of mass spectrometry is a graph plotting mass per charge ratio (m/e or m/z) against relative
abundance (%). Atoms or groups of atoms maybe detected due to varying atomic masses giving
isotopes and the fragmentation of molecules into smaller groups of atoms.

The peak with the highest mass is called the Molecular ion (M+), while the peak with the greatest
abundance (size) is called the Base Peak.

The mass spectrometer

Example 1: chlorine - 35Cl+ and 37Cl+

Example 2: Magnesium – 24Mg+, 25Mg+ and 26Mg+

Example 3: Zirconium – 90Zr+, 91Zr+, 92Zr+, 94Zr+ and 96Zr+

Six Stages of the Mass Spectrometer

1. Injection: A sample is injected (gas or liquid). Solid samples are converted to liquids using
solvents.
2. Vapourization: The sample is injected as a liquid that is heated to vapourize it.
3. Ionization: An electron gun forms positive ions by bombarding the atoms with high energy
electrons (+10, 000 volts) which knock electrons off or if we are dealing with a molecule,
causes the molecule to break apart (fragment).
4. Acceleration: The positive ions produced pass between a series of negatively charged plates.
These plates accelerate the positive ions to high speeds.
5. Separation/Deflection: An electromagnet deflects the ions towards the detector. The lighter
ions are deflected more than the heavier ones. The amount of deflection depends on –
 The mass of the ion: The heavier ions are deflected less than the lighter ones
 The charge on the ion: the more positive ions (2+ or more) are deflected more easily
than the +1 ions.
 Note: ions with 2+ or more positive charge are deflected more than the ones with 1+
positive charge.

The mass (m), of the ion has an inverse relationship with the charge (e or z), of the ion. That
is, as the mass of an ion increases, the charge decreases (1+) hence, the ion is not easily
deflected by the electromagnet. The reverse is also true, as the mass decreases, the charge
increase (2+or more positive charge), hence, the ion is deflected easily.

It makes it simpler to talk about this if we assume that the charge on all the ions is 1+. Most
of the ions passing through the mass spectrometer will have a charge of 1+, so that the
mass/charge ratio will be the same as the mass of the ion. We ca represent is thus;
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
= = 𝑀+
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 1 +
From the foregoing, we can say that the amount of defection depends mainly on the mass of
the ion since the charges of most ions produced in the mass spectrometer is 1+.

For example, if an ion had a mass of 28 and a charge of 1+, its mass/charge ratio would be 28.
An ion with a mass of 56 and a charge of 2+ would also have a mass/charge ratio of 28.

6. Detection: the detector responds to the ions that hit it and produces a signal that corresponds
to the number of ions. A computer converts both measurements into a spectrum on a paper
recorder. The series of peaks is called a mass spectrum.

Solved Example

If bromine atom is available in the form of, say, two isotopes (49.7%) and Br (50.3%), calculate the
relative atomic mass of bromine.

Solution

% of Br-79 = 49.7%; % ofBr-81 = 50.3%

Relative atomic mass of Br = (79 x 49.7/100) + (81 x 50.3 / 100) = 80.0

Thus, relative atomic mass of bromine is 80.0.

The relative abundance (%) of an isotope is the fraction of a single element that exists on earth with a
specific atomic mass.

Fragmentation

The break - up of molecules into ions or neutral species by bombardment by high energy beam of
electrons is called fragmentation. Once the molecular ion has been formed, it is likely that this ion will
break apart into fragments. Each fragment is either an ion itself or a neutral species. The ions formed
can be detected in the mass spectrometer. Typically, alkyl groups, acyl groups and allyl groups are
most easily formed and often appear in mass spectra.

Alkyl Fragments M+ Acyl Fragments M+ Allyl Fragments M+

[CH3]+ 15 [CH3CO]+ 43 [CH2 = CH2]+ 28

[C2H5]+ 29 [C2H5CO]+ 57 [CH3 = CH2]+ 29

[C3H7]+ 43 [C3H7CO]+ 71
Example

1. If the molecular ion appears at m/e = 58 and the next lowest peak at m/e = 43, then a
fragment has been loss that corresponds to 58 – 43 = 15 mass units. This corresponds to a
methyl ion fragments [CH3]+ [C = 12, H = 1; 12 + (1 x 3) = 15].

2. If a fragment at m/e = 29, then this is likely to be due to ethyl ion fragment, [C2H5]+.
Isotope, Mass Number, Atomic Number

1. An atom consists of a nucleus + electrons

2. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons and is surrounded by electrons
3. The number of protons is called the atomic number Z which defines the element
4. All atoms of a given element have the same atomic number
5. In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the number of protons
6. In 1869, Dimitri Mendeleev Arranged elements on basis of atomic mass
7. In 1913. Henry Moseley (1888 – 1915) determined charge on nucleus of all known
elements and arranged elements on basis of atomic number. All the elements in the
periodic table are arranged in terms of atomic number.
8. The Periodic law states that the periodic properties of the elements is the periodic
function of the atonic number
9. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is variable and we will represent this
number by the letter N (usually represented with small letter n in most texts)
10. The number of neutrons plus the number of protons in a nucleus is called the mass
number and is represented by the symbol A.
11. Atoms with the same atomic number (proton number) but different mass number are
called Isotopes or atoms with the same number of proton (atomic number) but different
number of neutrons are called Isotopes.
12. A typical element X in the periodic table is represented thus,

𝐴
𝑍𝑋 ≡ AX
A=Z+N

13. Most atoms have several isotopes, some have one (monoisotopic) 19F (Flourine) has
only one while some are with two or more isotopes (polyisotopic). Example,

Potassium Carbon
39 12
K 93.220% C 98.89%
40 13
K 0.012% C 1.11%
41
K 6.770%

There are three isotopes of Hydrogen

Isotpes A N Z Name of Isotope

1
H 1 0 1 (Protium)
2
H 1 1 2 (Deuterium)
1H 1 2 3 (Tritium)
Table showing the relative charge, mass and the location of the sub-atomic particles

Proton Neutron Electron

Relative Charge +1 0 -1
Charge (C) +1.602 x 10 -19 0 -1.602 x 10 – 19
Relative Mass 1 1 1/2000
– 27
Mass (Kg) 1.673 x 10 1.673 x 10 – 27 9.109 x 10 – 31
Mass in (amu) 1.008 1.009 5.485 x 10 – 4
Location Nucleus Nucleus Electron cloud around the nucleus
amu – atomic mass unit

Question

Answer

Neon has three isotopes as we can see in the table in the next question. The first isotope is the
Ne – 20 with the mass of 19.9924 and a relative abundance of 90.48%. This is because the
mass of an isotope and the relative abundance are determined experimentally using the mass
spectrometer. 20.17 is determined (through calculations as we can see in the next question)
(10 x1.008) + (10 x 1.009) = 20.17 amu

Question

Calculate the atomic mass of the element Ne

A (Ne) Mass (u) % abundance
20 19.9924 90.48
21 20.9938 0.270
22 21.9914 9.250

Solution
 14. Atoms may gain or lose electrons and form ion. Example,

chlorine atom becomes the chloride ion

sodium atom becomes the sodium ion

Negative ions are called anions

Positive ions are called cations

Question and Answer

Exercise: (Play around with these)

Atomic Number, Mass Number & Isotopes

1. Atoms of the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called ? .
2. The subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom are ? and ?
3. The mass of atom is found in this structure: ? .
4. The region outside the nucleus of the atom, which makes up most of the volume
of the atom, is occupied by ? .
5. Nearly all the mass of any atom is made up of ? and ? .
6. Atoms with the same number of protons but with different number of
neutrons in the nucleus are called ? .
7. Carbon has three isotopes: carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14. Give the
chemical symbol for each.
8. What is the isotope symbol of an oxygen atom containing 8 protons and 8
neutrons in its nucleus?
9. How many protons, electrons and neutrons are in the following atoms:

18 32 108
O S Ag
8 16 47
 10. Complete the following chart

Atomic Mass Number of Number of number of Element

Number Number protons electrons neutrons Symbol
7 7
9 10
39 19
59 27
11
Isotope Symbol 26
Mg P3-

Name fluoride
Mass Number 87 19
Atomic Number 38
Number of protons
Number of electrons 36
Number of neutrons 16

Exercise 2 - atomic symbols

Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following species:
1
1. 1H

17
2. 8O

4 2+
3. 2He

132
4. 54Xe

27 3+
5. 13Al

235
6. 92U

1 +
7. 1H

45 3+
8. 21Sc

37 -
9. 17Cl

10. 146C
Use the periodic table to write symbols for the following species:

11. 19 protons, 20 neutrons, 18 electrons

12. 8 protons, 8 neutrons, 10 electrons

13. 1 proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron

14. 82 protons, 126 neutrons, 80 electrons

15. 53 protons, 74 neutrons, 54 electrons

 QUANTUM THEORY

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter (Louis De Broglie Hypothesis)

Wave theory of electromagnetic radiations explained the phenomenon of interference, diffraction

and polarization. Example, interference experiment (constructive and destructive) is taken to be a test
for the existence of waves since it requires the presence of two waves at the same position at the
same time.

On the other hand, quantum theory of electromagnetic radiations successfully explained the
photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, black body radiations, X- ray spectra, etc. by regarding the
radiation as a stream of particles, which are absorbed severally.

Thus, radiations have dual nature. i.e. wave and particle nature.

Louis de Broglie suggested that the particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. have also dual
nature. i.e., they also can have particle as well as wave nature.

His suggestion was based on:

i) The nature loves symmetry.

ii) The universe is made of particles and radiations and both entities must be symmetrical.

De Broglie wave

According to de Broglie, a moving material particle can be associated with a wave. i.e. a wave can
guide the motion of the particle. The waves associated with the moving material particles are known
as de Broglie waves or matter waves.

According to quantum theory, the energy of the photon is

𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗 =
𝝀
According to Einstein’s theory, the energy E, of the photon of mass m, is

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒎𝒄 𝝆
Where 𝝆 = 𝒎𝒄 is momentum of a photon.

If instead of a photon, we have a material particle of mass m, moving with velocity v, then the equation
becomes

λ =h/mv

This is the expression for de Broglie wavelength.

Experiment involving light can thus be grouped into two tpyes, namely, the propagation (those
requiring the wave nature) and the interaction (those requiring the particle nature) experiments.
Planck’s Quantum Theory

The failure of the classical electromagnetic theory of radiation to explain the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect led Max Planck (1901) to propose a new theory known as Quantum theory of
radiation. The main points of this theory are:

1. Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the form of
small packets of energy called quanta.

Each wave packet or quantum is associated with definite amount of energy. In case of light,
the quantum of energy is often called photon.

2. The amount of energy associated with a quantum of radiation is proportional to the frequency
of radiation

𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗
where h is a constant known as Planck’s constant and is equal to 6.626 x l0 –34 Joule-sec.

The energy of a photon of light in terms of wavelength 𝜆 and velocity of light c, is given as

𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗 = 𝒉𝒄/𝝀

3. A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of the integral multiples of quantum, i.e.,

𝑬 = 𝒏𝒉𝒗

where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …..

This means that a body can emit or absorb energy as 𝒉𝒗, 𝟐𝒉𝒗, 𝟑𝒉𝒗, 𝟒𝒉𝒗…, but it cannot emit
or absorb energy in fractional values of hv such as 𝟏. 𝟓𝒉𝒗 𝒐𝒓 𝟐. 𝟓𝒉𝒗.

EXERCISE 3 – Relative Atomic Mass, Relative Molecular Mass and Mass Spectra

Deduce the relative atomic masses of the following elements.

1. Silicon (28Si 92.21%, 29Si 4.70%, 30Si 3.09%)

2. Silver (107Ag 51.88%, 109Ag 48.12%)
3. Boron (10B 19.7%, 11B 80.7%)
4. Gallium (69Ga 60.2%, 71Ga 39.8%)

5. Zirconium:

Assume in all cases the relative isotopic mass is equal to the mass number.
6. Bromine has two isotopes, with mass numbers 79 and 81. Its relative atomic mass is often given
as 80. What does that tell you about the relative abundance of the two isotopes?

7. Most argon atoms have a mass number 40. How many neutrons does this isotope have? The
relative isotopic mass of this isotope is 39.961, but the relative atomic mass of argon is 39.948.
What can you deduce about the other isotopes of argon?

8. For each of the following stages in a mass spectrometer, state which part of the spectrometer is
responsible for it and how it works:

a) ionization
b) acceleration
c) deflection
d) detection

9. Deduce, giving reasons, the relative molecular mass of compound A, which has the following mass
spectrum:

100

80

relative 60
abundance
29
40 57
15 43
20
72
Photoelectric Effect

The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X –
rays, γ – rays, Ultraviolet rays, visible light and even Infra-Red rays) of suitable frequency is known as
photoelectric effect.

The electrons emitted by this effect are called photoelectrons.

The current constituted by photoelectrons is known as photoelectric current.

Note: Non-metals also show photoelectric effect. Liquids and gases also show this effect but to
limited extent.

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

Based on experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn;

I. For a given substance, there is a minimum value of frequency of incident light called threshold
frequency 𝒗0 below which no photoelectric ejection is possible, however the intensity of
incident light may be. The value of 𝒗0 is different for different materials.
II. The number of photoelectrons ejected per second (i.e. photoelectric current) is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light provided the frequency is above the threshold
frequency.
III. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency
provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency.
IV. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the
incident light.
V. The process of photoelectric ejection is instantaneous. i.e. as soon as the photon of suitable
frequency falls on the substance, it ejects photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are ejected
within less than 10 –9 sec after the surface is illuminated by the light.
VI. The photoelectric ejection is one-to-one. i.e. for every photon of suitable frequency one
electron is ejected.

Experimental Set-up to study Photoelectric Effect

Glass transmits only visible and infra-red lights but not UV light but Quartz transmits UV light.
When light of suitable frequency falls on the metallic cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These
photoelectrons are attracted towards the positive anode and hence photoelectric current is
constituted.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

When a photon of energy h𝒗 falls on a metal surface, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the
electron and is used in two ways:

i. A part of energy is used to overcome the surface barrier and come out of the metal surface.
This part of the energy is called ‘work function’ (Ф = h𝑣0).
ii. The remaining part of the energy is used in giving a velocity ‘v’ to the emitted photoelectron.
This is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (½ mv2max) where ‘m’ is
mass of the photoelectron.

Applications of Photoelectric Effect

1. Automatic fire alarm

2. Automatic burglar alarm
3. Scanners in Television transmission
4. Reproduction of sound in cinema film
5. In paper industry to measure the thickness of paper
6. To locate flaws or holes in the finished goods
7. In astronomy
8. To determine opacity of solids and liquids
9. Automatic switching of street lights
10. To control the temperature of furnace
11. Photometry
12. Beauty meter – To measure the fair complexion of skin
13. Light meters used in cinema industry to check the light
14. Photoelectric sorting
15. Photo counting
16. Meteorology
Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen

When atoms are excited they emit light of certain wavelengths which correspond to different colors.
The emitted light can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series
of colored lines is called a line or atomic spectra. Each element produces a unique set of spectral lines.
Since no two elements emit the same spectral lines, elements can be identified by their line spectrum.
A spectrum is a range of frequencies or wavelengths. A spectroscope is used to analyze the light
passing through the prism more accurately

Emission Lines

When an electron falls from one energy level in an atom to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of
a particular wavelength and energy. When many electrons emit the same wavelength of photons it
will result in a spike in the spectrum at this particular wavelength, resulting in the banding pattern
seen in atomic emission spectra. The graphic to the right is a simplified picture of a spectrograph, in
this case being used to photograph the spectral lines of Hydrogen.

A Simplified diagram of a hydrogen lamp, a slit, a prism and a detector: Spectroscope

A hydrogen discharge tube is a slim tube containing hydrogen gas at low pressure with an electrode
at each end. If a high voltage (5000 volts) is applied, the tube lights up with a bright red/pink glow. If
the light is passed through a prism or diffraction grating, it is split into its various colours. This is a
small part of the hydrogen emission spectrum. Most of the spectrum is invisible to the eye because it
is either in the infrared or the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The sequence of events;

1. When hydrogen molecules are excited in a hydrogen tube/lamp, they dissociate into hydrogen
atoms.
ℎ𝑣 (5000𝑉)
𝐻2 → 𝐻 + 𝐻 + (𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑎 − 𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

2. When the visible light is passed through a prism, it divides into four lines.
 (a) (b)

(a) Spectrograph of the visible lines in the Balmer series of hydrogen and (b) the
electromagnetic colour spectrum and wavelength in nm

3. The distance and intensity between successive lines decreases until a tiny series is reached
followed by a continuous spectrum (continuum).

In 1885, Johann Balmer found an interesting mathematical relationship which described the
wavelength of the known visible lines in the spectrum of hydrogen. He discovered that these
wavelengths were given by the empirical formula known as Balmer’s Formula.

𝑛2
𝜆 = 364.56 ( 2 )
𝑛 −4

𝑛2
= 𝐵𝐻 ( )
𝑛2 − 4

Where, 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 364.56 𝑛𝑚,

𝑛 = 3, 4, 5, 6 … and 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑚

Note: The Balmer’s Formula can only be used to calculate the lines (wavelength) in the Balmer series.
Because this limitation, the Balmer’s formula was then expanded to describe the entire spectrum of
hydrogen including the ultraviolet and infrared light it emits which is not visible to the naked human
eye. The new equation is known as the Rydberg Equation.

Note: The Rydberg equation is used to calculate the wavelength of the entire spectrum of hydrogen
including the Balmer series, hence, it is more encompassing than the Balmer’s Formula.

1 1 1
𝑣̅ = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2

𝑛2 > 𝑛1
where
𝑛1 = 1, 2, 3, 4 …
𝑛2 = 2, 3, 4, 5 …

R is known as the Rydberg constant, its numerical values depends on the units used;
RH = 0.010972 nm-1
= 10972 mm-1
= 109721 cm-1
= 10972130 m-1
where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed/emitted light in nm and RH is the Rydberg constant for
hydrogen.
The Rydberg constant is seen to be equal to 4/B in Balmer's formula, and this value, for an infinitely
heavy nucleus, is 4/364.50682 nm = 0.010972 nm – 1.

1
Note: The reciprocal of 𝝀 i.e. is the number of waves per unit length, and it is called the
𝜆
wavenumber. The unit is cm or nm– 1.
–1

A modified version of the Rydberg equation can be used to calculate the frequency of each
of the lines:

Where c = the speed of light 3 × 108 m/s

The significance of the numbers in the Rydberg equation

In the Rydberg equation, n1 and n2 represent the energy levels at either end of the jump that produces
a particular line in the spectrum.
 In the Lyman series, n1 = 1, because electrons transition to the 1-level to produce lines in the Lyman
series. In the Balmer series, n1 = 2, because electrons fall to the 2-level.

n2 is the level being jumped from.

The significance of the infinity level

The infinity level represents the highest possible energy an electron can have as a part of a hydrogen
atom. If the electron exceeds that energy, it is no longer a part of the atom. The infinity level
represents the point at which ionization of the atom occurs to form a positively charged ion.

Practice Problems (Play around with these)

1. Using the Balmer equation, find the frequency of the radiation corresponding to n=3.
2. What is the frequency of the spectral line produced when an electron moves from n=5 to
n=2 in a Hydrogen atom?
3. What value of n does the line at 656.3 nm in the Balmer series correspond to?
4. A photon with a wavelength of 397 nm is emitted from an electron in energy level 7 of a
Hydrogen atom. What is the new energy level of the electron?
5. What frequency of light would be needed to make an electron in a Hydrogen atom jump
from n=1 to n=3?
6. A spectral line is measured to have a wavelength of 1000nm. Is this within the Balmer
series?
7. The so-called Lyman series of lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen corresponds to
transitions from various excited states to the n = 1 orbit. Calculate the wavelength of the
lowest-energy line in the Lyman series to three significant figures. In what region of the
electromagnetic spectrum does it occur?

There are Five series of the atomic spectra in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and
each is named after the discoverer.

Table showing the spectral region, the five spectral series and the wavelength of the first four lines
using the Rydberg formula.

Spectral Spectral n1 n2 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1st line 𝒗
̅= 2nd line 𝒗
̅= 3rd line 𝒗
̅= 5th line 𝒗
̅=
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
Region Series (nm) (nm) (nm) (nm)
Ultraviolet Lyman 1 2, 3, 4, 5… 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − )
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
Visible Balmer 2 3, 4, 5, 6… 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − )
2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6
Infra – Red Paschen 3 4, 5, 6, 7… 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − )
3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7
Infra – Red Brackett 4 5, 6, 7, 8… 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − )
4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8
Infra – Red Pfund 5 6, 7, 8, 8… 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) = 𝑅𝐻 ( − )
5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9

Note: For calculations using the Rydberg Formula for the five series, we are considering only the first
four lines only for this level (in CHEM 101). There are other lines hence, the ellipses (…).

1 1
Use RH = 0.010972 nm-1. Remember to do the inverse ie( = −1 = 𝑛𝑚) in order to have your final
𝜆 𝑛𝑚
answers in nm which is the unit for wavelength.
 The energy level diagram showing the spectral series and their corresponding colour in the
spectral region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The energy level diagram of the five spectral series

Thompson Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the atomic spectra, but in 1913, Niels Bohr
gave a simple model of the atom which explained the appearance of the atomic line spectra.