J.R.

INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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Chapter - 1
Matrices
1.1 Matrices and their properties

Def. Matrix : A set of mn numbers (real or imaginary) arranged in the form of a rectangular array of
m rows and n columns is called an m  n matrix (to be read as ‘m’ by ‘n’ matrix).
An m  n matrix is usually written as
 a11 a12 a13  a1 j  a1n 
 
 a21 a22 a23  a2 j  a2 n 
        
A 
 ai1 ai 2 ai 3  aij  ain 
 
        
a  amj  amn 
 m1 am 2 am 3

In compact form the above matrix is represented by A   aij  or A  [aij ] .

mn

The numbers a11, a12,.... etc. are known as the elements of the matrix A. The element aij belongs to ith

row and j th column and is called the (i, j )th element of the matrix A  [aij ]. Thus, in the element aij

the first subscript i always denotes the number of row and the second subscript j, number of column in
which the element occurs.
Note : Unless otherwise stated, by a matrix we shall mean a complex matrix.

Types of matrices :
Def. Row matrix : A matrix having only one row is called a row-matrix or a row-vector.
e.g., A  1 2 1 2 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .

Def. Column matrix : A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix or a column-
vector.
3
1 2
 
e.g., A   2  and B    are column-matrices of order 3  1 and 4  1 respectively.
5
 1  
4
 2
Def. Square matrix : A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, say n,
is called a square matrix of order n.
A square matrix of order n is also called a n-rowed square matrix. The elements aij of a square matrix

A   aij  for which i  j , i.e., the elements a11, a22 ,...., ann are called the diagonal elements and
nn

the line along which they lie is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of the matrix.
 2 1 1
e.g., the matrix  3 2 5  is square matrix of order 3 in which the diagonal elements are 2, –2 and –3.
 1 5 3

Def. Identity or unit matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ]nn is called an identity or unit matrix if

(i) aij  0 for all i  j and (ii) aii  1 for all i

In other words, a square matrix each of whose diagonal element is unity and each of whose non-
diagonal elements is equal to zero is called an identity or unit matrix. The identity matrix of order n is
denoted by I n .

1 0 0 
1 0 
e.g., the matrices I 2    , I3   0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
 
0 1   0 0 1 

Def. Null matrix : A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a null matrix or a zero matrix.
 0 0  0 0 0 
e.g.,  ,   are null matrices of order 2  2 and 2  3 respectively.
 0 0  0 0 0 
Def. Equality of matrices : Two matrices A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]rs are equal if

(i) m  r , i.e., the number of rows in A equals the number of rows in B

(ii) n  s, i.e., the number of columns in A equals the number of columns in B

(iii) aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,..., n

If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A  B, otherwise we write A  B . The matrices

3 2 1  3 2 1
0 0
A  x y 5 and B   1 0 5  are equal if x  1, y  0 and z  4 . Matrices
 
 0 0  and
   
 
 1 1 4   1 1 z 
0 0 0
 0 0 0  are not equal, because their orders are not same.
 
Def. Addition of matrices : Let A, B be two matrices, each of order m  n . Then their sum A  B is a
matrix of order m  n and is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B. Thus, if
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A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]mn are two matrices of the same order, their sum A  B is defined to be the

matrix of order m  n such that ( A  B )ij  aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,...., n

Note : The sum of two matrices is defined only when they are of the same order.
Properties of matrix addition :
1. Commutativity : If A and B are two m  n matrices, then A  B  B  A . i.e., matrix addition is
commutative.
2. Associativity : If A, B, C are three matrices of the same order, then ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) . i.e.,
matrix addition is associative.
3. Existence of identity : The null matrix is the identity element for matrix addition, i.e.,
AO  A  O A.
4. Existence of inverse : For every matrix A  [aij ]mn there exists a matrix [ aij ]mn , denoted by

 A , such that A  ( A)  O  ( A)  A
5. Cancellation laws : If A, B, C are matrices of the same order, then
A B  AC  B  C [ Left cancellation law]
B AC A B C [ Right cancellation law]
Def. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar (scalar multiplication) : Let A  [aij ] be an m  n

matrix and k be any number called a scalar. Then the matrix obtained by multiplying every element of
A by k is called the scalar multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA. Thus, kA  [kaij ]mn .

Properties of scalar multiplication : If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn are two matrices and k, l are

scalars, then
(i) k ( A  B)  kA  kB (ii) (k  l ) A  kA  lA
(iii) (kl ) A  k (lA)  l (kA) (iv) (k ) A  (kA)  k ( A)
(v) 1 A  A (vi) (1) A   A
Def. Subtraction of matrices : For two matrices A and B of the same order, the subtraction of matrix
B from matrix A is denoted by A  B and is defined as A  B  A  ( B) .
Def. Mulitiplication of matrices : Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the
number of columns in A (pre-multiplier) is same as the number of rows in B (post-multiplier). Thus, if
A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]n p are two matrices of order m  n and n  p respectively, then their

product AB is of order m  p and is defined as

 4
n
( AB)ij   air brj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  ainbnj
r 1

 b1 j 
 
b2 j 
 ( AB)ij  [ai1 ai 2 ....ain ]    ( ith row of A) (jth column of B)

 
 bnj 

i  1, 2,...., m and j  1, 2,...., p.

Remark : For any two matrices A and B, the following six possibilities about the products AB and BA
may hold :
(i) AB and BA both does not exist.
(ii) AB exists but BA does not exist.
(iii) BA exists but AB does not exist.
(iv) Both AB and BA exist but their orders are not same.
(v) Both AB and BA exist, their orders are same but matrices are not equal i.e., AB  BA .
(vi) Both AB and BA exist and AB  BA .
Def. Positive integral powers of a square matrix : For any square matrix, we define

(i) A1  A and (ii) An 1  An  A, where n   .

It is evident from this definition that A2  AA, A3  A2 A  ( AA) A. etc.

It can be easily seen that (i) Am  An  Am n and (ii) ( Am ) n  Amn for all m, n   .
Properties of matrix multiplication :
1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general.
2. Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., (AB)C=A(BC), whenever both sides are defined.
3. Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition i.e.,
(i) A( B  C )  AB  AC
(ii) ( A  B)C  AC  BC whenever both sides of equality are defined.
4. If A is an m  n matrix, then I m A  A  AI n

5. The product of two matrices can be the null matrix while neither of them is the null matrix. i.e., if
0 2 1 0  0 0
A   and B    , then AB    while neither A nor B is the null matrix.
0 0  0 0 0 0
6. If A is m  n matrix and O is a null matrix, then
(i) AmnOn p  O m p (ii) O pm Amn  O pn

i.e., the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
7. In the case of matrix multiplication if AB  O , then it does not necessarily imply that BA  O . Let
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0 1 1 0 1 0   0 1   0 1 
A   and B    . Then, AB  O. But, BA       O. Thus,
0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0 
AB  O while BA  O .
8. Let A and B are any n  n complex matrices. If sum of elements of each row (column) of A is k1

and sum of elements of each row (column) of B is k2 , then sum of elements of each row (column)

of AB is k1k2 .

Proof : We prove the result for 2  2 matrices and then it can be generalized easily to n  n

a a 
matrices. Let A   11 12  such that a11  a12  k1 , a21  a22  k1
 a21 a22 

 b11 b12 
and B  such that b11  b12  k2 , b21  b22  k2
 b21 b22 

a b  a b a11b12  a12b22 
then AB   11 11 12 21  and
 a21b11  a22b21 a21b12  a22b22 
Sum of elements of first row of AB  a11b11  a12b21  a11b12  a12b22

 a11(b11  b12 )  a12 (b21  b22 )

 a11(k2 )  a12 (k2 )

 k2 (a11  a12 )

 k1k2

Similarly, it can be proved that the sum of elements of second row is also k1k2 .

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of A2 is k 2 .
Proof : Take B  A and k2  k1  k in above result.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of Am is k m , where m is a positive integer.

11. If A and B are two n  n complex matrices such that sum of elements of each row of A is k1 and

sum of elements of each row of B is k2 , then sum of all elements of AB is nk1k2 .

12. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of each row of A is k, then sum of all elements of

Am is n  k m .
 6
13. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA and n is a positive integer,
n
then  A  B  can be expanded by binomial theorem i.e.,

( A  B)n  nC0 An B 0  nC1 An 1B1  ....  nCn 1 A1B n1  nCn A0 B n .

14. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA  0 and n is a positive
integer, then ( A  B) n  An  B n .
15. If A is an m  n matrix and B is n  p matrix, then rows of AB are the linear combination of rows
of B and columns of AB are the linear combination of columns of A.
Def. Transpose of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then a matrix obtained from A by
inter changing its rows and columns is called the transpose of the matrix A and is denoted by A or AT
which is of order n  m.
The operation of interchanging rows with columns is called transposition. Symbolically if
A   aij  then A   a ji  i.e., (i, j)th element of A = ( j, i)th element of A.
m n n m

Properties of transpose : If A and B denote transpose of A and B respectively, then

(i) ( A)  A
(ii) ( A  B)  A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.
(iii) (kA)  k A , where k is any number, real or complex.
(iv) ( AB)  BA , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

(v)  A    A
n n
, A being a square matrix and n is a positive integer.

Def. Conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n whose elements are complex numbers,
then a matrix obtained from A by replacing each of its elements by their corresponding complex
conjugate is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by A where A is also of same order m  n.

Symbolically, if A   aij  then A   aij  where aij is complex conjugate of aij .

m n m n

Note : If the elements of the matrix A are all real numbers then A  A .

Properties of conjugate : If A and B denote the conjugate of A and B respectively, then

 
(i) A  A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  k A  k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv)  A B   A B , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

n
(v)  An   A , where A is a square matrix and n is a positive integer.
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Def. Transposed conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then the transpose of the
conjugate of A is called transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A or A . Symbolically if

A   aij  , then A   aij  and A   A    a ji  .

m n m n n m

Properties of transposed conjugate : If A and B denote the transposed conjugate of A and B

respectively, then

(i)  A   A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  kA   k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv) ( AB)  B A , where A and B are conformable for addition.

 n
(v)  An    A  , where A is any square matrix and n is a +ve integer.

Note : If k is any real number then (k A)  k A because in this case k  k

Def. Determinants : Every square matrix can be associated to an expression or a number which is
known as its determinant. If A  [aij ] is a square matrix of order n, then the determinant of A is

a11 a12  a1 j  a1n

a21 a22  a2 j  a2n
 
denoted by detA or A or,
ai1 ai 2  aij  ain
   
an1 an 2  anj  ann

Determinant of a square matrix of order 1 : If A  [a11] is a square matrix of order 1, then the

determinant of A is defined as A  a11 or, a11  a11

a a 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 2 : If A   11 12  is a square matrix of order 2, then
 a21 a22 
the expression a11a22  a12a21 is defined as the determinant of A.

a11 a12
i.e., A  a11a22  a12a21
a21 a22
 8
Thus, the determinant of a square matrix of order 2 is equal to the product of the diagonal elements
minus the product of off-diagonal elements.
 a11 a12 a13 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 3 : If A   a21 a22 a23  is a square matrix of order 3,
 a31 a32 a33 

then the expression a11a22a33  a12a23a31  a13a32a21  a11a23a32  a22 a13a31  a12 a21a33 is defined as

the determinant of A i.e.,

a11 a12 a13
A  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  (1)11 a11  (1)1 2 a12  (1)13 a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

Thus the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 is the sum of the product of elements a1 j in first

row with (1)1 j times the determinant of a 2  2 sub-matrix obtained by leaving the first row and
column passing through the element.
Remark : For the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be arranged in various forms to
obtain the expansion of A along any of its rows or columns. Infact, to expand A about a row or a

column we multiply each element aij in ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix

obtained by leaving the row and column passing through the element.
Determinant of a square matrix of order 4 or more : To calculate the determinant of a square
matrix of order 4 or more, we expand A about a row or a column by multiplying each element aij in

ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix obtained by leaving the row and column
passing through the element.
Def. Minor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then the minor M ij of aij in A is the

determinant of the square sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and j th column of A.

Def. Cofactor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then, the cofactor Cij of aij in A is equal

to (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and

j th column of A. It follows from this definition that Cij  Cofactor of aij in A  (1)i  j M ij , where
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 M ij if i  j is even
M ij is minor of aij in A. Cij  
 M ij if i  j is odd

Properties of determinants :
Property 1 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal to A or, det( A)
n n
i.e.,  aij Cij  A and  aijCij  A.
j 1 i 1

Property 2 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of some other row (column) is
n n
zero. i.e.,  aijCkj  0 and  aij Cik  0 .
j 1 i 1

Property 3 : The value of a determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged.
Property 4 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant changes by minus sign only.
Property 5 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, then its value is zero.
Property 6 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, then the
value of the new determinant is k times the value of the original determinant.
Property 7 : It follows from the above property that we can take out any common factor from any one
row or any one column of a given determinant.

Property 8 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then kA  k n A , because k is common from

each row of kA.

Property 9 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is expressed as a sum of two or more
terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
a1  1 b1  1 c1   1 a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
e.g., a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 c3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Property 10 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by the same constant
and then added to the corresponding elements of some other row (column), then the value of the
determinant remains same.
 10
Property 11 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is zero, then its value is zero.
Property 12 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then AB  A B .

Property 13 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then A  B  A  B , in general.

Def. Singular and Non-singular Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular
according as |A| = 0 or |A|  0 .

Def. Adjoint of a square Matrix : Let A =  aij  be the square matrix of order n and Aij be the
nn

corresponding cofactor of aij in |A|, then the matrix

 A11 A21 ........ An1 
A A22 ........ An 2 
  12 
B =  Aij    A ji  
...... ...... ........ ......
 
 A1n A2 n ........ Ann 
is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj. A. Thus the adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the
matrix formed by the co-factors of A.
Properties of adjoint :
1. If A is any n-square matrix, then A(adj. A) = (adj. A) A = |A| In , where In is the unit matrix of order n.
2. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n , then |adj. A| = |A|n  1.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n

Taking determinant on both sides, we get

n n1
A(adj.A)  A I n  A adjA  A  adjA  A

 n12
3. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj.(adj.A)  A .
n1
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adjA  A

Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n 1 n1 ( n 1)2
adj.(adj.A)  adj. A
n 1

 A   A

( n1)k
4. Generalization : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then | adj.adj....adj.( A) |  A .

k times

5. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n and k be any scalar then adj  kA  k n 1adj  A

6. If A is a singular matrix of order n, then adj. A  0 .

7. Adjoint of a non-singular matrix is non-singular.

8. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n
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Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n1 n 1
(adj. A)(adj.(adj. A))  adj.A I n  A In [ adj. A  A ]

Multiplying both sides by A, we get

n1
A(adj.A)(adj.(adj. A))  A A
n1
 A I n (adj.(adj. A))  A A [ A(adj. A)  A I n ]

 adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A

9. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj A  B   adj A   adj B  , in generally.

10. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj. (AB) = (adj. B) (adj. A)
11. If A is a square matrix then adj. A = (adj. A), where A is the transpose of matrix A.
Def. Inverse of a square matrix : Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a square matrix
B of order n such that AB = BA = In , then the matrix A is said to be invertible and the matrix B is
called inverse of the matrix A and is denoted by A1.
Note : (i) If the matrix B is inverse of A then A is the inverse of B.
(ii) For the products AB and BA both to be defined and be equal it is necessary that A and B are both
square matrices of the same order. Thus non-square matrices cannot possess inverse.
Properties of inverse :
1. Inverse of a square matrix , if it exists, is unique.
2. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non singular i.e. |A|  0.
adj. A
3. If A is a non singular matrix then A1  .
| A|
4. A singular matrix cannot have an inverse.
5. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that A is non-singular and AB  0 , then B  0 .
Proof : Since A is non-singular i.e., A  0 , therefore A1 exists.

Now, AB  0  A1 AB  A1 0 (Pre multiplying both sides by A1 )

 B  0.
6. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that AB  I n , then BA  I n .

Proof : We have, B  BI n  B  AB    BA  B

 B   BA  B  0
 12

  I n  BA B  0 …….(1)

Since AB  I n , therefore AB  I n  1

 A B 1 0  B 0

Using above result, (1) becomes I n  BA  0

 BA  I n
7. Let A be a non-singular matrix with integer entries, then the necessary and sufficient condition for
A1 to be with all integer entries is that A  1 .

1
Proof : Suppose that A  1 , then since A1  adjA   adjA
A

Since A has integer entries, therefore adjA also has integer entries. Therefore, A1 has all integer
entries.
Conversely : Now suppose that A1 has all integer entries.
Since A A 1  I

 AA1  I  1

 A A 1  1

Since A and A1 both have integer entries, therefore A and A1 are integers and thus 1 can be

factored as 1 1 or  1 1 .

Thus A1  1 .

8. Reversal law for inverse : If A and B be non singular matrices then (AB)1= B1A1
9. Generalization of Reversal law for inverse : If A1, A2,............, An be non singular matrices of same
order then ( A1 A2 ........ An ) 1  An 1 An11.......... A21 A11 .

10. If A is non singular matrix then ( Ak )1  ( A1 ) k , where k is any positive integer.
1
11. If A is a non-singular matrix then A1  .
A

12. If A is a non-singular matrix then (A)1 = (A1).

1
13. If A is a non-singular matrix then  adj. A  adj. A1

14. The reversal law for multiplication holds for adjoint, inverse, transpose and transposed conjugate
but it does not hold for conjugate.
Def. Trace : The sum of the elements of a square matrix A lying along the principal diagonal is called
the trace of A and is denoted by tr( A) .
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Properties of trace : Let A and B be any n  n complex matrices and k is any complex number, then
1. tr (kA)  k tr( A)
2. tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr( B)
3. tr( AB)  tr( BA)
4. tr( AB)  tr( A)tr( B) , in general. In other words, tr( AB ) may or may not be equal to tr( A)tr( B) .

5. tr( A )  tr( A) , in general.

6. tr( A ')  tr( A)

 
7. tr A*   tr  A  

n n 2
 
8. Let A  [aij ]nn be any complex matrix, then tr( AA )  tr( A A)   aij = Sum of squares of
i 1 j 1

modulus of each element of A.

a a 
Proof : We consider 2  2 matrix first and then it can be easily generalized. Let A   11 12 
 a21 a22 

a a  a a21   a11a11  a12a12 a11a21  a12 a22 

where aij  , then AA   11 12  11   
 a21 a22  a12 a22   a21a11  a22a12 a21a21  a22a22 

 a 2 a 2 a11a21  a12a22 
11 12
 
a a  a a 2 2
 21 11 22 12 a21  a22 
2 2 2 2
 tr( AA )  a11  a12  a21  a22

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then trace of AA is a non-negative real number.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then tr( AA )  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
n n
11. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  tr( A ' A)   aij2
i 1 j 1

= Sum of squares of each element of A.

12. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then trace of AA ' (or A ' A) is a non-negative real number.
13. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
14. Let A and B be m  n matrices, then tr( A ' B)  tr( BA ')  tr( AB ')  tr( B ' A) .
15. There does not exist two matrices A and B such that AB  BA  I .
 14

16. In trace cyclic rotation is allowed. e.g. tr  BAB '  tr  AB ' B  .

Exercise 1.1
 3 4
1. (i) Compute the adjoint of the matrix A    and verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .
 5 7

 cos   sin  0
(ii) For the matrix  sin  cos  0  , verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .

 0 0 1 

2 3 1 1 1
2. If A    , verify that (i)  adj. A  adj. A1 (ii) A  A
1 2
3 1  4 0 1
3. If A   , B  , verify that  AB   B 1 A1
 4 0  2 5
i 0  0 i 2
, i  1 verify that (i)  AB   BA

4. If A    and B    (ii)  AB   B A
 0 i   i 0 
2 3   2
5. If A    verify that  A2    A 
 5 7 
 2  3i i   i 2i  1
6. If A    , B , verify that (i) AB  A . B (ii)  AB   B A
6  5i 0  2  i i 

 cos  sin  
7. If A   , then prove that
  sin  cos  

 cos n sin n 
(i) A  A  A   (ii) ( A )n   , for every positive integer n.
  sin n cos n 
8. If a is a non-zero real or complex number. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove

a 1  n
a n na n1 
that if A    , then A    for every positive integer n.
0 a   0 a n 

0 1 
9. If A    , prove that (aI  bA)n  a n I  na n1bA , where I is a unit matrix of order 2 and n  0 .
0 0
3n1 3n1 3n1 
1 1 1  
10. If A  1 1 1 , then prove that An  3n1 3n1 3n1  for every positive integer n.
 n1 n1 n1 
1 1 1 3 3 3 


11. Let A, B be two matrices such that they commute. Show that for any positive integer n

(i) AB n  B n A (ii) ( AB )n  An B n
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12. Under what conditions is the matrix equation A2  B 2  ( A  B )( A  B ) is true ?

13. If A and B are square matrices of order n, then prove that A and B will commute iff A   I and
B   I commute for every scalar  .
14. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that
(i) A  O, B  O, AB  O and BA  O
(ii) A  O, B  O, AB  BA  O
15. Suppose A is invertible. Show that if AB  AC , then B  C . Give an example of a nonzero matrix
A such that AB  AC but B  C .
16. Find 2  2 invertible matrices A and B such that A  B  0 and A  B is not invertible.

1 1 0 
1 2
17. Let A    and B   0 1 1  . (a) Find An . (b) Find B n .
0 1   0 0 1 
5 2
18. Let A    . Find all numbers k for which A is a root of the polynomial :
0 k 
(a) f  x   x 2  7 x  10 (b) g  x   x 2  25 (c) h  x   x 2  4

1 0
19. Let B    . Find a matrix A such that A3  B .
 26 27 
20. Prove that for any A, there does not exist a matrix B such that AB  BA  I .
21. (i) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

(ii) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

Answers
 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
12. AB  BA 14. (i) A    , B  (ii) A    , B 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 0
1 2  0 0  2 2 1 2  4 3
15. A    , B  , C  16. A   ; B 3 0
1 2  1 1  0 0 0 3   
 1 
1 n n(n  1) 
2
1 2n   
17. (a)   (b)  0 1 n 
0 1  0 0 
1
 
 
 16

1 0 
18. (a) k = 2, (b) k = –5 (c) none 19.  
 2 3
1 0   1 0  1 0  0 1 
21. (i) A   , B  (ii) A   , B 
0 1   0 1 0 0 0 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.2 Some special matrices
Def. Diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j
nn

In other words, a square matrix is a diagonal matrix if its non-diagonal elements are zero.
Remark : An n  n diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are d1, d2, .........., dn can be represented
as diag. (d1, d2, .........., dn).
Properties :
1. The sum of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1  d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2  d 2' 
A   and B    , then A  B   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n  d n' 

2. The product of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2 d 2' 
A   and B    , then AB   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n d n' 

 d1 
 d2 
3. The scalar product of a diagonal matrix is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
  
 
 dn 

 kd1 
 kd 2 
and k is any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kd n 

4. If A is a diagonal matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if
 d1   d1m 
   m 
d2 d
A   , then A  
m 2  , where m  0 .
     
   m
 dn   d n 
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5. If A is a diagonal matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1 is also a

 d1 
 d2 
diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n , then

i
 
 
 dn 

1/ d1 
 1/ d 2 
A 1    .
  
 
 1/ d n 

6. If A is a diagonal matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a diagonal matrix is equal to
the matrix itself.
 d1 
 d2 
7. Pre-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix of order n
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1m   d1a11 d1a12 ... d1a1m 

a a22 ... a2 m  d a d 2 a22 ... d 2 a2 m 
and A   21  be any n  m matrix, then DA   2 21  ,
           
   
 an1 an 2 ... anm   d n an1 d n an 2 ... d n anm 
i.e., ith row of A is multiplied by di .

 d1 
 d2 
8. Post-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix and
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1n   d1a11 d 2 a12 ... d n a1n 

a a22 ... a2 n  d a d 2 a22 ... d n a2 n 
A  21  be any m  n matrix, then AD   1 21  ,
           
   
 am1 am 2 ... amn   d1am1 d 2am 2 ... d n amn 
i.e., ith column of A is multiplied by di .

9. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements, i.e., if
 18

 d1 
 d2 
A   is a diagonal matrix of order n, then A  d d ....d .

1 2 n
 
 
 dn 

Def. Scalar matrix : A square matrix A is called a scalar matrix if A is a diagonal matrix and all
diagonal elements of A are equal.
Mathematically, A =  aij  is a scalar matrix if
nn

(i) aij  0 for all i  j (ii) aii = k, where k is any number

Properties :
1. The sum of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if
 k1  k2   k1  k2 
 k1   k2   k1  k 2 
A   and B    , then A  B   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1  k2 

2. The product of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if

 k1  k2   k1k 2 
 k1   k2   k1k2 
A   and B    , then AB   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1k2 

 k1 
 k1 
3. The scalar product of a scalar matrix is again a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    and k is
  
 
 k1 

 kk1 
 kk1 
any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kk1 

4. If A is a scalar matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if

k  k n 
   n 
k k
A  , then An    , where n  0 .
     
   
 k  kn
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k 
 k 
5. If A( O) is a scalar matrix, then A1 is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    , where
  
 
 k

1/ k 
 1/ k 
1
k  0 , then A   .
  
 
 1/ k 
6. If A is a scalar matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a scalar matrix is equal to the
matrix itself.
7. The determinant of a scalar matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements. i.e., if
k 
 k 
A  is a scalar matrix of order n, then A  k n .
  
 
 k
8. Scalar matrices are the only matrices which commute with every square matrix of its order.
Def. Upper triangular matrix : A matrix is an upper triangular matrix if all elements below the principal
diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is an upper triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Lower triangular matrix : A matrix is called lower triangular matrix if all elements above the
principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a lower triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Triangular matrix : A matrix which is either upper triangular or lower triangular is called a
triangular matrix.

Properties :
1. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also an upper (lower)
triangular matrix.
3. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an upper
 20

(lower) triangular matrix. Further, if d1 , d 2 ,..., d n are the diagonal elements of a triangular matrix,

then d1n , d 2m ,..., d nm are the diagonal elements of Am .

5. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1
is also an upper (lower) triangular matrix.
6. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements.
8. The trace of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the sum of its diagonal elements.
9. Every diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
Def. Super upper triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super upper triangular matrix if all
elements below and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super upper
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Def. Super lower triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super lower triangular matrix if all
elements above and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super lower
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Properties :
1. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
3. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
5. Inverse of a super upper (lower) triangular matrix does not exist.
6. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a super lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
8. The trace of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
Def. Backward diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward diagonal matrix
nn

if aij = 0 for all i, j such that i  j  n  1 .

Properties :
1. The sum of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is again a backward diagonal matrix of
that order.
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0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   0 .. 0 d1  d1' 
0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   0 .. d 2  d 2' 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n  d n' .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward diagonal matrices may or may not be a backward diagonal matrix.
However, the product of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is always a diagonal
matrix of that order.

0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   d1d n ' 

0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   d 2 d n1' 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n d1' 

3. The scalar product of a backward diagonal matrix is again a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 d1   0 .. 0 kd1 
0 .. d 2 0   0 .. kd 2 0 
A   and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
d n .. 0 0  kd n .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward diagonal matrix. However, the positive odd integral power of A is a backward diagonal
0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 d1m1d nm  (d1d n ) m 
 m1 m   m 
0 .. d d 0  (d 2 d n 1 )
then A2 m1   2 n1
and A2 m   ,
 .. .. .. ..    
 m1 m   
 d n d1 .. 0 0   (d n d1 ) m 

where m  0 .
5. If A is a backward diagonal matrix and all the backward diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then
 22

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
A 1 is also a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n ,
i
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 1/ d n 
 0 .. 1/ d n1 0 
then A1   .
 .. .. .. .. 
 
1/ d1 .. 0 0 

6. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then A ' is also a backward diagonal matrix.

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0 n
7. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  d  d  d
1 2 n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0  0 if n is even
8. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  d n1 if n is odd
 2
 
d n .. 0 0

Def. Backward scalar matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward scalar matrix if
nn

k if i  j  n  1
aij  
0 if i  j  n  1
Properties :
1. The sum of two backward scalar matrices of same order is again a backward scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   0 .. 0 k1  k2 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. k2 0   0 .. k1  k2 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1  k2 .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward scalar matrices may or may not be a backward scalar matrix. However,
the product of two backward scalar matrices of same order is always a scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   k1k 2 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. k2 0   k1k2 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1k2 
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3. The scalar product of a backward scalar matrix is again a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 kk1 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. kk1 0 
A  and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
 k1 .. 0 0  kk1 .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward scalar matrix. However, the positive odd integral powers of A is a backward scalar
0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0 
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is scalar matrix. i.e., if A  
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 k 2 m1  k 2m 
 2 m 1   2m 
0 .. k 0  k
then A 2 m 1
 and A  
2m  , where m  0 .
 .. .. .. ..    
 2 m1   2m 
k .. 0 0   k 

5. If A( O) is a backward scalar matrix, then A1 is also a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if

0 .. 0 k  0 .. 0 1/ k 
0 .. k 0   0 .. 1/ k 0 
A , where k  0 , then A  
1

 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
k .. 0 0 1/ k .. 0 0 
6. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then A ' is also a backward scalar matrix.

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  n
7. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  k n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  0 if n is even
8. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  k if n is odd
 
k .. 0 0
 24

Exercise 1.2
4 21 1 4
1. Find all real triangular matrices A such that A2  B , where (a) B   (b) B   .
0 25 0 9

1 8 5
2. Let B   0 9 5  . Find a triangular matrix A with positive diagonal entries such that A2  B .
 0 0 4 

3. Using only the elements 0 and 1, find the number of 3  3 matrices that are :
(a) diagonal (b) upper triangular (c) non-singular and upper triangular. Generalize to
n  n matrices.
4. Let Dk  kI , the scalar matrix belonging to the scalar k, show that :

(a) Dk A  kA (b) BDk  kB (c) Dk  Dk '  Dk k ' (d) Dk Dk '  Dkk '

5. Suppose AB  C , where A and C are upper triangular.

(a) Find 2  2 nonzero matrices A, B, C where B is not upper triangular.
(b) Suppose A is also invertible. Show that B must also be upper triangular.
6. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB  BA but neither A nor B is a scalar matrix.

Answers
1 2 1
 2 3  2 3  2 7   2 7 
1. (a)  ,  ,  ,   (b) none 2.  0 3 1 
 0 5   0 5  0 5   0 5   0 0 2

3. All entries below the diagonal must be 0 to be upper triangular, and all diagonal entries must be 1
to be non singular. (a) 8 ; 2n (b) 26 ; 2n n1 / 2 (c) 23 ; 2n  n1 / 2 .

1 1  1 2 4 6 1 2   2 2
5. (a) A    , B , C 0 0 6. A    ,B 
0 0 3 4   3 1   3 2

1.3 Symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices

Def. Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A. or

A square matrix A =  aij  said to be symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j.

a h g  1 1 i 2i 
1 3  
Examples :   , h b f, 1  i 2 3  2i  .
  
3 4  
g h c   2  i 3  2 i 3 
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Def. Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A =  A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-symmetric if aij   a ji for all i and j.

0 a b  0 i 2 
0  4   
Examples :   ,  a 0 c  ,   i 0 1 i .
4 0 
     
  b  c 0    2  1  i 0

Properties :
1. The diagonal elements of a symmetric matrix are arbitrary.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A is symmetric (ii) A  A is skew-symmetric
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and AA are both symmetric.
5. If A is symmetric then kA is symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
6. If A is skew-symmetric then kA is skew-symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
7. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are symmetric (ii) AB  BA is skew-symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are symmetric.
8. If A and B are skew-symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric (ii) AB + BA is symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are skew-symmetric.
9. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB is symmetric iff AB = BA.
10. If A and B are square matrices of same order then BAB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as A is symmetric or skew-symmetric.
11. If A is a symmetric matrix then An is also symmetric for all positive integers n.
12. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix then An is symmetric if n is a positive even integer and An is
skew–symmetric if n is positive odd integer.
13. If A is a non-singular and symmetric matrix then adj. A is also symmetric.
14. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix of order n, then adj. A is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as n is odd or even.
15. Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is always zero.
16. Determinant a skew-symmetric matrix of even order with integral entries is always a perfect square.
 26
17. Zero matrix is the only matrix which is both symmetric and skew-symmetric.
18. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
skew-symmetric matrix.
Def. Hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be hermitian if A  = A
or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be Hermitian if aij  a ji for all i and j.

 1 2  i 1  2i 
 1 3  i 
Examples :   , 2i 2 3i  .
 
3  i 2 
1  2i 3i 3 

Def. Skew-hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-hermitian if A   A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-hermitian if aij   a ji for all i and j.

 3i 1  i 2  3i 
 0 3  5i  
Examples :   , 1  i 0 5i 
 
 3  5i 2i 
 2  3i 5  i 4i 

Properties :
1. The diagonal element of a hermitian matrix are purely real.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-hermitian matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A  is hermitian (ii) A  A  is skew-hermitian
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and A A are both hermitian
5. If A is hermitian then kA is hermitian, where k is any real number.
6. If A is skew-hermitian then kA is skew-hermitian, where k is any real number.
7. If A is hermitian then iA is skew-hermitian.
8. If A is skew-hermitian then iA is hermitian.
9. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are hermitian (ii)AB  BA is skew-hermitian
(iii) BAB, ABA are hermitian.
10. If A and B are skew-hermitian matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-hermitian (ii) AB + BA is hermitian
(iii) BAB,ABA are skew-hermitian
11. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then AB is hermitian if and only if AB = BA.
12. If A and B are square matrices of same order then B  AB is hermitian or skew-hermitian according
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as A is hermitian or skew-hermitian.
13. If A is a hermitian matrix then An is also hermitian for all positive integers n.
14. If A is a skew-hermitian matrix then An is hermitian or skew-hermitian according as n is a positive
even integer or an odd integer.
15. Determinant of a Hermitian matrix is always real.
16. Determinant of a Skew-Hermitian matrix of
(i) Even order is always real (ii) Odd order is either zero or purely imaginary
17. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a hermitian matrix and a skew-hermitian
matrix.
18. Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as A  P  iQ where P and Q are hermitian
matrices.
19. Every hermitian matrix A can be written as A  B  iC where B is real symmetric and C is real
skew- symmetric.
4 5 3
Example 1 : Express the matrix A =   2 7 8 as the sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric

  4  6 5

matrix.
4 5 3 4  2  4
Solution : Let A    2 7 8 then A   5 7  6 
   
  4  6 5  3 8 5 

 8 3 1 0 7 7
Now, A  A   3 14 2  and A  A   7 0 14 

   
 1 2 10    7 14 0 

 3 1  7 7
 4    0
2 2 2 2
   
1 3 1 7
 (A A )  
 7 1  and ( A  A )  
 0 7
2  2  2  2 
 1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 
1 1 1 1
Since A = ( A  A)  ( A  A) where  A  A  is symmetric and  A  A  is skew-symmetric.
2 2 2 2
 28

 3 1  7 7
 4    0
4 5 3 2 2 2 2
   
  3 7
Therefore   2 7 8   7 1  
 0 7
 2   2 
  4  6 5  1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 

Exercise 1.3
2 x 3 7 6 2 x 
1. Find x, y, z such that A is symmetric, where (a) A   4 5 y (b) A   y
 z 2  .
  
 z 1 7   x 2 5 

2. Suppose A and B are symmetric. Show that the following are also symmetric :
(a) A  B (b) kA, for any scalar k (c) A2
(d) An , for n  0 (e) f  A  , for any polynomial f  x  .

 1 7 1 
3. Express the matrix  2 3 4  as a sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
 5 0 5 

1 0 5 3
 2 1 6 1 
4. Express A   as a sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
3 2 7 1
 
 4 4 2 0

 3 x  2i yi 
5. Find real numbers x, y, z such that A is hermitian, where A   3  2i 0 1  zi  .

 yi 1  xi 1 

6. Suppose A is a complex matrix. Show that AA and A A are hermitian.

7. Let A be a square matrix. Show that (a) A  A is hermitian, (b) A  A is skew-hermitian, (c)
A  B  C , where B is hermitian and C is skew hermitian.
8. Express the following matrices as a sum of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices :

 2 1  i 2  3i   7  4i 2 3  5i 

(i)  2  i 1  2i i  
(ii)  3 i 6i 1 4i 
 
 2  4i 3  2i 4  5i    3i 2  i 3 

9. Let A and B are two hermitian matrices and A2  B 2  O then show that A  O and B  O .

Answers
1. (a) x  4 , y 1, z  3 , (b) x  0, y   6, z any real number.
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 7   1
 9   5   1 1 4
2  0 1 1  
2
 1 3  0 2     
2 2  1 1 3 5 
    4    1 0 2
9 5  2  
 2 
3.  3 2  
 0 2 4. 
2   2 
4 1  3 
3 2   2 4 7    1 2 0
 5  2 0   2  2 
    7 3 1  1 5 3 
   0     0 
2 2 2  2 2 2 
1 1
5. x  3, y  0, z  3 7. (c) Hint : Let B 
2
 A  A  and C   A  A 
2
 4 3  2i 4  7i  0 1 i 
1  1
8. (i)  3  2i 2 3i  1 4i 3  3i 
2  2  
 4  7i 3  i 8   i 3  3i 10i 

 14 2  3i 3  8i   8i 2  3i 3  2i 
1  1
(ii)  2  3i 0 3  3i  2  3i 12i 1  5i 
2  2  
 3  8i 3  3i 6   3  2i 1  5i 0 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.4 Orthogonal and Unitary matrices

Def. Orthogonal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA  AA  I . It is clear
from the definition that if the matrix A is orthogonal then A1  A .

 cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
 cos   sin   1 0  
Examples :  ,  0 1 ,  sin  cos  0  ,  0 1 0  ,
 sin  cos     0
  
 0 1   0 0 1

 cos  0 0 sin   1 0 0 0 
 0 cos  sin  0   0 0 1 0 
 ,   .
 0  sin  cos  0   0 1 0 0 
   
  sin  0 0 cos    0 0 0 1
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {1, 1} and
all other elements are zero, then the matrix is orthogonal.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two orthogonal matrices need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A and B are two orthogonal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be orthogonal.
 30
(ii) If A and B are two orthogonal matrices of same order, then A  B is orthogonal iff
AB ' BA ' I  O
Proof : Since A and B are orthogonal, therefore we have AA '  I , BB '  I
Suppose, AB ' BA ' I  O
Now, ( A  B)( A  B) '  ( A  B)( A ' B ')  AA ' BA ' AB ' BB '  I  BA ' AB ' I  I
 A  B is orthogonal.
Conversely : suppose A  B is orthogonal. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B) '  I
 AA ' AB ' BA ' BB '  I
 I  AB ' BA ' I  I
 AB ' BA ' I  O
2. The product of two orthogonal matrices of same order is again an orthogonal matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1, A2 ,..........., An be n orthogonal matrices of same order then their product
A1 A2.......... An is also orthogonal.
4. (i) The scalar product of orthogonal matrix need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A is an orthogonal
matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be orthogonal.
(ii) If A is an orthogonal matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is orthogonal iff k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an orthogonal matrix, therefore we have AA '  I
Now, (kA)(kA) '  k 2 AA '  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1
5. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also an orthogonal matrix.
6. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A1 is also orthogonal.
7. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A is also orthogonal.
8. The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is 1 .
OR
The absolute value of determinant of an orthogonal matrix is unity.
9. An orthogonal matrix is always non-singular.
Def. Proper and Improper orthogonal matrix : An orthogonal matrix is said to be proper or
improper according as |A| = 1 or |A| =  1
10. If A is an orthogonal matrix with |A| =1, then each element of A is equal to its cofactor .
11. If A is a orthogonal matrix with |A| =  1, then each element of A is equal to negative of its cofactor.
Def. Orthonormal set : A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn  is said to be an orthonormal set if  vi , v j   0

for i  j and  vi , vi  1 for all i . e.g. the set  1,0,0 ,  0,  1,0  ,  0,0,  1 is an orthonormal set.
12. A matrix is orthogonal iff its rows (columns) form an orthonormal set.
13. The number of orthogonal matrix of order n  n with entries from the set 0,1, 1 is 2n n !
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1 2  2 
1 
Example 1 : Show that  2 1 2  is orthogonal. Also find the inverse.
3 
 2  2 1 

1 2  2 1 2 2
1 1
Solution : Let A 2 1 2 Then A  2 1  2
3   3  
 2  2 1    2 2 1 

 1 2 2   1 2 2 9 0 0 1 0 0
1 1
and AA  2 1 2  2 1 2  0 9 0 = 0 1 0  I
9    9   
 2 2 1   2 2 1  0 0 9   0 0 1 

 1 2 2
1
Similarly AA = I. Hence A is orthogonal and A  A '   21
1 2 
3 
 2 2 1

Def. Unitary Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be unitary if AA  A A  I . It is clear from the

definition that if a matrix A is unitary then A1  A .

 i 0 ... 0   0 ... 0 i 
   
1 1  i 1  i   ei 0   0 i ... 0   0 ... i 0 
Examples : 1  i 1  i  ,   , ,
2   0 e  i             
   
 0 0 ... i   i ... 0 0 
Note : If each element of the matrix A is real, then A  A

 A   A  '  A  A A  A A  I  A A  AA  I

So, a unitary matrix whose elements are all real, is an orthogonal matrix.
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {ei :   }
(i.e., unit modulus) and all other elements are zero, then the matrix is unitary.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two unitary matrices need not be unitary. i.e., if A and B are two unitary matrices
of same order, then A  B may or may not be unitary.
(ii) If A and B are two unitary matrices of same order, then A  B is unitary iff
AB  BA  I  O
Proof : Since A and B are unitary, therefore we have AA  I , BB  I

Suppose, AB  BA  I  O

 32

Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )

 AA  BA  AB   BB 
 I  BA  AB   I
I
 A  B is unitary.
Conversely : suppose A  B is unitary. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B)  I

 AA  AB  BA  BB  I

 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. The product of two unitary matrices of same order is again a unitary matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1 , A2 ,..., An be n unitary matrices of same order then their product A1 A2 ...An
is also unitary.
4. (i) The scalar product of unitary matrix need not be unitary. i.e., if A is a unitary matrix and k is
any complex number, then kA may or may not be unitary.
2
(ii) If A is a unitary matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is unitary iff k  1 .

Proof : Since A is a unitary matrix, therefore we have AA  I

2 2
Now, (kA)(kA)  kkAA  k I  I iff k  1 .

5. If A is a unitary matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a unitary matrix.
6. If A is a unitary matrix, then A1 is also unitary.
7. If A is a unitary matrix, then A is also unitary.
8. The conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
9. The transposed conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
10. The determinant of a unitary matrix has absolute value 1.
11. A unitary matrix is always a non-singular matrix.

1  1  2i  4  2i 
Example 2 : Show that   is unitary and find A1.
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i 
Solution : Given that A  
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i 2  4i  1  1  2i 2  4i 
Then A  and  A '   A
5   4  2i 2  i   
5   4  2i 2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i   1  2i 2  4i  1 1  4  16  4 0 
Now A A    4  2i  2  i  = 25 
25  2  4i 2  i     0 4  16  4  1
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1  25 0  1 0
=  I
25  0 25  0 1 

1   1  2i 2  4i 
Similarly AA = I . Hence A is unitary and hence A1    [ A1  A ]
5   4  2i  2  i 

Def. Normal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be normal if AA  A A .

Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two normal matrices need not be a normal matrix. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
A  B is also a normal matrix.
Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )  AA  BA  AB  BB

 A A  A B  B A  B B  A ( A  B)  B ( A  B)

 ( A  B )( A  B)  ( A  B ) ( A  B )
 A  B is a normal matrix.
2. (i) The product of two normal matrices need not be normal. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then AB may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
AB is also a normal matrix.
Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( AB)( AB)  ( AB)( B A )  A( BB ) A  AB BA  B ( AA ) B  B A AB  ( AB) ( AB)
 AB is a normal matrix.
3. The scalar product of normal matrix is again a normal matrix.
4. If A is a normal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a normal matrix.
5. If A is a normal matrix, then A is also a normal matrix.
6. Every real symmetric, real skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, real orthogonal and
unitary matrix is normal.
7. A normal matrix need not be symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, orthogonal
or unitary.
 34

Exercise 1.4
1. Check whether the following matrices are proper orthogonal or improper orthogonal :
3 4   12 5
5 5   13 13  3 5 
(i)   (ii)   (iii) 1 2 
4 
3   5 12   
 5 5   13 13 
2. Prove that a matrix A  [a ] of order 1 is orthogonal if and only if a  1 .

a b   a b a b  2 2
3. Show that the matrix A    is orthogonal iff A =  b a  or  b  a  where a + b = 1.
c d     
4. If A is an orthogonal matrix and if B  AP, where P is non-singular, then prove that PB1 is
orthogonal.
5. If A is symmetric and P is orthogonal, then show that P1AP is symmetric.
6. If A and B commute, then prove that CAC and CBC commute if C is orthogonal.
1
7. If A is skew-symmetric and I  A is non-singular, then prove that B   I  A  I  A is

orthogonal.
8. Show that the following matrices are unitary and hence find their inverse :
 1 i 
 0 i   2 2 
(i) i 0  (ii)  
   i 1 
  2 
2 

1  i i 3 i 
 2 3 2 15 

1  1 1 i  1 1 4  3i 
(iii)  
3 1  i 1 
(iv) 2 3 2 15 
 
 1 i 5i 
 2 
3 2 15 

 a  ic b  id 
9. Show that the matrix A   is unitary if and only if a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2  1 .
b  id a  ic 

10. Show that if A is hermitain and P is unitary, then P 1 AP is hermitian.

11. If A is unitary and hermitian matrix, then show that A is involutory  A2  I  .

12. If A is unitary and B = AP where P is non-singular then PB1 is unitary.

13. If A is skew hermitian and (A  I) is non-singular then (A + I) (A  I)1 is unitary.
14. Show that the following matrices are unitary :
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i 0 0 0
 i 0 0   i 0 0  i 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 
1 0 
(i)  0 i 0  (ii)  0 1 0  (iii)  0 0 1 
  (iv)  (v)  0 1 0 
 0 i 0 0
 0 0 i   0 0 1   0 i 0     i 0 0 
0 0 0 1
15. What do you notice in above matrices.
16. Show that the following matrices are orthogonal and hence find their inverse.
1 2 2
3 4 3 3 3
5  
5 2 1 2
(i)   (ii) 
4 3 3 3 3
  
 5 5  2 
2 1
 3 3 3 

 1 1 1 
 
3 6 2 
 1 2 2  
1  1 2 
(iii) 2 1 2  (iv)   0 
3   3 6
 2 2 1  
 1 1 1 
 3 6 2 
17. Find a 2  2 orthogonal matrix P whose first row is a multiple of (a) (3, –4) (b) (1, 2)
18. Find a 3  3 orthogonal matrix P whose first two rows are multiple of :
(a) (1,2,3) and (0,–3,2) (b) (1,3,1) and (1,0,–1)
19. Suppose A and B are orthogonal matrices. Show tht AT , A1 , AB are also orthogonal.

1 1 1 
3 4  1 2 
20. Which of the following matrices are normal ? A    , B , C  0 1 1  .
4 3 2 3   
 0 0 1 

21. Determine which of the following matrices are unitary :

 i  3
   1 i 1  i 
1 1  i 1  i  1
A 2 2 ,
B  , C i 1 1 i 
 3 i  2 1  i 1  i  2 
   1  i 1  i 0 
 2 2 
22. Suppose A and B are unitary. Show that A , A1 , AB are unitary.

3  4i 1   1 0 
23. Determine which of the following matrices are normal A    and B   .
 i 2  3i  1  i i 
 36

Answers
1. (i) Improper orthogonal. (ii) Proper orthogonal (iii) The matrix is not orthogonal.
 1 i 1 1 
  
 1 i 
 2 2 2 
0  i  2 2  1  1 1 i  i 1 i 
8. (i) i (ii)   (iii) (iv)  
 0   i 1  
3 1  i  1  3 3 3 
 
  2 
2   3i 4  3i 5i 
 2 15 
2 15 2 15 

 1 1 1 
 3 3 3 
3 4 1 2 2   1 2 2  
5 5 1 1  1 2 1 
16. (i)   (ii)  2 1 2  (iii) 2 1 2  (iv)  
4 3 3 3  6 6 6
  2 2 1   2 2 1  
 5 5   1 1 
 2 0
2 

3 4  1 2 
   5
5 5 5 
17. (a)   , (b) 
4 3   2 1 
 5 5   5 5 

 1 2 3   1 3 1 
  
 14 14 14   11 11 11 
 3 2   1 1 
18. (a)  0 (b)  0
 13 13  2 2 
 
 13 2 3   3 2 3 
 182 182 182   22 22 22 

20. A, C 21. A, B 23. A

1.5 Idempotent, Involutory and Nilpotent matrices

Def. Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be idempotent matrix if A2  A .

 2 1 1
1 1  1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3  3  3  3
2  
1 k  2  , 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 ,  1 2  1 
Examples : Zero matrix, identity matrix,  ,  
0 0  1 1    3 3 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3  
 2 2   1  1 2 
 3 3 3 
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1
Remark : The matrix A  [aij ]nn where aij  for all i, j and n  2 is an idempotent matrix. i.e.,
n
 1 1 1 
1  n  n ...  n 
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n   
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n    1 1  1 ...  1 
  is always an idempotent matrix and I  A   n n n  is also an
       
       
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n   1 1 1
  ... 1  
 n n n
idempotent matrix.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
idempotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are idempotent matrices of same order, then A  B is idempotent iff AB  BA  O .
Proof : We have A2  A, B 2  B
Suppose AB  BA  O .
Now, ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A2  B 2  A  B
 A  B is idempotent.
Conversely : suppose A  B is idempotent. i.e., ( A  B)2  A  B  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A  B
 A  AB  BA  B  A  B
 AB  BA  O ……(1)
Pre-multiplying (1) both sides by A, we get AAB  ABA  O  AB  ABA  O ……(2)
Post-multiplying (1) both sides by A,we get ABA  BAA  O  ABA  BA  O ……(3)
By (2) and (3), we get AB  BA ……(4)
By (1) and (4), we get AB  BA  O .
2. (i) The product of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two idempotent matrices, then AB may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two idempotent matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also idempotent.
Proof : Since A and B are idempotent matrices, therefore we have A2  A, B 2  B

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  AB ( AB  BA )

 AB is idempotent.
3. (i) The scalar product of an idempotent matrix need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A is an
 38
idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A is an idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an idempotent matrix iff
k  0,1 .

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore we have A2  A

Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 A  kA iff k 2  k i.e., k  0,1 .
4. If A is an idempotent matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an idempotent matrix.
5. If A is an idempotent matrix, then A ' is also an idempotent matrix.
6. If A is an idempotent matrix, k is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then (kI  A)n can
be expressed as the linear combination of I and A.
Proof : As A is idempotent so An  A for all n  1 . Further kI and A commute with each other so
(kI  A)n can be expanded by Binomial Theorem, so

(kI  A) n  k n I n  nC1 (kI )n 1 A  nC2 (kI )n 2 A2  ....  nCn1 (kI ) An 1  nCn  An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n 2 A  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   nC1k n 1  nC2 k n 2  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   (1  k )n  k n  A

7. If A is an idempotent matrix, then I  A is also an idempotent matrix.

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore A2  A .
2
Now,  I  A  I  2 A  A2  I  2 A  A  I  A

8. The determinant of an idempotent matrix is always 0 or 1.

9. The trace of a n  n idempotent matrix always belongs to the set 0,1, 2,...., n .

Def. Involutory matrix : A square matrix A is said to be involutory matrix if A2  I .

 1 0 .. 0   0 ... 0 1   0 ... 0 1
 0 1 .. 0   0 ... 1 0   0 ... 1 0 
Examples : I,  ,  ,  .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
0 0 .. 1  1 ... 0 0   1 ... 0 0 
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
involutory matrices, then A  B may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are involutory matrices of same order, then A  B is involutory iff AB  BA  I  O .
Proof : We have A2  I , B 2  I
Suppose, AB  BA  I  O
Now , ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I  AB  BA  I  I  O  I
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 A  B is involutory.
Conversely : suppose A  B is involutory. i.e., ( A  B) 2  I  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I
 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. (i) The product of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two involutory matrices, then AB may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two involutory matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also
involutory.
Proof : Since A and B are involutory matrices, therefore we have A2  I , B 2  I

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  I ( AB  BA )

 AB is involutory.
3. (i) The scalar product of an involutory matrix need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A is an
involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A is an involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an involutory matrix iff
k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an involutory matrix, therefore we have A2  I
Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1 .

4. If A is an involutory matrix then A2n  I and A2 n1  A where n is any positive integer.
5. If A is an involutory matrix, then A ' is also an involutory matrix.
6. Let A be an involutory matrix. If k is any complex number and n be a positive integer then
(kI  A)n can be expressed as a linear combination of I and A.

Proof : (kI  A) n  nC0 (kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n 2 A2  nC3 ( kI ) n 3 A3  ....

 nC0 k n I  nC1k n 1 A  nC2 k n2 I  nC3k n3 A  ....

  nC0k n  nC2k n 2  .... I   nC1k n 1  nC3k n3  .... A

7. If any two rows of the identity matrix are interchanged the resulting matrix is an involutory matrix.
1
8. A square matrix A is involutory iff ( A  I ) is idempotent. This relation gives a bijection between
2
involutory matrices and idempotent matrices.
9. The determinant of an involutory matrix is always 1 or –1.
 40

10. The trace of a n  n involutory matrix always belongs to the set  n,   n  1 ,...,  1,0,1, 2,...., n .

Def. Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix if there exists a positive
integer k such that Ak  O .
0 1 1 2
0 0 2 3 
Examples : Zero matrix, 
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
Remark : All super lower triangular and super upper triangular matrices are nilpotent.
Def. Index of nilpotency : Let A be a nilpotent matrix then the smallest positive integer k for which
Ak  O is called index of nilpotency of A.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
nilpotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be nilpotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then A  B is also
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then A  B is
nilpotent with index  m  n  1 .
2. (i) The product of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two nilpotent matrices, then AB may or may not be nilpotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then AB is also a
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then AB is
nilpotent with index  min m, n .

3. If A and B are any square matrices of same order such that AB is nilpotent, then BA is also
nilpotent. Further, (index of nilpotency of BA)  (index of nilpotency of AB) +1.
4. The scalar product of nilpotent matrix is again a nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A is nilpotent matrix and
k is any complex number, then kA is also a nilpotent matrix.
5. Index of nilpotency of a nilpotent matrix cannot exceed its size. In other words if A is a n  n
nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency k then k  n .
6. If A is a n  n nilpotent matrix then we must have An  O .
7. If A is a n  n matrix such that A  O, A2  O, ..., An  O , then A cannot be nilpotent.

8. If A is a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotent n and k is a positive integer then Ak is nilpotent
n
matrix with index of nilpotent   , where  denotes the ceiling function.
k 
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Def. Ceiling function :  x  is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x, where x is any real number.

9. Transpose of a nilpotent matrix is nilpotent.

10. Let A be a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency m. If k is a complex number and n  m be a
positive integer then (kI  A)n can be expressed as the linear combination of I , A, A2 ,...., Am1 .
Proof :
(kI  A) n  nC0 ( kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n2 A2  ...  nCm1 (kI )n m1 Am1  nCm ( kI ) nm Am  ...  nCn An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n2 A2  ...  nCm1k n m1 Am1  Am  Am1  ....  An  0 

11. The determinant of a nilpotent matrix is always 0 i.e., every nilpotent matrix is singular.
However, every singular matrix is not nilpotent.
12. The trace of a nilpotent matrix is always 0.

Exercise 1.5
1. Show that the following matrices are idempotent :
0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
(i)  (ii) 
0 b 0 0 a b 1 c
   
0 c 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. What do you notice in above matrices.
3. If AB  A and BA  B , then show that A and B are idempotent matrices.
2 2 0
4. Express the matrix B   0 3 0  as the sum of a scalar matrix and an idempotent matrix and
 0 2 2 

hence calculate B 5 .
 a b
5. Show that the matrix 1  a 2  , b  0 is always involutory.
 a 
 b 

3 0 0 1
0 3 1 0
6. Express the matrix B   as the sum of a scalar matrix and an involutory matrix and
0 1 3 0
 
1 0 0 3

hence calculate B 3 .
 42
7. Show that the following matrices are nilpotent and also find their index of nilpotency.
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1  0
 0 1 1  0 0 0 1 
(i) A   0 0 0 1 1 (ii) B   (iii) C  
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 1 0 0 2  1 1 1
(iv) D   0 0 1  (v) E  0 0 0  (vi) F   1 1 1
 0 0 0  0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 1 1 1 2 3 
(vii) G   1 1 1 (viii) H   5 10 15
 1 1 0   3 6 9 

8. Construct five different nilpotent matrices by taking hint from the matrix H in above question.
 2 2 2
9. Express the matrix  0 2 3  as the sum of a scalar matrix and a nilpotent matrix and hence
 0 0 2 

calculate B10 .
10. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB is nilpotent but neither A nor B is nilpotent.

Answers
2 0 0 0 2 0 32 422 0 
4. B   0 2 0    0 1 0  ; B   0 243 0 
    5

 0 0 2   0 2 0   0 422 32 

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  36 0 0 28
0 3 0 0   0 0 1 
0  0 36 28 0 
6. B    ; B 
3 
0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0  0 28 36 0 
     
0 0 0 3  1 0 0 0  28 0 0 36 
7. (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 2 (vi) 2 (vii) 3 (viii) 2
2 0 0 0 2 2 1024 10240 79360 
9. B   0 2 0    0 0 3  ; B   0
    10
1024 15360 

 0 0 2   0 0 0   0 0 1024 

1 0  0 0
10. A    , B 
0 0 0 1 
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Sr. Matrix Definition A+B AB kA A tr(A)

No.
1 Diagonal aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
diagonal elements
elements
2 Scalar 0 , i  j    kn nk
aij  
k , i  j
3 Lower aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
triangular diagonal elements
elements
4 Upper aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
triangular diagonal elements
elements
5 Super lower aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
6 Super upper aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
7 Backward 0 , i  j  n 1    n  0 if n is even
aij     
, i  j  n 1 (1)  2  d n 1 if n is odd
diagonal ai  2
(d1d 2 ...d n )

8 Backward 0 , i  j  n  1    n  0 if n is even

aij    
(1)  2  k n 
scalar k , i  j  n  1 k if n is odd

9 Symmetric A'  A    --- Sum of diagonal

elements
10 Skew-symmetric A'  A    0 if n is 0
odd
11 Hermitian A  A    Real Real

12 Skew-hermitian A   A    Real or Either zero or

purely purely
 44

imaginary imaginary
13 Orthogonal AA '  I    1 Sum of diagonal
elements
14 Unitary AA  I    Unit Sum of diagonal
modulus elements
15 Normal AA  A A    --- Sum of diagonal
elements
16 Idempotent A2  A    0 or 1 0,1, 2,...., n}
17 Involutory A2  I    1 or –1 n,...,0,1,..., n
18 Nilpotent Ak  0    0 0
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True-false exercise 1 2  10 2 5 1 

  3 1 2 1   
12.  2 1     3 3 3 2
1. The product of two n  n symmetric 3 1 1 0
 1 2    
 9 1 4 1 
matrices may be non-symmetric.

1 3 7 13. Let A and B be n  n matrices. Multiplying

a matrix by a scalar t obeys this formula :
2. The matrix  4 2 3 is symmetric.
t  AB    tA  tB  .
 2 4 1 
14. Each column in the product AB is a linear
3. The sum of any two n  n symmetric combination of columns in B.
matrices is symmetric.
15. Each row of the product AB is a linear
T
4. For any square matrix A, the sum A  A is combination of the rows in A.
symmetric.
16. The product of two n  n skew-symmetric
5. For square matrices, if AA  0 , then A  0 . matrices is skew-symmetric.

6. Let A and B be n  n matrices. The  i, j   2 

element in the product BT A is given by the 17. 1 3 2  3   7 
n
 0 

formula BT A ij   Akj Bki .
k 1
 2 
7. For two n  n matrices, A and B, we have 18.  3  1 3 2    7 
n  0 
  BT sj A ji   ABT si .
j 1
2 2 6 2
8. For a 4  4 matrix A, if A4  0 , then 19. 1 3 2  3    3 9 6 
A0.  0   0 0 0 

9. If two 2  2 matrices A and B satisfy the 20. The only n  n matrix that commutes with
equation BA  0 , then either A  0 or all other n  n matrices is I n .
B0.
1
10. For n  n matrices, this cancellation law a b  1  d b 
21.   =
holds : If AB  CA and A  0 , then B  C . c d  ad  bc  c a 
Establishes that every 2  2 matrix has an
11. If three matrices A, B and C satisfy the inverse.
equation AB  CB and if B  0 , then it
follows that A  C . 22. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB  I , then BA  I also.
 2

23. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices, 37. Let A be an m  n matrix, and let B be an
then so is AB , and furthermore, n  m matrix. If n  m and AB is
 AB 1  A1B 1 . invertible, then so is BA.

38. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,

24. If A and B are n  n matrices such that then AB  BA .
AB  I , then AT BT  I .
39. If ABC is invertible, then so is BCA.
k
25. If A is a square matrix such that A  I for
some positive integer k, then A is invertible. 40. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,
then A  B is invertible.
26. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices,
then A  B  0 and AB  0 . 41. For invertible n  n matrices A and B,
B 1  A1  B 1  B  A A1 .
27. Let  be a scalar. Let Q be an n  n
matrix. If Q  0 , then   0 .
 
42. If A  AT A1  0 , then A is nonsingular
28. If A has only nonnegative entries and is skew-symmetric matrix.
invertible, then A1 has only nonnegative
entries.

29. If A and B are n  n matrices such that Assignment

BA  I , then BT is invertible.
---------------- S C Q ---------------------
a c
30. A 2  2 matrix   is invertible if and
 p q 1. If A and B are two odd order skew
only if aq  pc .
symmetric matrices such that AB = BA ,
1 3 5  then what is the matrix AB ?
31. Let A  0 3 5  1. An orthogonal matrix
1 1 2  2. A skew-symmetric matrix
1
Then the first row in A is 1, 1, 0 . 3. A symmetric matrix
4. An identity matrix
32. For square matrices, if AB  0 , then
BA  0 .
2. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the
 2 4 
33. If the matrix   is noninvertible, same order, then which one of the
 4 2 
then  must be 2. following is not correct?
1. A  B is a symmetric matrix.
34. If A is an n  n matrix containing no zeros,
then A is invertible. 2. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
3. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
35. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB   I , then A is invertible. 4. A  AT and B  BT are symmetric
matrices.
36. If A and B are n  n matrices such that AB
is invertible, then A is invertible.
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3. Let A and B be any two n  n matrices and 1 1

1. n 2  n  1 2.  1
n n n2 n
tr ( A)   aii and tr ( B)   bii .
i 1 i 1 1 n(n  1)
3. 4.
n! 2
Consider the following statement
I. tr ( AB)  tr ( BA)
6. If A be a non-zero square matrix of order
II. tr ( A  B)  tr ( A)  tr ( B)
n, then
Which of the following statement given
1. the matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric, but
above is/are correct ?
the matrix is A  A ' symmetric.
1. I only 2. II only
2. the matrix A  A ' is symmetric, but the
3. Both I and II 4. Neither I nor II
matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric.
3. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are symmetric.
 2 0
4. Let A    be expressed as P  Q , 4. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are anti-
 3 5
symmetric.
where P is symmetric matrix and Q is
skew-symmetric matrix. Which one of the
7. If C is a non-singular matrix and
following is correct ?
0 x y 
1 3
 
 3 B  C 0 0 z  C 1 , then
 0 2  
1. Q   2 2 0 0 0 
 2. Q   
3 0  3 0 
 
2  2  1. B 2  1 2. B 2  0
1  0 3  1  2 3 3. B3  1 4. B 3  0
3. Q    4. Q   
23 0  2  0 5

8. Suppose, P is an n  n real matrix such that

5. What is the determinant of the following the k th diagonal element of PPT is zero.
matrix ? Consider the following statements
1 0 0 .. .. 0  I. The k th row of P is zero.
 1 
1 0 .. .. 0  II. The k th row of PPT is zero.
 2 
 1 1  III. The k th column of P is zero.
1 .. .. 0 
 2 3  IV. The k th column of PPT is zero.
.. .. .. .. .. .. 
  Select the correct answer using the codes
1 1 1 1
.. .. given below
 2 3 n 
 4
1. I and III 2. I,II and IV 3. 215 4. 515
3. II,III and IV 4. I,II and III 13. Let A be an improper orthogonal matrix,
(GATE) then, adj A is equal to
1. A 2. AT
9. The determinant of the matrix 3.  A 4.  AT
1 0 0 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 2 0 
 14. Which is not correct, if Tr ( A)  Trace of
0 0 1 2 0 0
  is A ,then
0 0 2 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 1 0 1. Tr ( A  B)  Tr ( A)  Tr ( B)
 
2 0 0 0 0 1
2. Tr ( AB)  Tr ( BA)
1. 0 2. 9 3. 27 4. 1
3. Tr ( A)  Tr (CAC 1 ), C is non-singular
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. For any A there exists B (both are
square of same order) s.t. ( AB  BA)  I n
10. If A and B are two n  n matrices over
 and    , then
15. If B is a non-singular matrix and A is a
1. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
square matrix. Then, det ( B 1 AB) is equal to
2. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
1. det ( BAB) 2. det( A )
3. det( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
n 3. det ( B 1 ) 4. det ( A1 )
4. det( A  B )   det( A)  det( B )

16. Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is

11. Let A be a 2  2 matrix which satisfy
1. singular
A2  A  0, then
2. non-singular
 1 0   1 0 
1. A is either   or   3. invertible
 0 1   0 1
4. Skew-Hermitian
2. there exists infinitely many such
matrices
17. If ( A  B)1 exists, then
3. there exists no such matrix
1. A1 and B 1 both exist
4. A must be diagonal
2. A1 and B 1 do not exist

12.The number of different n  n symmetric 3. atleast one of A1 and B 1 exists

matrices with each element being either 0 4. nothing can be said

or 1 where n  5
1. 5! 2. 55
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18. A, B, ( A  B ) are non-singular matrices. 3. 6 and 3 4. 5 and 4

Then, [ B( A  B)1 A]1 is equal to

1. A  B 2. A1  B 1 23. Let Ann   aij  , n  3, where

3. A1  B 1  I 4. AB aij   bi2  b 2j  , i, j 1, 2,...., n for some

distinct real numbers b1 , b2 ,...., bn . Then

19. If A and B are two matrices of the same
det  A  is
order such that AB  BA, then
1. A is diagonal and B is any matrix 1. i j  bi  b j  . 2. i j  bi  b j  .
2. A and B are both diagonal 3. 0 4. 1
3. A is scalar and B is diagonal matrix (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
4. None of the above
24. Let A be a 5  5 matrix with real entries
20. If A and B are Hermitian, then select the such that the sum of the entries in each row
incorrect one of A is 1. Then the sum of all the entries in
1. AB  BA is hermitian A3 is
2. AB  BA is skewhermitian 1. 3 2. 15

3. B B is hermitian 3. 5 4. 125
4. A  A is skewhermitian (CSIR NET June 2014)

21. The columns of an orthogonal matrix forms 25. Given the permutation
1. an orthogonal set of vectors 1 2 3 4 5 
   , the matrix A is
2. an orthonormal set of vectors  3 1 2 5 4 
3. a linearly independent set defined to be the one whose i-th column is
4. All of the above the  (i)-th column of the identity matrix I.
Which of the following is correct ?
2 6  3 x 1. A  A2 2. A  A4
22. If A    ,B    , then in order
3 9  y 2
3. A  A5 4. A  A1
that AB  0. The values of x and y will be,
(CSIR NET June 2014)
respectively
1. 6 and 1 2. 6 and 1
 6
26. Let J denote a 101  101 matrix with all the n  n identity matrix. Which of the
entries equal to 1 and let I denote the following is always true ?
identity matrix of order 101. Then the 1. A is nonsingular
determinant of JI is 2. B is nonsingular
1. 101 2. 1 3. A+B is nonsingular
3. 0 4. 100 4. AB is nonsingular
(CSIR NET June 2014) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

27. For the matrix A as given below, which of 29. The determinant of the n  n permutation
them satisfy A6 =I ? matrix

     1
 cos 4 sin
4
0  1 
  
   . 
1. A    sin cos 0  
 4 4  .
   
 0 0 1

 . 
   
 1 
  1 
 
1 0 0 
  n
n
  1.  1 2.  1 2 
2. A   0 cos sin 
 3 3
   3. 1 4. 1
 0  sin  cos
 3 3 (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
  
 cos 6 0 sin
6
  1 1  x 1  x  x2
3. A   0 1 0 
30. The determinant 1 1  y 1  y  y 2 is
  
  sin 0 cos  1 1 z 1 z  z2
 6 6
equal to
   
 cos 2 sin
2
0 1. ( z  y )( z  x )( y  x)
 
 
4. A    sin cos 0 2. ( x  y ) ( x  z )( y  z )
 2 2 
  2 2 2
 0 0 1 3.  x  y  y  z  z  x

 
4. x 2
 y 2  y 2  z 2  z 2  x 2 
(CSIR NET June 2014)
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)

28. Let A, B be n  n matrices such that

31. Let S { A : A   aij  ,
BA  B 2 = I  BA2 where I is the 55

aij  0 or 1  i, j ,
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a ij 1 i and  aij 1 j } Then the 1. 4 2. 6

j i
3. 8 4. 12
number of elements in S is
1. 52 2. 55
 5 8 0 
3. 5! 4. 55 35. If A   3 5 0  , then A is
(CSIR NET June 2011)  1 2 1
2 i
32. Let   e 5
and the matrix 1. idempotent 2. nilpotent
3. involutory 4. periodic
1   2 3 4
 2 
0   3 4
M  0 0  2 3 4 36. Let f  x   x 2  5 x  6, and
 
0 0 0 3 4
2 0 1
0 0 0 0  4 
 A   2 1 3  , then f (A) is equal to
 
Then, the trace of the matrix I  M  M 2 is  1 1 0 
1. 5 2. 0 3. 3 4. 5  1 1 3  1 1 5
(GATE 2012) 1.  1 1 10 2.  1 1 4 

 5 4 4   3 10 4 

   1 1 4 
1 0 0 
  3.  1 4 10  4. None of these
1  i 3
33. If A   i 0  , then the  4 3 5 
2 
 
0 1  i 3 
 1  2i 
2 37. Multiplication of matrices E and F is G.

trace of A102 is Matrices E and G are as follows :

1. 0 2. 1 cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
3. 2 4. 3 E   sin  cos  0 , G  0 1 0

   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(GATE 2009)
Then, the value of matrix F is

34. For which value of x will the matrix given  cos   sin  0
below become singular ? 1.  sin  cos  0

 0 0 1 
 8 x 0
 4 0 2
 
12 6 0 
 8

 cos  cos  0  x a  p 
 
2.   cos  sin  0 D2  det  y b q  . Then

 0 0 1   z c r 
 
1. D1  D2 2. D1  2 D2
 cos  sin  0
3. D1   D2 4. 2D1  D2
3.   sin  cos  0
 (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
 0 0 1 
 cos  sin  
 sin   cos  0 42. Consider the matrix A   ,
4.  cos  sin  0   sin  cos 
 2
 0 0 1  where   . Then A2015 equals
31
1. A
2. I
38. Let A be a 5  5 matrix such that sum of
 cos13 sin13 
3.  
elements of each row is 2 then the sum of   sin13 cos13 
all elements of A3 is  0 1
4.  
1. 45 2. 40  1 0 
3. 90 4. None of these (CSIR NET Dec 2016)

43. Let A and B be real invertible matrices such

39. Let A and B are two 3  3 complex matrices that AB   BA . Then
such that sum of elements of each row of A 1. Trace  A   Trace  B   0
is 1  i and that if B is i then sum of all nine 2. Trace  A   Trace  B   1
elements of AB is 3. Trace  A   0, Trace  B   1
1. 3  3i 2. 3  3i 4. Trace  A   1, Trace  B   0
3. 3  3i 4. 3  3i (CSIR NET June 2017)
 0 1 
44. Let A    . Then the smallest
  1 1 
40. Let P be a n  n matix with integral entries positive integer n such that An  I is
1 1. 1 2. 2
and Q  P  I , where I denotes the
2 3. 4 4. 6
n  n identity matrix. Then, Q is (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1. idempotent, i.e., Q 2  Q  2 1 0
20

2. invertible  
45. The trace of the matrix  0 2 0  is
3. nilpotent  0 0 3
4. unipotent, i.e., Q  I is nilpotent  
(GATE 2004)
1. 7 20 2. 220  320
a b c 3. 2  220  320 4. 220  320  1
41. Let D1  det  x 
y z  and
(CSIR NET June 2018)
p q r 
 ------------------------ M C Q -----------------------
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1. Let A   aij  bean n  n complex matrix and 1 2 0

let A denote the conjugate transpose of A.
Which of the following statements are
necessarily true?
1. If A is invertible, then tr  A A   0 , i.e,
the trace of A A is non zero.
2. If tr  A A   0 , then A is invertible.
3. If tr  A A  n 2 , then aij 1 for some i,j.
4. If tr  A A   0 , then A is zero matrix.

in  / p , A   0 3 1 . Which of the
 2 0 2 
 
following statements are true ?
1. S contains all the prime numbers.
2. S contains all the prime numbers greater
than 10.
3. S contains all the prime numbers other
than 2 and 5.
4. S contains all the odd prime numbers.
(CSIR NET June 2013)

(CSIR NET Dec 2012)

2. Let A be a 5  5 skewsymmetric matrix 5 9 8
4. The matrix A   1 8 2  satisfies
with entries in  and B be the 5  5 9 1 0
 
th
symmetric matrix whose  i, j  entry is the 1. A is invertible and the inverse has all
integer entries.
i
binomial coefficient   for 1  i  j  5. 2. det(A) is odd.
 j
3. det(A) is divisible by 13.
Consider the 10  10 matrix, given in block
4. det(A) has atleast two prime divisors.
A A B
form by C   . Then (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
0 B 
1. det C 1or  1 2. det C  0
5. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
3. trace of C is 0 4. trace of C is 5
1. The transpose of a symmetric matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) need not be symmetric matrix.
2. If A and B are symmetric matrix of same
3. Let S denote the set of all primes p such order, then AB+BA must be symmetric
that the following matrix is invertible when matrix.
considered as a matrix with entries 3. If A is symmetric matrix, then all
positive integral powers of A are
symmetric matrices.
 10
4. If A is any square matrix, then A  A ' is
always symmetric matrix.
6. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
1. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A is
nonsingular and A1  A '
2. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A   1
3. Transpose of an orthogonal matrix is
1. If det A  1 then det B  1
2. A sufficient condition for each bij to
be an integer is that det A is an integer.
3. B is always an integer matrix.
4. A necessary condition for each bij to be
an integer is det A  1,  1
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
10. Let m,n,r be natural numbers. Let A be an
m  n matrix with real entries such that
r

orthogonal
 AAt   I , where I is the m  m identity

matrix and At is the transpose of the

4. None of the above
matrix A. We can conclude that
1. m  n
7. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 2. AAt is invertible
1. If A is unitary matrix, then A is also 3. At A is invertible
4. if m  n , then A is invertible
unitary matrix. (CSIR NET June 2017)
2. Inverse of unitary matrix is unitary matrix. True false key
1  1 1 i 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
3. A    is unitary matrix.
3 1  i 1 
5. F 6. T 7. F 8. F
4. None of the above 9. F 10. F 11. F 12. F
13. F 14. F 15. F 16. F
8. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 17. T 18. F 19. F 20. F
1. In a skew hermitian matrix, the element 21. F 22. T 23. F 24. T
on the principal diagonal must be 25. T 26. F 27. F 28. F
purely imaginary. 29. T 30. T 31. T 32. F
2. If A is hermitian matrix, then iA is skew 33. F 34. F 35. T 36. T
hermitian matrix. 37. F 38. F 39. F 40. F

3. If A is any square matrix, then A  A is 41. T 42. F
skew hermitian matrix. Assignment key
4. All of the above. SCQ
1. 3 2. 2 3. 3 4. 3
9. Let A   aij  be an n  n matrix such that 5. 3 6. 2 7. 4 8. 2
aij is an integer for all i. j. Let AB  I 9. 3 10. 4 11. 2 12. 3
with B  bij  (where I is the identity 13. 4 14. 4 15. 2 16. 1
matrix). For a square matrix C, det C 17. 4 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
denotes its determinant. Which of the
21. 4 22. 1 23. 3 24. 3
following statements is true ?
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25. 3 26. 4 27. 2 28. 2

29. 2 30. 1 31. 3 32. 4
33. 4 34. 1 35. 3 36. 1
37. 3 38. 2 39. 3 40. 2
41. 3 42. 2 43. 1 44. 4
45. 3

MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 2,4 3. 2,3 4. 3,4
5. 2,3,4 6. 1,2,3 7. 1,2,3 8. 2,3
9. 1,4 10. 2,4
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Chapter - 2
Rank of a matrix
2.1 Determinantal rank
Def. Minor of a matrix : Let A be an m  n matrix, then the determinant of every square sub-matrix
of A is called a Minor of the matrix A and the order of the sub-matrix is called order of minor.
Def. Determinantal Rank : Let A  [aij ] m  n be an m  n matrix, then a non-negative integer r is

called the determinantal rank of A iff

(i) there exists at least one minor of A of order r which is not zero.
(ii) every minor of A of order greater than r is zero.
In other words, determinantal rank of a matrix is the highest order of a non-zero minor of the matrix.
The determinantal rank of a matrix is generally denoted by ( A) .
Results :
1. If A is a matrix of order m  n then its determinantal rank is less than or equal to minimum of m
and n i.e. ( A)  min.{m, n} . For example, if a matrix A is of order 3  5 then clearly the largest
possible order of any minor of matrix A is 3 and hence ( A)  3 .
2. Determinantal rank of a zero matrix is always 0 because it has no non-zero minor of positive order.
3. Determinantal rank of non-zero matrix is always greater than 0.
4. If A is non-singular square matrix of order n then its determinantal rank is n because the
determinant of matrix A i.e. A is the non-zero minor of highest order n.

5. If A is a singular square matrix of order n then its determinantal rank is less than n because there is
only one minor of order n i.e. A , which is zero. So highest non-zero minor of A will be of order

less than n.
6. If every minor of order r of a matrix A vanishes then every minor of order r  1 of A also vanishes.
It is so because every minor of order r  1 is a sum of scalar multiples of minors of order r.
Example 1 : If A is an n-rowed square matrix of rank  n  1 , show that adjA  0 .

Solution : As ρ  A   n  1 , so there is atleast one minor of A of order  n  1 which does not vanish

and hence there is atleast one element in A whose cofactor is non-zero. Also we know that elements of
adj A are the co-factors of elements of A and hence adj A is a non-zero matrix.
 2
Example 2 : Show that no skew-symmetric matrix is of determinantal rank one.
Solution : Let us prove this result for a 4  4 skew symmetric matrix. The method of proof can be
used for a skew-symmetric matrix of any order.
 0 a b c 
 a 0 d e 
Let A  
 b d 0 f 
 
 c e f 0 
If a, b, c, d , e, f are all zero, then ρ  A   0 which is not the case here. If at least one of these

0 c
elements say c is non-zero, then the second order minor of matrix A is c 2  0 .
c 0

Hence ρ  A   2 and so ρ( A)  1 .

1 1 1 
Example 3 : Find the determinantal rank of the matrix  x y z  , x, y, z being all real.

3
 x y3 z 3 

1 1 1  1 1 1
Solution : Let A   x y z  , so A x y z = ( x  y )( y  z )( z  x )( x  y  z )

 x3 y 3
z 3  x 3
y 3
z3

Now the following cases arise :

Case (i) : If x , y , z are all different and x  y  z  0 , then A  0 and so ρ  A   2

1 1
But yx  0 [ x, y are different ]
x y

So there is a minor of order 2 of A, which does not vanish and hence ( A)  2 .

Case (ii) : If x, y, z are all different and x  y  z  0 , then A  0 and so ρ  A   3

Case (iii) : If any two of x, y, z are equal (say x  y ) then A  0 .

1 1
Now x  y  z , then the minor  z  x  0 and so ρ  A   2 .
x z

1 1 1
Case (iv) : If x  y  z then A x x x
2 2
x x x2

Here every minor of order 2 vanishes but there is a minor of order 1, which does not vanish ( 1 is an

element of A which is not zero) , so ( A)  1 .

Example 4 : Prove that determinantal rank of transpose of a matrix is equal to the original matrix.
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Solution : Let A be any matrix of determinantal rank r. Then according to the definition, A has at least
one non-zero minor of order r and all minors of order r  1 are zero. Now minors of A are same as
that of A because value of a determinant does not change when rows and columns are interchanged.
Hence A has also a non-zero minor of order r and all the minors of order r  1 of A are zero. So,
( A)  r  ( A) .
Exercise 2.1
1. Find the determinantal rank of the following matrices
3 
1 1
(i) 5  (ii)   (iii) 0 0 7 0
 0  1 1

 2 3 1 1 
2 0 0  1 2 3   1 1  2  4 
(iv)  0 2 0  (v)   2 4  9  (vi)  
3 1 3 2 
 0 0 2   3 6 4   
6 3 0 7 

a 0 .. 0
1 5 4 6 2 1 1 0 a .. 0 
(vii)  2 7 5 9  (viii)  0 3 2  (ix) 
 .. .. .. .. 
 3 9 6 12   2 4 3   
0 0 .. a  n n

2. Find the determinantal rank of the following matrices

3 4 1 2  0 1 2   1 2 1 3 
(i)  3 2 1 4  (ii)  4 3 1  (iii)   2  4 4  7 

 7 6 2 4   4 2 3   1 2 1 2 

 0 6 6 1
1 5 4 6   8 2 2 2
7 2 3 
(iv)  2 7 5 9  (v)  (vi)  2 2 2 
 2 3 0 1
 3 9 6 12     2 2 2 
 3 2 1 1

1 x x2 
 
3. Find the determinantal rank of A =  1 y y2  .
1 z z 2 

4. Let A and B be two square matrices of order n. If ( A)  ( B)  n , prove that ( AB)  n and
conversely.
 4

5. If A is a square matrix of order n and ρ( A)  n  2 then prove that adj A  O .

 3a  8 3 3 

6. Find the value of a so that ( A)  2 , where A is the matrix  3 3a  8 3 

 3 3 3a  8 

 x p q r 
7. Find x so that A =  p xq r  has determinantal rank 3.

 p q x  r 

8. Show that determinantal rank of a matrix  determinantal rank of every sub-matrix of it.
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 
9. If A   find ( A) and ( A2 ) .
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
10. Show that determinantal rank of a matrix with each element unity is one.
11. Prove that if A is a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order say n then ( A)  n .

1 1 1 1  2 1
12. If A  2  3 4 and B  6 12 6 .Find the determinantal rank of A, B, A  B , AB and BA.
3 2 3 5 10 5

a 0 1
13. Find a so that the determinantal rank of the matrix A   1 2 a  is less than 3. Also find the
 1 2 3 

determinantal rank for these values of a.

Answers
1. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 3 (v) 3 (vi) 3 (vii) 2 (viii) 2 (ix) 0 if a = 0 and n if a  0
2. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 2 (iv) 2 (v) 3 (vi) 1
3 if x  y, y  z , z  x
 2 11
3.  ( A)   2 if either x  y or x  z and y  z 6. a  ,
1 3 3
 if x  y  z

7. x  0 , x  ( p  q  r ) 9. ( A)  3, ( A2 )  2
12.  A  2,  B   1,  A  B   2,  AB   0,  BA  1 13. a  0,3 ; ( A)  2
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2.2 Linear independence and dependence

Def. Linearly dependent vectors : The vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn are said to be linearly dependent if

there exist scalars a1 , a2 ,...., an (not all zero) such that a1v1 + a2v2 +....+ anvn = 0.
OR
Some finite vectors are said to be linearly dependent if their linear combination can be made zero
without taking all scalars zero.
Def. Linearly independent vectors : Vectors which are not L.D. are called L.I.
OR
Vectors v1 , v2 ,........, vn are called linearly independent if , whenever

a1v1 + a2v2 +....+ anvn = 0 for some scalars ai’s , then a1 = a2 =......= an  0 .

OR
Some finite vectors are said to L.I. if the only way to make their linear combination zero is to take all
scalars zero.
Def. An infinite subset of V is said to be linearly independent if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent , otherwise it is linearly dependent.
Results:
1. The empty set is defined to be linearly independent.
2. A set containing only the zero vector i.e. {0} is linearly dependent.
3. A set containing only a non-zero vector is linearly independent.
4. Two vectors are L.D. iff one of them is a scalar multiple of other.
5. A set which contain the null vector ‘0’ is linearly dependent.
6. Every super set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
7. Every subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
8. If a vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn then the set {v, v1 , v2 ,...., vn } is

linearly dependent.
9. If the set {v1 , v2 ,...., vn } is L.I. and the set {v1 , v2 ,...., vn , v} is L.D. , then v is a linear

combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn .

10. The set of non-zero vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn is L.D. iff one of the vectors vr (r  1) is a linear
combination of the preceding vectors.
 6
Example 1 : Determine whether the following vectors are linearly dependent or independent
(i) (1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 2 ) , (1, 4, 5) (ii) (1 , 2 ,  3 , 1) , (3 , 7 , 1 ,  2) , (1 , 3 , 7 ,  4).
Solution: (i) We consider a matrix A whose columns are given vectors.
 1 0 1
A =  2 1 4 
 3 2 5 

 1 0 1
 0 1 6  (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 )
 
 0 2 8 

1 0 1
 0 1 6  ( Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 )
 
 0 0 4 

which is in row echelon form.

Here  (A)  3  number of columns. So the given vectors are L.I.
(ii) We construct a matrix A whose columns are given vectors i.e.
1 3 1
2 7 3
A =  
 3 1 7 
 
 1 2 4 
1 3 1 
0 1 1 
~   (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 0 10 10 
 
 0 5 5
1 3 1
0 1 1 
~  ( Operating R 3  R 3  10R 2 , R 4  R 4  5R 2 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0

which is in row echelon form. Here ,  (A)  2  number of columns. So the given vectors are L.D.

Exercise 2.2
1. Determine which of the following sets of vectors are linearly dependent and which are linearly
independent .
(i) (2, 3, 1) ( 1, 4,  2) , (1, 18,  4)
(ii) (0, 2,  4) , (1,  2,  1) , (1,  4, 3)
(iii) (1, 1, 1) , (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2)
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(iv) (2, 3,  1,  1), (1,  1,  2,  4), (3, 1, 3,  2), (6, 3, 0,  7)

(v) (1,  5,  2, 3), (1, 0, 0,  1) , (1, 0, 2, 4)
(vi) (1,  2, 1), (2, 1,  1), (7,  4, 1)
(vii) e1  1, 0,...,0  , e2   0, 1,...,0  ,....., en   0, 0,...,1

 1   1  a
2. (i) Find a if the vectors  1  , 2 ,  0  are linearly dependent.
   
 3    3   1 

 1  1 1
(ii) Find p if the vectors  1  ,  p,  0  are linearly dependent .
   
 3   3   1 

1  1  3
(iii) Find a if the vectors  2  ,  4 ,  0  are linearly dependent .
   
 3   0   a 

2  3   5 
(iv) Find k if the vectors  0  ,  1  ,  1  are linearly dependent .
   
 k   5   1 

1. (i) Linearly dependent
(iv) Linearly dependent
(vii) Linearly independent
2. (i) a = 1 (ii) p =  1
Answers
(ii) Linearly dependent (iii) Linearly dependent
(v) Linearly independent (vi) Linearly dependent
(iii) a = 6 (iv) k =  4

2.3 Row rank and Column rank

Def. Row rank : The maximum number of linearly independent rows of a matrix A is called the row
rank of A and is denoted by  R ( A) .
Def. Column rank : The maximum number of linearly independent columns of a matrix A is called
column rank of A and is denoted by C ( A) .
Elementary operations : There are six elementary operations, three elementary row operations and
three elementary column operations. These are given below:
 8
Def. Elementary Row operations : The following three types of operations on the rows of a matrix
are called elementary row operations.
(i) The interchange of any two distinct rows of a matrix. If the ith row is interchanged with jth row,
then it is denoted by Ri  R j or Ri , j .

(ii) The multiplication of any row (each element of the row) by a fixed non-zero scalar. If ith row is
multiplied by k  0 then it is denoted by Ri  k Ri or Ri  k  .

(iii) The addition to the elements of a row, a fixed scalar multiple of the corresponding elements of
another row. If k times the elements of jth row are added to the corresponding elements of ith
row then it is denoted by Ri  Ri  k R j or Ri , j (k ) .

Def. Elementary column operations : The following three types of operations on the columns of a
matrix are called elementary column operations.
(i) The interchange of any two distinct columns of a matrix. If the ith column is interchanged with
jth column, then it is denoted by Ci  C j or Ci , j .

(ii) The multiplication of any column (each element of the column) by a fixed non-zero scalar. If ith
column is multiplied by k  0 then it is denoted by Ci  k Ci or Ci  k  .

(iii) The addition to the elements of a column, a fixed scalar multiple of the corresponding elements
of another column. If k times the elements of jth column are added to the corresponding
elements of ith column then it is denoted by Ci  Ci  k C j or Ci , j (k ) .

Def. Row equivalent matrices : A matrix A is said to be row equivalent to a matrix B if B can be
obtained from A by applying, in succession, a finite number of elementary row operations on A and we
R
write A ~ B .
Def. Column Equivalent matrices : A matrix A is said to be column equivalent to a matrix B if B can
be obtained from A by applying in succession a finite number of elementary column operations on A
C
and we write A ~ B .
Def. Equivalent Matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by applying a finite number of elementary operations in succession. Then we write
A ~ B.
Result : If two matrices are equivalent, then they have same rank but need not have same determinant
and trace.
Def. Row-echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if
(i) All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix.
(ii) First non-zero element of every row is on the right hand side of the first non-zero element in the
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preceding row.
Remark : The first non-zero element of any row is called key-element or pivotal element or pivot of
that row.
Def. Row reduced echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in row reduced echelon form if
(i) It is in row echelon form.
(ii) Every key element is unity.
(iii) The elements above the key element in every column are all zero.
Def. Column-echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in column-echelon form if
(i) All zero columns, if any, are at the extreme right of the matrix.
(ii) First non-zero element of every column is below the first non-zero element in the preceding column.
Remark : The first non-zero element of any column is called key-element or pivotal element or pivot
of that column.
Def. Column reduced echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in column reduced echelon
form if
(i) It is in column echelon form. (ii) Every key element is unity.
(iii) The elements to the left of the key element in every row are all zero.
Note : If A is in row echelon form, then its transpose A is in the column echelon form.
Results :
1. The elementary operations do not alter the rank of a matrix.
2. For any matrix A,  R  A     A   C  A  .

Proof : Let  R ( A)  r and let B be the matrix obtained when A is reduced to row-echelon form. Then

by definition of row-rank, B contains r key elements (or r non-zero rows) and all the zero rows are at
the bottom of B. Removing all the zero rows (if any) and those columns which do not contain a key
element, we will obtain a minor of order r of the triangular form
c11 c12 ...... c1r
0 c22 ...... c2 r
C  where c11  0, c22  0,......., crr  0

0 0 ...... cr r

Then , | C |  c11 c22 ......... cr r  0 . Also, any minor of order r  1 (if any) will contain atleast one zero

row at its bottom and hence ( B)  r . But elementary row operations do not alter the rank and B is
obtained from A by elementary operations, so
 10

Therefore , ( A)  r   R ( A)
Hence rank of A and row rank of A are equal. Similarly, we can prove that rank of A and column rank
of A are equal. Therefore,  R ( A)  ( A)  C ( A) .

3. Let A be a m  n matrix, then rank of A is atmost min  m, n  is   A   min m, n .

4. A  0 iff   A   0 or zero matrix is the only matrix whose rank is zero.

5. A  0 iff   A   1 or rank of a non zero matrix is atleast one.

6. Let A be n  n matrix, then   A  is n iff det A  0 or   A   n iff det A  0

OR
  A   n iff A is non-singular (invertible) or   A   n iff A is singular (non-invertible).

7. A square matrix A is singular iff its columns (rows) are linearly dependent.
8. If a matrix has more rows than columns, then rows are linearly dependent.
9. If a matrix has more columns than rows, then columns are linearly dependent.

10. Let A and B are two matrices of same size, then   A    B     A  B     A     B 

11. Let A and B are two matrices such that AB is defined, then   AB   min   A  ,   B 

i.e.   AB     A  and   AB     B 

  A if   B   n
12. Let A be a m  n matrix and B is a n  p matrix, then   AB   
  B  if   A   n
OR
Let A be a m  n matrix and B be a n  p matrix if rank of any one matrix is n, then   AB  is

equal to the rank of other matrix.

13. Frobenius inequality of rank : Let A and B are two n  n matrices, then   A     B     AB   n

Generalization : If A is m  n matrix and B is n  p matrix then Frobenius inequality also apply.

Corallary 1 : If A is a nilpotent matrix of size n and index of nilpotency is 2 i.e., A2  0 then

n
  A    .
2

Proof : Put B  A in Frobenius inequality   A    A     A2   n

n n
 2  A   0  n    A     A      is always non negative integer 
2 2
Corallary 2 : If A is n  n matrix and  ( A)  n  1 then  (adj A)  1 . Converse is also true.
Proof : By Frobenius inequality,  ( A)   ( B)   ( AB)  n
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Taking B  adj A , we have

 ( A)   (adj A)   ( A adj A)  n

 n  1   (adj A)    A I n   n [ Since A adj A  A I n ]

 n  1   (adj A)  0  n [Since   A   n  1 , therefore A  0 ]

  (adj A)  1 ……(1)
Since,  ( A)  n  1  adj A  0
  (adj A)  1 ……(2)
From (1) and (2),  (adj A)  1

Corallary 3 : Let A be n  n matrix such that  ( A)  n  1 , then  ( A2 )  n  2 or n  1 .

Def. Nullity of a matrix : The dimension of the null space of matrix is called its nullity.
14. Sylvester law (Rank-nullity theorem) : Sum of rank and nullity of a matrix is always equal to its
number of columns.
Def. Gram Matrix : Let A be any real matrix then the matrix AA ' and A ' A are called Gram Matrix
w.r.t. A.
Remark : The gram matrix is always symmetric.
15. (a) If A is any real matrix then  ( A)   ( A ')   ( AA ')   ( A ' A) .
(b) If A is any complex matrix then

 ( A)   ( A ')   ( A )   ( A )   ( AA )   ( A A)   ( AA)   ( AA)

Remark : If A is a complex matrix then it is not necessary that   A     AA '  .

1 i  0 0 
e.g. Let A   , here   A   1 and AA '    , therefore   A     AA '  .
0 0 0 0 

16. If v   x1 x2 .... xn  be a real 1 n matrix, then vv '  x12  x22  ....  xn2  0 , further if v  0

(i.e., atleast one xi is non-zero) then vv '  0 .

Remark : If v and w are two different 1 n real vector then there is no such result about vw ' or wv ' .
17. In row-echelon form, the number of pivots and position of pivots is always fixed however some
entries may be different.
18. Row reduced echelon form of a matrix is unique.
19. If rank is minimum then nullity is maximum and if rank is maximum then nullity is minimum.
 12

20. If A is m  n matrix then 0    A   min  m, n  .

21. If A is m  n matrix then n  min m, n  nullity( A)  n .

22. Let A be any matrix and B is obtained by changing one element of A, then  ( A)   ( B )  1 .

23. Let A be any matrix and B is obtained by changing k elements of A , then  ( A)   ( B )  k .

24. Let A be an n  n idempotent matrix, then   A   tr  A  .

25. Let A be an n  n idempotent matrix, then   A     I n  A   n .

Proof : Since A and I n  A are idempotent matrices , therefore   A   tr  A  and   I n  A   tr  I n  A 

   A     I n  A   tr  A   tr  I n  A   tr  A  I n  A   tr  I n   n .

Corallary : If A is n  n idempotent matrix, then  ( I n  A)  nullity  A  .

Proof :   A     I n  A   n

   I n  A   n    A   nullity  A 
26. The rank of a skew-symmetric matrix cannot be odd.
Def . Similar matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if there exists a non-singular
matrix C such that A  C 1BC .
27. Similar matrices have same determinant, trace and rank.
28. If two matrices are similar then they are equivalent also.
29. If two matrices are equivalent then they need not be similar.
Def. Congruent operations : A congruent operation on a square matrix is an operation in which every
row operation is followed by the corresponding column operation.
Def. Congruent matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be congruent if there exist a non
singular matrix P such that A  P ' BP . Symbolically, A  B .
or
Two matrices A and B are said to be congruent if they can be obtained from each other by applying
congruent operations.
30. Congruent matrices have same rank but need not have same determinant and trace.
31. If two matrices are congruent then they are equivalent also.
32. If two matrices are equivalent then they need not be congruent.
33. Every matrix congruent to a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.
Proof : Let a matrix B be congruent to a symmetric matrix A. Then, there exists a non-singular
matrix P such that B  P ' AP  B '   P ' AP  '  P ' A ' P  B (since A is symmetric)

Hence, B is also symmetric.

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34. Every matrix congruent to a skew-symmetric matrix is skew-symmetric.

Proof : Let a matrix B be congruent to a skew-symmetric matrix A. Then, there exists a non-
singular matrix P such that B  P ' AP  B '   P ' AP  '  P ' A ' P  P '   A  P   B

Hence, B is also skew-symmetric.

35. A non-singular symmetric matrix is congruent to its inverse.
Proof : Let A be a non-singular symmetric matrix and let P  A1 . Then,
P ' AP  ( A1 ) ' AP  ( A ') 1 AP  A1 AP  P  A1
36. A matrix of positive rank is congruent to a diagonal matrix iff it is symmetric.
6 1 3
8
4 2 6 1
Example 1 : Reduce to row-echelon form the matrix A   . Also find the rank of A.
10 3 9 7
 
16 4 12 15 

 1 1 4
6 1 3
8 1 6 2 3
4 2 6 1   1
Solution : Let A  ~  4 2 6 1 (Operate R1  R1 )
10 3 9 7 10 3 9 7  6
   
16 4 12 15 
16 4 12 15 

Operate R2  R2  4 R1 , R3  R3  10 R1 , R4  R4  16 R1

 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
0 4 4 
19 
 3 3 
~  
0 4 4 
19 
 3 3 
 4 19 
0 4  
 3 3 
Operate R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  R2

 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
4 19 
~ 0 4 
3 3 
 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 
 14

 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
3 19 
Operate R2  R2 ~ 0 1 3 
4 4 
0 0
 0 0 
0 0 0 0 

which is the required row echelon form of the matrix. Clearly  ( A)  2 .

1  i 2 
Example 2 : Reduce the matrix A    to row echelon form and hence find the rank.
1  i 2i 
1  i 2 
Solution : Let A   
1  i 2i 
1 i
Operate R2  R2  R1 , we get
1 i
1  i 2 
A~  
 0 0
Which is the required row echelon form of the matrix and hence   A   1 .

Exercise 2.3
1. Reduce the following matrices to the row reduced echelon form, Also find their rank and nullity.

1 2 3 4  0 1 2 
1 2  3
(i)   (ii)  3 4 1 2  (iii)  4 3 1 
 2 5  4  4 3 1 2   4 2 3 

 1 2 0 0  1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2  0 1 8 0  1 1 2 3 1 
(iv)  2 1  3  6 
 (v)  (vi) 
1 0 0 0 2  2 1 0 2
 3 1 1 2     
0 0 0 1  1 1 1  3 3

2. Reduce the following matrices to the column reduced echelon form, Also find their rank and nullity.

1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1   1 2 0 1  1 3  2 1 
(i)  3 2 5 1  (ii)  2 6  3  3 (iii) 
2 0  3 2
 0 4 4  4   3 10  6  5  
3 3 0 3

3. Find the rank and nullity of the following matrices without using minors :
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 1 2 1 4   1 1 1  2 4 3 
(i)  2 4 3 5  (ii)  1 1 1  (iii)  1 2 1 
     
 1 2 6 7   2 1 1   1  2 6 

1 2 3 0
 2 3 4 2  4 4 0 3
 3 1 2 4 3 2 
(iv) (v)  (vi)   2 3 1 5 
  3 2 1 3
 1 2 2     1 4 8 7 
6 8 7 5

1 0 1 1  1 2  3  1  1 2 0 1 
(vii) 3 2 5 1  (viii) 3  4 1 2 (ix)  2 6  3  3
     
 0 4 4  4  5 2 1 3   3 10  6  5

 3  2 0 1  1  6 1 3 8 
0 2 2 1  5 4 2 6  1 
(x)  (xi) 
1  2  3  3 1  10 3 9 7 
   
0 1 1 2 6 16 4 12 15 
4. Find the rank of the following complex (non-real) matrices :
 1 i 2 3i 
  3  5i 7  2i 
(i)  3 5i 2  i  (ii)  

5  2i i 8  i  9  2i 1  i 

5. Using only 0’s and 1’s, list all possible 2  2 matrices in row reduced echelon form.
6. Using only 0’s and 1’s, find the number n of possible 3  3 matrices in row reduced echelon form.
7. Show that if any row is deleted from a matrix in echelon (respectively, row reduced echelon) form,
then the resulting matrix is still in echelon (respectively, row reduced echelon) form.
8. Let r  rank  A  B  . Find 2  2 matrices A and B such that :

(a) r  rank  A  , rank  B  (b) r  rank  A   rank  B  (c) r  rank  A  , rank  B  .

9. Show that the following matrices is congruent to a diagonal matrix :

0 1 2 3
 2 4 6 1 0 3 2 
(i)  4 3 8  (ii) 
2 3 0 1
 6 8 5  
3 2 1 0
 16

Answers
 1 
1 0 0 9 
 
 1 0 7   1 
1. (i)   and ( A)  2 , nullity ( A)  1 (ii) 0 1 0
 9 
and ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  1
0 1 2 
 
 0 0 1 11 
 9 

 7 
1 0 4  1 0 0 0
 
(iii)  0 1  2  , ( A)  2 , nullity ( A)  1 (iv)  0 1 0 0  and ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  1
0 0 0   0 0 1 2 
 
 
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0  0 1 0 0 1 
(v)  and ( A)  4 , nullity ( A)  0 (vi)  , ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  2
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
2. (i) 2 , 2 (ii) 2 , 2 (iii) 3 , 1
3. (i) 2 , 2 (ii) 3 , 0 (iii) 2 , 1 (iv) 2 , 1 (v) 3 , 1 (vi) 3 , 1 (vii) 2 , 2
(viii) 3 , 1 (ix) 2 , 2 (x) 4 , 1 (xi) 2 , 2
4. (i) 2 (ii) 2
 1 0  1 1  1 0   0 1   0 0 
5. 5 :  , , , ,  6. 16
 0 1  0 0  0 0   0 0  0 0 
1 1  1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0  0 0
8. (a) A   , B  (b) A   , B  (c) A    , B 
 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0  0 0  0 1 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.4 Normal form
Def. Normal form of a matrix : (Canonical form) : Any of the following form of a matrix are
called normal (canonical) form
 Ir : O   Ir 
.... .... .... where I is the identity matrix of order r.
Ir ,  
,  Ir : O ,
  r

 O : O   O 

 I O  Ir 
If A = Ir or  r  or [ I r O] ,   then  ( A)  r
 O O O 

 I O
Theorem : If A is an m  n matrix of rank r, then A is equivalent to the matrix  r  which is
 O O
normal form.
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Proof : If A is null matrix then clearly it is in the normal form so let A  O

Let aij =  be a non-zero element of A. We can bring this to (1, 1) position i.e., top left position
by interchanging the first row with the ith row and then the first column with jth column. Thus A is
equivalent to matrix B with   0 as its 1,1 entry.

1
Now operate R1   so that first entry of B becomes 1. By subtracting suitable multiplies of

first row from the remaining rows, we can make all elements 0 in the first column below the first
element.
Similarly, by subtracting suitable multiples of the first column from the remaining columns of
B, we make all elements 0 except the first element in the first row. Let the new matrix be C.
1 0   I1 O 
Thus A~C   
0 D   O D 
If D  0 , we stop, otherwise we repeat the argument with D. The row and column operations will not
change the entries in the first row and first column.
1 0 0 
 I O
Thus, we can obtain A~ 0 1 0    2
  O E 
 0 0 E  

Continuing the above process, after a finite number of row and column operations, we have
I O
A~  k  , which is the normal form.
 O O 
 I O
Since ( A)  r and rank of  k k . Therefore r  k
 O O

Exercise 2.4
Reduce the following matrices to the normal form and hence find their ranks :
 1 2 1 1 1 1  1 1 1   1 2 1 3 
1.  1 0 2  2.  1 1 1  3.  2 1  1  4.  2 4 4 7 

 2 1 3   3 1 1   3 1 1   1 2 1 2 
 18

 1 2 1 0
 2 2 0 6  
9 0 2 3 1 1 1
2 4 2 0  3 2 1 2 
2 
5.  0 1 5 6  6.  4 2 1 2  7.   8.  2 1 2 5
  1 1 0 3   
 4 5 3 0   2 2 2 0     5 6 3 2
 1 2 1 2   1 3 1  3

 1 1 2 3 
9 7 3 6 
5 4 1 0 2 
9. 1 4 1 10. 
   0 3 0 4 
 6 8 2 4   
 0 1 0 2 

Answers
 I2 0
1. I3 ,   3 2. I3 ,   3 3. 0 , 2
 0 

 I2 0
4. 0 , 2 5.  I3 0  , 3 6.  I3 0  , 3
 0 

 I3 0   I3 0 
7.  0 0 , 3 8.  0 0 , 3 9.  I3 0  , 3
   
10. I4 ,   4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.5 Elementary Matrices

Def . A matrix obtained from a unit matrix by a single elementary transformation is called an
elementary matrix (or E-matrix).

1 0 0
For example, if we operate R1  R2 , R3  R3  3 R1 , R2  R2  2 R1 on the unit matrix I 3   0 1 0  ,
 0 0 1 

0 1 0  1 0 0 1 0 0
we obtain the following elementary matrices  1 0 0  ,  0 1 0  ,  2 1 0 
     
 0 0 1    3 0 1   0 0 1 
Notation for elementary matrices :
(i) Eij will denote the elementary matrix obtained by interchanging the ith and jth row of a unit matrix.

(ii) Fij will denote the elementary matrix obtained by interchanging the ith and jth column of a unit matrix.

(iii) Ei (k ) will denote the elementary matrix obtained by multiplying the ith row of a unit matrix by a
non-zero number k.
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(iv) Fi (k ) will denote the elementary matrix obtained by multiplying the ith column of a unit matrix

by a non-zero number k.
(v) Ei j (k ) will denote the elementary matrix, obtained by adding to the elements of the ith row of a

unit matrix the products by any number k of the corresponding elements of the jth row.
(vi) Fi j (k ) will denote the elementary matrix, obtained by adding to the elements of the ith column of

a unit matrix the products by any number k of the corresponding elements of the jth column.
Remark : Here it should be noted that matrices obtained by interchanging the ith and jth row of a unit
matrix or by interchanging the ith and jth column of a unit matrix are same. Therefore, we have
Ei j  Fi j .

Similarly , we have Ei (k )  Fi (k )

But it is very interesting to note that Ei j (k )  F j i (k )

Result 1 : The elementary matrices are non-singular.

Proof : We know that there are three type of elementary matrices, namely,
Eij , Ei (k ) and Eij (k )

Now, Eij is obtained from identity matrix by interchange of two rows (or columns), so

| Ei j |   | I |  1 0

Again, Ei (k ) is obtained from identity matrix by multiplying the ith row (or column) by k   0  , so

| Ei (k ) |  k | I |  k .1  k  0

Finally, Eij (k ) is obtained from identity matrix by multiplying the jth row (or column), by k and then

adding it to ith row (or column) so by properties of determinants, we have | Eij (k )|  | I |  1  0 .

Hence, elementary matrices are non-singular.

Result 2 : Let A and B are two matrices of order m  n and n  p . Then any elementary row operation
applied on the pre-factor of AB or on the product AB gives the same result.
Another form of above result : Let B  PA , where P and A are the matrices conformable for
multiplication. If any elementary row operation is applied on B then on the right hand side it will be
applied on pre-factor P only.
Result 3 : If A is an m  n matrix and E an elementary row matrix of order m, then EA is the same as
the matrix obtained from A by applying the elementary row operation to which E corresponds.
 20

Result 4 : Let A and B are two matrices of order m  n and n  p . Then any elementary column
operation applied on the post-factor of AB or on the product AB gives the same result.
Result 5 : If A is an m  n matrix and F an elementary column matrix of order n, then AF is the same
as the matrix obtained from A by applying the elementary column operations to which F corresponds.
Result 6 : The inverse of any elementary matrix is also an elementary matrix of same type.
Result 7 : Inverse of elementary matrices :
1
(i) Eij1  Eij (ii) Ei1  k   Ei   (iii) Eij1  k   Eij   k 
k
1
(iv) Fij1  Fij (v) Fi 1  k   Fi   (vi) Fij1  k   Fij   k 
k
Result 8 : Two matrices A and B are equivalent if and only if there exist non-singular matrices P and
Q such that PAQ = B.
Proof : Let A and B be equivalent. Then, B can be obtained from A by applying in succession a finite
number of row and column operations. Let E1 , E2 ,......, Er ; F1 , F2 ,......, Fs be the elementary matrices

corresponding to the row and column operations which reduce A to B. Since each elementary row
(column) operation of a matrix can be brought about by pre-multiplication (post-multiplication) with
the corresponding elementary matrix, therefore, we have
Er ......... E2 E1 A F1 F2 ............. Fs  B

 PAQ  B where P  Er ..... E2 E1 and Q  F1 F2 .....Fs

P and Q are non-singular matrices since the elementary matrices are non-singular and product of non-
singular matrices is non-singular.
Cor 1 : If A is an m  n matrix of rank r, then there exist non-singular matrices P and Q of order m and
 I O
n respectively, such that PAQ   r .
 O O
 I O
Proof : Since A is of rank r, A is equivalent to the matrix  r  in the normal form.
 O O
 I O
there exists non-singular matrices P and Q of order m and n respectively, such that PAQ   r .
 O O
Cor. 2 : If A is a square non-singular matrix of order n then, there exist non-singular matrices P and
Q such that PAQ  I n .

Proof : Since every matrix is equivalent to its normal form so A is equivalent to I n .

 There exist non-singular matrices P and Q (as in the above theorem) such that PAQ  I n .

Cor. 3 : Every non-singular matrix can be expressed as a product of elementary matrices.

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Proof : Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n.

 there exists non-singular matrices P and Q (by above theorem) such that PAQ  I n

Let P  E1 E2 ..... Er and Q  F1 F2 ......Fs where E1 , E2 ,...., Er and F1 , F2 ,..., Fs are elementary

matrices.
Thus, E1 E2 .....Er A F1 F2 ......Fs  I n

 A  Er 1...... E2 1 E11 Fs 1....... F2 1 F11

 A is the product of elementary matrices since the inverse of an elementary matrix is an

elementary matrix.
Cor. 4 : (i) If A is non-singular, then   AB    B  and   BA     B  .

(ii) If P and Q are non-singular, then   PAQ     A  .

Proof : (i) Every non-singular matrix can be expressed as the product of elementary matrices. Also,
elementary row (column) operations are equivalent to pre-multiplication (post multiplication) with the
corresponding elementary matrices and elementary matrices do not alter the rank of a matrix. Hence,
the result.
(ii) Directly follows from part (i).
Result 9 : The rank of the product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of either matrix.
i.e.,   AB     A  and   AB     B  .

Working rule to express a non-singular matrix as a product of elementary matrices :

(i) First reduce the given matrix A into the unit matrix by using elementary row operations and
elementary column operations.
(ii) Suppose E1 , E2 ,....., Er are the elementary matrices corresponding to the elementary row

operations which are applied in succession in above step (i). Similarly let F1 , F2 ,......., Fs be the

elementary matrices corresponding to the elementary column operations which are applied in
succession in above step (i).
(iii) Then we can write I n   Er ......E2 E1  A  F1 F2 ...... Fs  ......(1)

Here it should be noted that the matrices Ei ' s are written in reverse order on left of A and the

matrices Fi’s are written in direct order on right of A.

(iv) By (1), we have
 22
1 1 1 1
 Er ........E2 E1  I n  F1 F2 .......Fs    Er .....E2 E1   Er .....E2 E1  A  F1 F2 ....Fs   F1 F2 ......Fs 
1 1
 A =  Er ........ E2 E1   F1 F2 ...........Fs 
 A  E11 E21.......Er1 Fs1..........F21 F11

 1 2 1
Example 1 : Express A   1 0 2  as the product of elementary matrices.

 2 1 3 

 1 2 1
Solution : The given matrix is A   1 0 2
 
 2 1 3 

 1 2 1
Operating R3  R3  2 R2 , A ~  1 0 2
 
 0 1 7 

 1 2 1 
Operating R2  R2  R1 , A~  0 2 3 
 
 0 1 7 

 1 0 0
Operating C2  C2  2C1 , C3  C3  C1 , A ~  0 2 3 
 0 1 7 

 1 0 0
Operating R2  R3 , A~ 0 1 7
 
 0 2 3 

 1 0 0
Operating R3  R3  2 R2 , A~  0 1 7 
 
 0 0 11 

 1 0 0 
Operating C3  C3  7C2 , A~  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 11 

 1 0 0
1
Operating R3   R3 , A ~  0 1 0
11  
 0 0 1

We note that applying the elementary operations

 1
R3,2 (2) , R2,1 (1), C2,1 ( 2), C3,1 (1), R2,3 , R3, 2 ( 2), C3,2 ( 7) , R3   
 11 
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we can reduce A to I 3 .

 1
If E32 (2) , E21 (1), F21 ( 2), F31 (1), E23 , E32 ( 2), F32 ( 7) , E3    are the corresponding
 11 
elementary matrices then
  1 
I 3   E3    E32 ( 2) E23 E21 (1) E32 (2)  A  F21 ( 2) F31 (1) F32 ( 7) 
  11  
1
  1  1
 A   E3    E32 ( 2) E23 E21 (1) E32 (2)   F21 ( 2) F31 ( 1) F32 ( 7) 
  11  
1
1 1 1 1   1  1 1 1
 A   E32 (2)  E 21 (1)   E23  E32 ( 2)   E3     F
32 (  7)  F 31 ( 1)  F
21 (  2) 
  11  
 A  E32 (2) E21 (1) E23 E32 ( 2) E3  11 F32 ( 7) F31 (1) F21 ( 2)

 1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
 A   0 1 0  1 1 0  0 0 1  0 1 0  0 1 0
        
 0 2 1   0 0 1   0 1 0   0 2 1   0 0 11 

 1 0 0  1 0 1  1 2 0
 0 1 7  0 1 0  0 1 0
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

Working Rule to find P and Q so that PAQ is in normal form :

(i) If A is a m  n matrix then we write A  I m A I n .....(1)

where I m and I n denotes the identity matrices of order m and n respectively.

(ii) Check the entry a11 . If a11  0 , its okay but if a11  0 , then make it non-zero by suitable
row operations or column operations. Any row operation which is applied on L.H.S. of (1) is
also to be applied on pre – factor I m of R.H.S. of (1). Similarly any column operation which is

applied on L.H.S. of (1) is also to be applied on post factor I n of R.H.S.

1
(iii) Make a11 equal to 1 by multiplying first row by and apply the same row operation on the
a11
pre-factor of R.H.S.
(iv) Make 0’s below a11 by applying row operation and apply the same row operation on pre-factor

of R.H.S.
 24

(v) Make 0’s on the right of a11 by applying column operations and apply the same column
operations on the post factor of R.H.S.
(vi) Repeat the above process on a22 , a33 ,......... until all non – diagonal elements on the L.H.S.

I O
become zero and suppose we have obtained  r   PAQ and then r is the rank of the
O O
matrix A.

Example 2 : Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in the normal form, where

 1 2 3 2 
A   2 2 1 3  .
 
 3 0 4 1 

 1 2 3 2 
Solution : A   2 2 1 3  the matrix A is of order 3  4 , so we consider
 
 3 0 4 1 

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0  
 2 2 1 3    0 1 0  A 0 1 0 0 
A  I3 A I 4 i.e.     0 0 1 0
 3 0 4 1   0 0 1   
0 0 0 1

Operating R2  R2  (2) R1 , R3  R3  (3) R1 , we get

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0  
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0  A 0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 6 5 7   3 0 1   
0 0 0 1

Operating R3  R3  (1) R2 , we get

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0 
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0 A  0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 0 1

Operating C2  C2  (2)C1 , C3  C3  (3)C1 , C4  C4  2C1 , we get

1 2 3 2
1 0 0 0   1 0 0 
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0  A  0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 0 1
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 1 
1 3 2 
3
 1 0 0 0   1 0 0  
 1 1
Operating C2     C2 , we get  0 1 5 7    2 1 0 A  0  0 0

 6 6
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 

Operating C3  C3  5C2 , C4  C4  (7)C2

 1 4 1
1 3   
3 3
 1 0 0 0  1 0 0    I2 : O 
 0 1 0 0   2 1 0  A 0  1 
5 7   .... ....   PAQ
 
    6 6 6   
 0 0 0 0  1 1 1     O : O 
0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1 

 1 4 1
1 3   
3 3
 1 0 0  
1 5 7 
where P   2 1 0  , Q =  0 
  
6 6 6 
 1 1 1   
 0 0 1 0 
 0 0 0 1 

Exercise 2.5
1. Find the elementary matrices corresponding to the following elementary operations. Also find the
inverse of the elementary matrices and verify your answer.
(i) R1,3 (ii) R2 (3) (iii) R1,2 (4) (iv) C2,3 (v) C3 (5) (vi) C3,1 (7)

2. Express the following matrices as a product the elementary matrices

 1 2 1  1 3 3  1 2 1  1 1 1 
(i)  2 5 2  (ii)  1 4 3  (iii)  3 1 2  (iv)  4 2 2 
 1 2 1   1 3 4   0 1 2   2 2 0 
3. For the following find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in normal form and hence
determine the rank of A.
1 1 1  1 1 2 
 2 2 6  1 2 1 
(i)   (ii)   (iii)  1 1 1  (iv)  1 2 3 
 1 2 2  3 4 1   3 1 1   0 1 1 
 26

1 1 2 3 
 3 2 1 5   1 2 1 2  1 3 0 3 
(v)  5 1 4 2  (vi)  1 5 2 3  (vii) 
  1 2 3 3 
 1 4 11  19   1 2 1 2   
1 1 2 3 

Answers
 1 0 0   1 0 0   1 0 0   1 0 1 1 2 0 
2. (i)  2 1 0   0 1 0   0 1 0   0 1 0  0 1 0 
 0 0 1   1 0 1   0 0 2   0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 1 3 0
(ii)  1 1 0  0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
     
 0 0 1   1 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 1  1 1 0 
    
(iii)  3 1 0   0 5 0 0 1 0  0 1  0   0 1 1/ 5  0 1 0  0 1 0 
      
 0 0 1   0 0 1  0 1 1   0 0 9 / 5   0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 1 1 1 0 
(iv)  4 1 0   0 1 0   0 6 0   0 1 0   0 1 0  0 1 1  0 1 0  0 1 0 
     
 0 0 1   2 0 1   0 0 1   0 4 1   0 0  2  0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 

3. Although the matrices P and Q are not unique here we are giving one of the answers
 1 1/ 3 8 / 3 
 1/ 2 0   0 1/ 3 1/ 3  ; ( A)  2
(i) P    and Q   
 1/ 2 1 
 0 0 1 

 1 2 3 
 1 0  0 1
(ii) P    and Q  2  ; ( A)  2
 
 3 / 2 1/ 2   0 0 1 

 1 0 0  1 1 0 
(iii) P   1/ 2 1/ 2 0  and Q 
  0 1 1  ; ( A)  2
 
  2 1 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0  1 1 1 
(iv) P   1 1 0  and Q   0 1 1  ; ( A)  2
 
 1 1 1   0 0 1 

 1 4 / 7 9 / 119 9 / 217 
0 0 1   0 1/ 7 1/ 7 1/ 7 
(v) P   0 1/ 3  5 / 3  and Q 
   ; ( A)  2
0 0 1/ 17 0 
 1  2 / 3 1/ 3   
0 0 0 1/ 31 
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 1  2 / 3 1/ 3  4 / 3 
 1 0 0   0 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 
(vi) P   1 1 0  and
 Q   ; ( A)  3
0 0 1 0 
 1/ 2 0 1/ 2   
0 0 0 1 

 1 0 0 0   1 1 1/ 3  3 / 4 
 1/ 3 0 1/ 3 0   0 1 5 / 3 3 / 4 
(vii) P    and Q    ; ( A)  3
 5 / 16  3 / 16 1/ 8 0  0 0 1 3 / 4 
   
 1 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
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True-false exercise
9. A row-equivalent pair of matrices is
1. This matrix is in row echelon form : 1 2 1 1 0 3 
5 4 2   2 7 8 0 1 2 
   
0 0 7 
 
10. Any 1 occurring in the reduced row
2. This matrix is in reduced row echelon form echelon form of a matrix is called a pivot
0 1 3 0 element.
:  
0 0 0 1 
11. There exists a nonzero matrix in reduced
row echelon form such that one column can
3. None of these four matrices is in reduced
be removed, leaving a matrix in reduced
row echelon form :
row echelon form.
0 1 3 2 
0 0  0 1  0 0 0 1 
1 0  1 0    12. If two matrices A and B are row equivalent
    0 0 0 0  to each other, then the two matrices have
0 1 3 0 the same number of rows.
0 0 0 1 
  13. This matrix is in reduced row echelon
0 0 0 0
0 3 6 1 
form :  
0 0 0 7 
4. This matrix is in reduced row echelon
0 1 0 2
0 14. The following matrix is in row echelon
0 0 1 
form :  0 1
0 0 0 0 3 1 
  form : 
0 0 1 3 0 0
 
0 1
5. The following matrix is in reduced row
echelon form :
15. This matrix is in row echelon form :
0 1 7 0 6 8
0 0 9 3 7 6 7 
 0 0 1 5 3 0 0 0 6 2 5
0 0 0 0 0 0  
  0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 1

6. This matrix is in row echelon form :

0 1 2   2 7 8
5 3 2 1  16.  ~
0 3 2 4  1 0 3  1 2 1
 
17. These two matrices are row equivalent to
7. This matrix is in reduced row echelon each other :
1 5 0 3 3 4 2   2 1 0 
form :  
0 0 1 6 1 3 2  ~  1 3 2 
   

8. The number of pivots in a matrix is equal to 18. This matrix in row echelon form :
the number of rows that contain pivots.
 2

0 1 4 2 echelon form, then the resulting matrix is

0 0 5 3  still in echelon form.

0 0 0 7
  31. If any column is deleted from a matrix in
0 0 0 0 row canonical form, then the resulting
matrix is still in row reduced echelon form.
2 4 2  1 0 3
19.  ~ 
 6 21 24  0 1 2 32. If any column without a pivot is deleted
from a matrix in row canonical form, then
20. This matrix is in reduced row echelon the resulting matrix is in row reduced
1 0 1 0
echelon form.
form : 0 1 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 Assignment

---------------- S C Q ---------------------
21. All nonzero matrices have several row
echelon forms. 1. If x, y , z are in A.P. with common
difference d and the rank of the matrix
22. Some matrices have several reduced row
echelon forms. 4 5 x
5 6 y  is 2, then the value of d and k
23. If A ~ C and A ~ D , then C ~ D .  
 6 k z 
24. Two different matrices can be row
equivalent to a third matrix that is in are
reduced row echelon form. x
1. d  ; k is an arbitrary number
2
25. A matrix can be row equivalent to two
different matrices that is in reduced row 2. d an arbitrary number; k  7
echelon form. 3. d  k ; k  5
26. There exist examples of matrices A, B and x
C such that A is row equivalent to C and B 4. d  ; k  6
2
is row equivalent to C but A is not row
equivalent to B.
2. Square matrix A of order n over  has
27. There exists a 4  4 matrix A having three
pivot positions, namely, a11, a23 and a44 . rank n. Which one of the following
statement is not correct ?
2 9 4 3
0 1. AT has rank n
7 8 5 
28. The rank of the matrix  2. A has n linearly independent columns
0 0 6 2 
  3. A is non-singular
0 0 3 1
is 4. 4. A is singular

29. It is possible for a p  q matrix to have 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 
rank p  1 . 3. If X   , then the rank of
0 0 0 1
30. If any column is deleted from a matrix in  
0 0 0 0
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X T X , where X T denotes the transpose of 4. rank( A2 )  rank( A)  rank( A3 )  rank( A2 )

X , is (GATE)
1. 0 2. 2 7. Let A be n  n matrix over R . Consider
3. 3 4. 4 the following statements
4. Consider the following statement I. rank A  n
Assertion(A): If M is an n  n matrix with II. det( A)  0
rank (n  1) , then M can be made non- Then,
singular by changing one element. 1. I  II but II does not imply I
Reason (R): An n  n matrix with rank 2. II  I but I does not imply II
n  1 , has a non-vanishing minor of order 3. I  II
n 1. 4. There is no relation between the
1. Both A and R are true and R is the statements
correct explanation of A . 8. If M is a 7  5 matrix of rank 3 and N is a
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not a 5  7 matrix of rank 5, then rank ( MN ) is
correct explanation of A . 1. 5 2. 3
3. A is true but R is false. 3. 2 4. 1
4. A is false but R is true.

 4 2 1 3
1 1 0 9. The rank of the matrix  6 3 4 7  is
 1 1 2   2 1 0 1 
5. Let M   . Then, the rank of M
2 2 0
  1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
 1 0 1
is equal to
10. If the rank of a 5  6 matrix A is 4, then
1. 3 2. 4 3. 2 4. 1
which one of the following statements is
correct?
mn
6. Let A  C and A ', A * denote, 1. A will have four linearly independent
respectively the transpose and conjugate rows and four linearly independent
transpose of A . Then, columns
1. rank ( AA * A)  rank ( A) 2. A will have four linearly independent
2. rank ( A)  rank ( A2 ) rows and five linearly independent

3. rank ( A)  rank ( A ' A) columns

 4

3. AAT will be invertible 15. Let D be a non-zero n  n real matrix with

4. AT A will be invertible n  2. Which of the following implications

is valid?
11. Let A, B, C be m  n matrices. Then, rank 1. det( D )  0  rank( D )  0

 A B 2. det( D )  1  rank( D )  1
 0 C  is
  3. rank ( D )  1  det( D )  0
1. equal to [rank ( A)  rank( B)  rank(C )] 4. rank ( D )  n  det( D )  1
2. equal to [rank( A)  rank( B)  rank(C )] (CSIR NET June 2011)
3. equal to [rank (A)+rank(C)rank(B)]
4. atleast rank A  rank C 16. Let A, B be two n  n matrices. Then,
incorrect statement is

12. Consider the two statements 1. trace ( AB)  trace ( BA)

I.rank ( A)  rank( B)  max{rank( A), rank( B)} 2.  ( AB)   ( BA)

II.rank ( A)  rank( B )  min{rank( A), rank( B )} 3. AB  BA

Then, 4. if AB  0, then r ( A)  r ( B)  2n
1. I is true but II is false
2. II is true but I is false 17. In context of a matrix, which one of the
3. Both are true following is not an elementary row
4. Both are false operation?
1. Interchanging of two rows
13. Let A  [aij ] be an n  n matrix such that 2. To multiply any row by a non-zero
aij  3 for all i and j . Then the nullity of scalar

A is 3. Ri  R j  kRs , where Ri  ith row, k

1. n  1 2. n  3 any scalar
3. n 4. 0 4. None of the above

14. Let A be a non-zero matrix of order 8 with 18. The rank of the 4  4 skew-symmetric
A2  0. Then, one of the possible value for 0 1 0 1
 1 0 1 0 
rank of A is matrix  is
 0 1 0 1
1. 5 2. 6  
 1 0 1 0
3. 4 4. 8
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
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19. Let A be a matrix of order m  n and B be a 4. rank  A  B   max rank  A  , rank  B 

matrix of order n  p, n  p. If rank ( A)  n CSIR NET June 2012)
and rank ( B )  p , then the rank ( AB) is
k 1 2 
1. n 2. p 23. If the nullity of the matrix  1 1 2 is
3. np 4. n  p  1 1 4 

1, then the value of k is

20. If A be an n  n matrix of rank 1. 1 2. 0 3. 1 4. 2
n  2 ; n  2, then the rank of adj A is (GATE 2010)

1. n 2. n  1
3. 2 4. 0 24. Let T be the matrix (occurring in a typical
transportation problem) given by

21. For a fixed positive integer n  3, let A be 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 
1 
the n  n matrix defined as A  I  J, 1 0 1 0
n  
0 1 0 1
where I is the identity matrix and J is the
Then,
n  n matrix with all entries equal to 1.
1. Rank T  4 and T is unimodular
Which of the following statements is NOT
2. Rank T  4 and T is not unimodular
true ?
3. Rank T  3 and T is unimodular
1. Ak  A for every positive integer k.
4. Rank T  3 and T is not unimodular
2. trace  A   n  1
(GATE 2001)
3. rank  A   rank  I  A   n 25. If A be a n  1 non zero column matrix then
4. A is invertible the rank of n  n matrix AA ' is
(CSIR NET Dec 2013) 1. 0 2. 1 3. n  1 4. n

22. Let A, B be n  n real matrices. Which of 26. The rank of the following  n  1   n  1
the following statements is correct ? matrix where a is real number
1. rank  A  B   rank  A   rank  B  1 a a 2 ... a n 
 
2. rank  A  B   rank  A   rank  B  1 a a 2 ... a n 
is
    
3. rank  A  B   min rank  A  , rank  B   
1 a a 2 ... a n 
 6
1. 1 2. 2 3. Let A be a 4  7 real matrix and B be a
3. n 4. depends on ‘a’ 7  4 real matrix such that AB  I 4 , where
27. Let A be an n  m matrix with each entry I 4 is the 4  4 identity matrix. Which of the
equal to 1,  1 or 0 such that every column
following is/are always true ?
has exactly one 1 and exactly one 1 . We
1. rank  A   4
can conclude that
1. rank A  n  1 2. rank  B   7
2. rank A  m 3. nullity  B   0
3. n  m 4. BA  I 7 , where I 7 is the 7  7 identity
4. n  1  m matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
28. Let A be a  m  n  matrix and B be a
True false key
n m matrix over real numbers with
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F
m  n . Then
1. AB is always nonsingular 5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T
2. AB is always singular 9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T
3. BA is always nonsingular 13. F 14. F 15. T 16. T
4. BA is always singular
17. T 18. T 19. T 20. T
(CSIR NET June 2018)
21. T 22. F 23. T 24. T

------------------ M C Q -------------------- 25. F 26. F 27. F 28. F

1. Let A and B be the n  n real matrices such 29. F 30. F 31. F 32. T
that AB  BA  0 and A  B is invertible.
Which of the following are always true ?
Assignment key
1. rank  A   rank  B 
SCQ
2. rank  A   rank  B   n 1. 2 2. 4 3. 3 4. 2
3. nullity  A   nullity  B   n 5. 3 6. 1 7. 3 8. 2
4. A  B is invertible 9. 3 10. 1 11. 4 12. 4
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 13. 1 14. 3 15. 2 16. 2
17. 3 18. 4 19. 2 20. 4
2. Let A be 5  5 matrix and let B be obtained
21. 4 22. 2 23. 1 24. 4
by changing one element of A. Let r and s
be the ranks of A and B respectively. Which 25. 2 26. 1 27. 1 28. 4
of the following statements is/are correct ?
1. s  r  1 2. r  1  s MCQ
3. s  r  1 4. s  r
1. 2,3,4 2. 1,2 3. 1,3
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
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Chapter - 3
System of linear equations
3.1 System of non-homogeneous linear equations

Consider a system of m linear non-homogeneous equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 ,......., xn

a11 x1  a12 x2  .............  a1n xn  b1 


a21 x1  a22 x2  .............  a2 n xn  b2 

......................................................  ......(1)
...................................................... 

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ............  amn xn  bm 

This system can be written as a single matrix equation Ax  b

 a11 a12 .... a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 .... a2 n  x   b2 
where A   21 , x  2 , b   
 .... .... .... ....     
     
 am1 am 2 .... amn  m n  xn  n 1  bm  m 1
The matrix A is called the co-efficient matrix of the system of equations (1). Any set of values of
x1 , x2 ,........., xn which simultaneously satisfy all these equations is called a solution of system (1).

When the system of equations has one or more solutions, the equations are said to be consistent,
otherwise they are said to be inconsistent.
 a11 a12 .... a1n : b1 
a a22 .... a2 n : b2 
 21 
The matrix [ A : b]   .... .... .... .... : ....  is called the Augmented matrix of the given system.
 
 .... .... .... .... : .... 
 am1 am 2 .... amn : bm 

Results :
1. The system of linear equations Ax  b is consistent i.e., possesses a solution if and only if the co-
efficient matrix A and the augmented matrix  A: B  are of the same rank.
2. If A be an n  n square matrix and x and b be n  1 matrices then the system of equations Ax  b
possesses a unique solution if the matrix A is non-singular (i.e., if A1 exists).
 2
3. Working rule for finding a solution of a system of non-homogeneous linear equations Ax  b :
Write the augmented matrix  A:b and reduce it to row echelon form to find the rank of  A:b

and A. Now
(i) If [ A : B ]   ( A) , the system of equations is inconsistent.
(ii) If [ A : B ]   ( A) = number of unknowns, the system is consistent and has a unique solution.
(iii) If [ A : B ]   ( A)  number of unknowns , the system is consistent and has an infinite number
of solutions. In this case if there are n unknowns and  ( A)  r , then by giving arbitrary values to
n  r unknowns, we get the values of r unknowns.
4. A system of linear equations Ax  b is consistent iff b can be expressed as the linear
combination of columns of A.
 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1 
a a22 ... a2 n  x 
Proof : Let A   21  be any m  n matrix and x   2  be n  1 column vector, then
      
   
 am1 am 2 ... amn   xn 

 a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn 

 a x  a x  ...  a x 
Ax  
21 1 22 2 2n n 
is m  1 column vector.
  
 
 am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn 

 a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn 

 a x  a x  ...  a x 
Let Ax  b is consistent, then b   21 1 22 2 2n n 
is written as the linear combination
  
 
 am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn 
of columns of A.
n
Conversely : Let b can be expressed as the linear combination of columns of A i.e., b   xi ai
i 1

where ai are the columns of A and xi are scalars, then the vector x having components xi is a

solution of the system Ax  b .

Remark : A system of linear equations need not be consistent if b is expressed as the linear
combination of rows of A.
1 3  3
Example : Let A    and b    , then b is expressed as the linear combination of rows of A but
2 6 9 
the system of equations Ax  b is inconsistent.
5. Let A be any m  n matrix. The system of equations Ax  b is consistent for all b   m iff each
row of the coefficient matrix A has a pivot position.
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6. Let A be any m  n matrix and b be a m  1 vector (with real entries). If Ax  b , x   n has a

unique solution, then m  n and   A   n .

7. In a non-homogeneous system,
(i) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has either no solution or
infinitely many solutions.
(ii) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system may have no solution, unique
solution or infinitely many solutions.

Sr. No. Relation Unique solution Infinite solutions No solution

1. V E not possible x  y  2z  1 x  y  2z  1
2x  y  z  7 5 x  5 y  10 z  6
2. V E x  2y 1 x  2y 1 x  2y 1
2x  3 y  4 2x  4 y  2 2x  4 y  3
3. VE x  2y 1 x  2y 1 x  2y 1
2x  3 y  4 2x  4 y  2 2x  3 y  4
3x  5 y  5 3x  6 y  3 3x  5 y  6

Example 1 : Show that the equations x  y  z  6, x  2 y  3 z  14 , x  4 y  7 z  30

are consistent and solve them .
Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation
1 1 1   x   6 
AX   1 2 3   y   14   B
     
 1 4 7   z  30 

1 1 1: 6 
The augmented matrix is [ A : B]   1 2 3 : 14 
 
 1 4 7 : 30 

We shall reduce the augmented matrix  A : B  to row echelon form by applying elementary row

transformations only.
Operating R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  R1
 4

1 1 1 : 6 
[ A : B] ~ 0 1 2 : 8 
 
 0 3 6 : 24 

Operating R3  R3  3R2

1 1 1 : 6
~ 0 1 2 : 8
 
 0 0 0 : 0 

which is the row echelon form of the matrix  A : B  .

We have rank of  A: B   the number of non-zero rows in echelon form  2 .

Also by the same elementary transformations, we get

1 1 1 
A ~ 0 1 2
 
 0 0 0 

 rank of A  2 .
Since rank A  rank  A : B   2  number of unknowns therefore the given equations are consistent and

will have an infinite number of solutions.

We see that the given system of equations is equivalent to the matrix equation
1 1 1  x 6
0 1 2  y  8
     
 0 0 0   z   0 

which gives the equations

x y z 6 ……(1)
y  2z  8 ……(2)
From (2), y  8  2 z . Putting the value of y in (1), we get
x  6  y  z  6  (8  2 z )  z  z  2
Taking z  k , we get x  k  2, y  8  2k , z  k is the general solution of the given system, where
k is an arbitrary constant.
Example 2 : Investigate for what values of  ,  the simultaneous equations
x  y  z  6, x  2 y  3z  10, x  2 y   z   have
(i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.

Solution : The matrix form of the given system of equations is

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1 1 1  x  6 
AX  1 2 3   y    10   B
     
1 2    z    

The augmented matrix is

1 1 1 : 6 
[ A: B]   1 2 3 : 10 
 
 1 2  :  

Operating R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  R1

1 1 1 : 6 
~ 0 1 2 : 4 
 
 0 1   1 :   6 

Operating R3  R3  R2

1 1 1 : 6 
~ 0 1 2 : 4 
 
 0 0   3 :   10 

(i) The system will have no solution if [ A : B ]   ( A) which is possible only if   3 and   10 .
(ii) The system will have a unique solution if [ A : B]   ( A)  number of unknowns  3 , which is
possible only if   3 and  is arbitrary.
(iii) The system will have an infinite number of solutions if [ A : B]   ( A)  number of unknowns.
which is possible only if   3,   10

Exercise 3.1
1. (i) Solve the equations :
x  y  2z  w  5 , 2 x  3 y  z  2w  2 , 4 x  5 y  3z  7
(ii) Check whether the following system equations is consistent or not :
2 x  y  z  4 , 3x  y  z  6 , 4 x  y  2 z  7 ,  x  y  z  9
2. Check the consistency of the following system of equations and find the solution if it is consistent :
(i) 4 x  3 y  2 z  7 , 2 x  y  4 z  1 , x  2 y  z  1
(ii) x  2 y  3z  4t  0 , 2 x  3 y  4 z  1 , 3 x  4 y  t  2 , 4 x  z  2t  3
3. Check the consistency of the following system of equations and solve if it is consistent :
 6

(i) x  4 y  3z  16 , 2 x  7 y  12 z  48 , 4 x  y  6 z  16 , 5 x  5 y  3z  0
(ii) 2 x  y  3z  3 , x  2 y  z  5w  4 , x  3 y  2 z  7 w  5
4. For what values of a and b do the system of equations
x  y  5 z  0, x  2 y  3az  b , x  3 y  az  1 have
(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) infinitely many solutions.
5. Investigate the values of  and  so that the equations
2x  3 y  5z  9 , 7 x  3 y  2z  8 , 2x  3 y   z   have
(i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number solution.
6. For what value of  , the equations x  y  z  1 , x  2 y  4 z   , x  4 y  10 z   2 have a
solution and solve them completely in each case.
7. Show that the equations 2 x  y  z  a , x  2 y  z  b , x  y  2 z  c have no solution unless
a  b  c  0 in which case they have infinitely many solutions. Find the solution when
a  1, b  1, c  2 .

1  2 1   x   1 
8. For what value of  , does the system  3 1 2   y    1  has
 
 0 1    z   1 

(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) More than one solution
9. Solve the system of equations  x  2 y  2 z  1, 4 x  2 y  z  2, 6 x  6 y   z  3 considering
specially the case when   2 .
10. Determine whether each of the following systems is linear :
(a) 3 x  4 y  2 y z  8 (b) ex  3 y   (c) 2 x  3 y  kz  4
11. Consider each of the following systems in unknowns x and y :
(a) x  ay 1 (b) ax  3 y  2 (c) x  ay  3
ax  4 y  b 12x  ay  b 2x  5 y  b
For which values of a does each system have a unique solution, and for which pairs of values (a, b)
does each system have more than one solution ?
12. Solve :
(a) x  y  2z  4 (b) x  2 y  3z  2 (c) x  2 y  3z  3
2 x  3 y  6 z 10 2x  3 y  8z  7 2 x  3 y  8z  4
3 x  6 y  10 z 17 3 x  4 y  13z  8 5 x  8 y  19 z 11
13. Consider each of the following systems in unknowns x, y, z :
(a) x  2 y 1 (b) x  2 y  2z  1 (c) x  y  az 1
x  y  az  2 x  ay  3 z  3 x  ay  z  4
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ay  9 z  b x  11y  az  b ax  y  z  b

For which values of a does the system have a unique solution, and for which pairs of values  a, b 

does the system have more than one solution ? The value of b does not have any effect on whether
the system has a unique solution. Why ?
14. Write v as a linear combination of u1 , u2 , u3 , where :

(a) v  (4, –9,2), u1  (1, 2, –1), u2  (1, 4, 2), u3  (1, –3, 2) ;

(b) v  (1, 3, 2), u1  (1, 2, 1), u2  (2, 6, 5), u3  (1, 7, 8) ;

(c) v  (1, 4, 6), u1  (1, 1, 2), u2  (2, 3, 5), u3  (3, 5, 8).

15. Solve : 1  i  x  2 y  1

1  i  x  2iy  i
16. Let A be any m  n matrix such that Ax  b is consistent for every b   m , then what can you say
about m, n and   A  ?

Answers
1. (i) Inconsistent system (ii) Inconsistent
13 5 3 9 1 1 1
2. (i) x   , y , z (ii) x  , y , z , t
4 2 4 11 11 11 11
9 16 6 16
3. (i) x   k  , y   k  , z k
5 3 5 3
(ii) x  2  k1  k2 , y  1  k1  2k2 , z  k1, w  k2

1 1
4. (i) a  1, b  (ii) a  1, b is arbitrary (iii) a  1, b 
2 2
5. (i)   5,   9 (ii)   5,  arbitrary (iii)   5,   9
6. For   1; x  1  2k , y  3k , z  k , for   2; x  2k , y  1  3k , z  k
7. x  z  1, y  z  1 8. (i)   1, (ii)   1 (iii) More than one solution is not possible.
1
9. x   k , y  k , z  0
2
10. (a) no, (b) yes, (c) linear x, y, z, not linear in x, y, z, k
 8

5 5 
11. (a) a  2,  2, 2  ,  2,  2  , (b) a  6,  6, 4  ,  6,  4  , (c) a  ,  ,6 
2 2 

 1
12. (a)  2,1,  , (b) no solution, (c) u   7a  1, 2a  2, a  .
 2

13. (a) a  3,  3,3 ,  3,  3 , (b) a  5 and a  1,  5,7  ,  1,  5  , (c) a  1 and a   2,  2,  5 

14. (a) 2, –1, 3 (b) 4, –2, 1 (c) not possible

1  2k
15. x   , yk 16. m  n and   A   m .
1 i
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 System of homogeneous linear equations

Consider a system of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns

a11 x1  a12 x2  .............  a1n xn  0 

a21 x1  a22 x2  .............  a2 n xn  0 

...................................................... ......(1)
......................................................

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ............  amn xn  0 

This system can be written as a single matrix equation Ax = O ......(2)

 a11 a12 .... a1n   x1   0 
a a22 .... a2 n  x   0 
where A   21 , x  2 , O 
 .... .... .... ....     
     
 am1 am 2 .... amn  m n  xn  n  1  0  m 1
The matrix A is called the co-efficient matrix of the system of equations (1).
Obviously x1  0, x2  0,......., xn  0 i.e., x  O is always a solution of system (1). it is called a

trivial (or obvious) solution of system (1).

Results :
1. Since zero solution is always a solution of a homogeneous system so the system of homogeneous
linear equations is always consistent.
2. Linear combination of solutions of a homogeneous system is also a solution.
Suppose x1 and x2 are two solutions of (2). Then their linear combination k1 x1  k2 x2 is also a

solution of (2), where k1 and k2 are any arbitrary numbers. Since x1 and x2 are solutions of (2)

 Ax1  O and Ax2  O  A(k1 x1  k2 x2 )  k1 Ax1  k2 Ax2  k1 (O)  k2 (O)  O

Hence k1 x1  k2 x2 is also a solution of (2).

3. Linear combination of solutions of a non-homogeneous system need not be a solution.
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4. Let Ax  b be a non-homogeneous system and x1, x2 are two solutions of this system. If k1 and

k2 are two scalars such that k1  k 2  1, then k1x1  k2 x2 is also a solution of Ax  b . In words,
convex combination of solutions of a non-homogeneous system is also a solution.
5. A homogeneous system of n linear equations in n unknowns , whose determinant of co-efficients
does not vanish, has only trivial solution.
6. A system of m homogeneous equations in n unknowns has a solution other than trivial solution if
and only if rank r of the coefficient matrix A is less than n, the number of unknowns .
7. The number of linearly independent solutions of m homogeneous linear equations in n variables
Ax  O is  n  r  , where r is the rank of the matrix A.

8. Working rule for finding the solution of the system of homogeneous equation Ax  O :
Reduce the coefficient matrix A to echelon form by applying elementary row transformations only
and find the rank of the matrix A. Let it be r then
(i) If  ( A)  n , the number of unknowns, then zero solution (trivial solution) is the only solution.
(ii) If  ( A)  n , the number of unknowns, then the system will have infinitely many solutions of

which  n  r  solutions are linearly independent. These linearly independent solutions are obtained

by giving arbitrary values to  n  r  unknowns and solving for remaining r unknowns.

9. Dimension of solution space of the homogeneous system Ax  O is n  r where n is number of

unknowns and r is the rank of the matrix A.
Remark : The set of all solutions of a non-homogeneous system does not form a vector space and
therefore, there is no question of its basis and dimension.
10. The set of all solutions of a non-homogeneous system Ax  b spans a vector space of dimension
n   ( A)  1 .
OR
Let A be an m  n matrix with rank r, then the dimension of smallest subspace of  n containing
all solutions of the non-homogeneous system Ax  b is n  r  1 .
11. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , the following statements are equivalent :
(i) The system has a unique solution.
(ii) The system has only the trivial solution.
(iii) The system has no non-trivial solutions.
12. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , the following statements are equivalent :
 10
(i) The system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) The system has non-trivial solutions.
(iii) The system has atleast two solutions.
13. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , where A is a square matrix, then
(i) If A  0 , then system has unique solution i.e., only the trivial solution.

(ii) If A  0 , then system has infinitely many solutions i.e., non-trivial solutions exists.

Remark : The determinant approach does not work for non-square system.
14. In a homogeneous system,
(i) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has either unique or infinitely
many solutions.
Proof : (i) Let Ax  0 be a system such that A is an m  n matrix, where n  m .
Then, r  rank of A  min{m, n}  m  n
 nr  0  nr 1  system has atleast 1 free variable
 system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) Let Ax  0 be a system such that A is an m  n matrix, where n  m ,
then r = rank of A  min{m, n}  n  n  r  0.
If n  r  0 , then there is no free variable and hence system has a unique solution i.e.,
x  0, y  0, z  0 (only trivial solution)
If n  r  0 , then there is atleast 1 free variable and hence the system has infinitely many solutions.
The following table illustrates the situation with the help of examples.

Sr. No. Relation Unique solution Infinite solutions No solution

1. V E not possible x y z  0 not possible
2x  y  2z  0
2. V E x  2y  0 x  2y  0 not possible
2x  3 y  0 2x  4 y  0
3. VE x  2y  0 x  2y  0 not possible
2x  3 y  0 2x  4 y  0
3x  5 y  0 3x  6 y  0

Here, V denotes the number of variables and E denotes the number of equations.

Example 1 : Find all the solutions of the following system of equations :

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3 x  4 y  z  6 w  0, 2 x  3 y  2 z  3w  0, 2 x  y  14 z  9w  0, x  3 y  13z  3w  0
Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation
3 4 1  6   x 
2 3 2  3   y 
AX   O
2 1 14  9   z 
   
1 3 13 3  w
We shall first find the rank of the coefficient matrix A by reducing it to echelon form by applying E-
row transformations only
Applying R4  R1 , we get

1 3 13 3
2 3 2 3 
A~
2 1 14 9 
 
3 4 1  6 

Applying R2  R2  2 R1 , R3  R3  2 R1 , R4  R4  3R1

1 3 13 3 
 0  3  24  9 
~ 
 0  5  40  15 
 
 0  5  40  15 
1 1 1
Applying R2   R2 , R3   R3 , R4   R4
3 5 5
1 3 13 3 
0 1 8 3 
~
0 1 8 3
 
0 1 8 3

Applying R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  R2

1 3 13 3 
0 1 8 3 
~ 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0

 Rank of A  2  4 , the number of unknowns

Therefore the given system of equations possess 4  2  2 linearly independent solutions. The given
system of equations is equivalent to
 12

1 3 13 3   x   0 
0 1 8 3   y   0 
 
0 0 0 0  z  0
     
0 0 0 0 w 0

x  3 y  13z  3w  0 
This give the equations 
y  8 z  3w  0 
Solving these equations, we get
y   8 z  3w, x   3( 8 z  3w)  13z  3w or y  8 z  3w, x  11z  6w
Then x  11k1  6k2 , y   8k1  3k 2 , z  k1, w  k2 is the general solution of the given system of
equations, where k1 and k2 are arbitrary numbers.
Example 2 : Discuss for all values of k the system of equations
2 x  3ky  (3k  4) z  0, x  (k  4) y  (4k  2) z  0, x  2(k  1) y  (3k  4) z  0
Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation
2 3k 3k  4  x
AX  1 k  4 4k  2 
  yO
   
 1 2k  2 3k  4   z 

Operating R1  R2 , we have

 1 k  4 4k  2 
A  2 3k 3k  4 
 
 1 2k  2 3k  4 

Operating R2  R2  2 R1 , R3  R3  R1 , we have

 1 k  4 4k  2  x
 0 k  8  5k   y  O ……(1)
   
 0 k  2  k  2   z 

The given system of equations possess linearly independent solution if rank of coefficient matrix A is
less than 3. For the matrix A to be of rank less than 3, we must have
A 0

i.e., (k  8)( k  2)  5k (k  2)  0

i.e.,  k 2  2k  8k  16  5k 2  10k  0

i.e., 4k 2  16  0
i.e., k 2
Now three cases arise.
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Case I : When k  2 , the given system of equations possesses no linearly independent solution and
x  y  z  0 is the only solution.
Case II : If k  2 , the equation (1) reduces to

1 6 10  x
 0  6 10  yO
   
 0 0 0   z 

The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, the given system of equations now possesses
3  2  1 linearly independent solution.
This gives equations 6 y  10 z  0, x  6 y  10 z  0
5
Thus y   z, x  0
3
5
Hence x  0, y   c, z  c
3
or x  0, y   5k , z  3k is the general solution of the given system where k is an arbitrary
parameter.
Case III : If k  2 , the equation (1) reduces to

1 2  6  x 
 0 10 10   y   O
  
 0  4 4   z 

 1 2 6  x
1 1  0 1 1   y O
Operating R3  R3 , R2  R2
4 10    
 0 1 1   z 

1 2 6  x
Operating R3  R3  R2  0 1 1   y O
   
 0 0 0   z 

The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, the given system of equat ions now possesses
3  2  1 linearly independent solution.
This gives the equations  y  z  0, x  2 y  6 z  0
Thus y  z, x  4z
Hence x  4k , y  k , z  k is the general solution of the given system, where k is an arbitrary
parameter.
 14

Exercise 3.2
1. Solve the following system of equations and show they can have only trivial solution:
(i) x y z  0 (ii) x y z  0
x  2y  z  0 3x  y  4 z  0
2 x  y  3z  0 7 x  3 y  9z  0
4x  2 y  5z  0
2. Solve the following system of equations :
(i) x  y  2 z  3w  0 (ii) x1  2 x2  x3  x4  0

3x  2 y  4 z  w  0 3 x1  2 x2  3 x3  4 x4  0

4 x  2 y  9w  0 4 x1  x2  x4  0

3. Solve the following system of equations completely :

(i) 3 x  y  z  2w  0 (ii) x  2y  z  w  0 (iii) 4 x  2 y  z  3u  0
6 x  2 y  2 z  4 w  0 x  y  2 z  3w  0 6 x  3 y  4 z  7u  0
12 x  3 y  4 z  6 w  0 4 x  y  5 z  8w  0 2x  y  u  0
5x  7 y  2 z  w  0
4. (i) Find the value of k such that the system of equations x  ky  3 z  0, 4 x  3 y  kz  0,
2 x  y  2 z  0 has a non-trivial solution.
(ii) Find the value of k such that the given system of equations has a non-trivial solution.

 3k  8 x  3 y  3 z  0
3 x  (3k  8) y  3 z  0
3 x  3 y  (3k  8) z  0
5. Find the dimension and a basis of the general solution W of each of the following homogeneous
systems :
(a) x  y  2 z  0 (b) x  2 y  3z  0 (c) x  2 y  3z  t  0
2x  y  z  0 2x  5 y  2z  0 2 x  4 y  7 z  4t  0
5x  y  4 z  0 3x  y  4 z  0 3 x  6 y  10 z  5t  0
6. Find the dimension and a basis of the general solution W of each of the following systems :
(a) x1  3x2  2 x3  x4  x5  0 (b) 2 x1  4 x2  3x3  x4  2 x5  0

2 x1  6 x2  5 x3  x4  x5  0 3 x1  6 x2  5 x3  2 x4  4 x5  0

5 x1  15 x2  12 x3  x4  3x5  0 5 x1  10 x2  7 x3  3x4  18 x5  0
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Answers
1. (i) x  y  z  0 (ii) x  y  z  0
13 17 11 7 29
2. (i) x  k , y  k, z  k, w  k (ii) x1  k , x2   k , x3  k , x4  k
2 4 16 4 16
1 1
3. (i) x  k1 , y  k2 , z  k1 , w  k 2
3 2
5 4
(ii) x  k1  k 2 , y  k1  k2 , z  k1 , w  k 2
3 3
(iii) x  k1 , u  k2 , y  2k1  k2 , z   k2

9 11 2
4. (i) k  0, (ii) k  or
2 3 3
5. (a) dim W 1, u1   1,1,1 (b) dim W  0, no basis, (c) dim W  2, u1   2,1,0, 0  , u2   5,0,  2,1

6. (a) dim W  3, u1  (–3, 1, 0, 0, 0), u2  (7, 0, –3, 1, 0), u3  (3, 0, –1, 0 1)

(b) dimW = 2, u1  (2, 1, 0, 0,0), u2  ( 12 , 0, 12, 14, 1)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 Relation between homogeneous and non-homogeneous system
Results :
 Generalsolution of non   Particular solution of non   General solution of corresponding 
1.      homogeneous system 
 homogeneous system   homogeneous system   
2. (i) If Ax  0 has infinitely many solutions, then Ax  b has either no solution (if relation is not
maintained) or infinitely many solutions (if relation is maintained).
(ii) If Ax  0 has a unique solution, then Ax  b has either unique solution or no solution.

Sr. No. Homogeneous system Solution Corresponding Solution

non-homogeneous system
1. x  2y  0 unique x  2y 1 unique
2x  3 y  0 2x  3 y  4
2. x  2y  0 unique x  2y 1 no solution
2x  3 y  0 2x  3 y  4
3x  5 y  0 3x  5 y  6
 16

3. x  2y  0 infinite x  2y 1 infinite
2x  4 y  0 2x  4 y  2
4. x  2y  0 infinite x  2y 1 no solution
2x  4 y  0 2x  4 y  3

3. (i) If Ax  b has a unique solution, then Ax  O has also a unique solution.

(ii) If Ax  b has infinitely many solutions, then Ax  O has also infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If Ax  b has no solution, then Ax  O has either a unique solution or infinitely many
solutions.
Sr. No. Non-homogeneous system Solution Corresponding Solution
homogeneous system
1. x  2y 1 unique x  2y  0 unique
2x  3 y  4 2x  3 y  0
2. x  2y 1 infinite x  2y  0 infinite
2x  4 y  2 2x  4 y  0
3. x  2y 1 no solution x  2y  0 infinite
2x  4 y  3 2x  4 y  0
4. x  2y 1 no solution x  2y  0 unique
2x  3 y  4 2x  3 y  0
3x  5 y  6 3x  5 y  0

4. Let A be any m  n matrix and b be any m  1 vector, then

(i) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b and Ax  0 both have infinite solutions.

(ii) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solution and

Ax  0 has infinte solutions.

(iii) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b and Ax  0 has either unique solution or infinite

solutions.
(iv) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

(v) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or unique solution and

Ax  0 has a unique solution.

(vi) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

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(vii) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or unique solution and

Ax  0 has a unique solution.

(viii) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

Exercise 3.3
1. Show that the system of equations
x y z 0
x  2y  z  0
2 x  y  3z  0
has only the trivial solution and hence find the number of solutions of the corresponding non-
homogeneous system Ax  b for any b  3
2. Show that the system of equation
3x  y  z  2w  0
6 x  2 y  2 z  4 w  0
12 x  3 y  4 z  6w  0
has infinitely many solutions and have find the number of solutions of the corresponding non-
1
homogeneous system Ax  b where b   2
 2

3. Show that the system of equations

2x  3 y  z  9
x y z  6
x y z  2
has a unique solution and hence find the number of solution of the corresponding homogeneous
system of equation Ax  0 .
4. Show that the system of equation
x  3y  z  4
2x  y  z  7
2x  4 y  4z  6
3x  4 y  11
 18
has infinite solutions and hence find the number of solution of the corresponding homogeneous
system of equation Ax  0 .
5. Solve the system of non-homogeneous equation
x  4 y  3 z  16
2 x  7 y  12 z  48
4 x  y  6 z  16
5x  5 y  3z  0

Answers
 16 16   9k 6k 
1. unique 2. no 3. unique 4. infinite 5.  , ,0    , ,k 
 3 3   5 5 
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True-false exercise 9. The product Ax, where A is an m  n matrix

and x is a column vector with n
components, is defined to be the linear
3 x1  2 x2  5 x3  1 combination of the columns of A with
 coefficients equal to the components in the
1. Let  4 x2  x3  14
 x vector.
 2 x3  4
If  x1 , x2 , x3  is a solution of this system of 10. The product Ax of a matrix A and a vector
x is defined to be a linear combination of
equations, then x2  3.
the rows of A, with coefficients equal to the
components of the vector x.
 x1  3 x2  7 x3  2
 11. The product Ax is defined if the number of
2. Consider  4 x2  x3  8 x1
2 x  2  3 x  11 components in the vector x equals the
 3 1 number of rows of A.
The augmented matrix for the system is
1 3 7 2  12. Let A be an m  n matrix in which m  n .
0 4 1 8  Then there will exist a vector b such that
  the system of linear equations Ax  b is
 2 2 3 11
inconsistent.

3. Any two linear equations in three variables 13. Let A be an m  n matrix for which n  m .
has a solution. If the equation Ax  b is consistent, then it
has many solutions.
4. Some pair of linear equations in two
variables has no solution. 14. If A is a k  q matrix and x is a vector in
 q , then Ax is in  k .
5. Every equation of the form ax  by  c has
at least one solution. 15. The matrix equation Ax  b , where A is
n
6. Sometimes a system of two linear m  n , means that a pq x p  bq for
equations with two unknowns will have p 1

exactly two solutions. 1 q  m .

 2 x3  3 16. For any system of linear equations, if there

 is a free variable, then there will be
7. Let 5 x1  2 x2  7 x3  1
 x  3 x  14 infinitely many solutions.
 2 3

If  x1 , x2 , x3  is a solution of this system of 17. A system of linear equations is consistent if

and only if the reduced row echelon form
equations, then x1  1 .
of the augmented matrix has a pivot
element in each column.
3 2  6
8. If A    and x    , then
5 4   7  18. Every system of linear equations having no
free variables is consistent.
4
Ax   
58
 2
19. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the equation
Ax  b has a solution for every b in  m ,
then A has a pivot position in each row.
20. If A is an m  n matrix, then for each b in
 m , the equation Ax  b has a solution.
21. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the equation
Ax  b is consistent for every b in  m ,
then A has a pivot position in each column.
22. A system of linear equations is inconsistent
if and only if the reduced row echelon form
of the augmented matrix contains a row of
the type  a1 a2 .... an | 0 , in which at least
one of the terms ai is not zero.
23. Consider two systems of linear equations,
Ax  b and Cy  d . If A is row equivalent
to C, then the two systems have the same
solutions.
24. If all the entries in A and b are integers, and
if the system of equations Ax  b is
consistent, then the solution vectors will
have only integer components.
1 h 4 
25. If the matrix   is the augmented
3 6 8 
matrix of a consistent system of equations,
then h  2 .
26. If A is a p  q matrix and if q  p , then
every equation of the form Ax  b (where
b   p ) will have infinitely many
solutions.
27. If the matrix A has more rows than
columns, then for some vectors b the
system Ax  b will be inconsistent.
28. The equation Ax  b has a solution if and
only if the corresponding system of
equations has at least one free variable.
29. Let A be an m  n matrix, and let p be the
number of pivot positions in A. Only one of
these conclusions is justified by the
hypothesis :
a: pn b: pn
c: pm d : 2p  n m
30. If A is row equivalent to B, then for any
vector b, the equations Ax  b and Bx  b
have the same solutions.
31. If an m  n matrix A has fewer than n
pivots (pivot positions), then for any vector
b in  m , there will be infinitely many
solutions to the equation Ax  b .
32. If an m  n matrix A has n pivots (or pivot
positions), then for any vector b in  m ,
there will be finitely many solutions to the
equation Ax  b .
33. Let A be an m  n matrix, where n  m . If
Ax  b for some x and b, then for some y
different from x, we have Ay  b .
34. Whenever a system of equations Ax  0
has no free variables, the system has a
unique solution.
35. If the system of equations Ax  b is
inconsistent, then the augmented matrix
 A | b has a pivot position in the last
column.
36. If A is an m  n matrix and Ax  0 for
some nonzero vector x, then m  n .
37. A system of equations Ax  0 has a
nontrivial solution if and only if the rows of
A form a linearly dependent set.
38. Consider a system of equations whose
 1 0 4 / 3 1
augmented matrix is  0 1 0 2

 0 0 0 0 
The general solution of this system can be
written as
 x1   1  4 
 x    2   t 0  , t  
 2    
 x3   0   3 
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39. Every homogeneous system of linear

equations is consistent. 3. What is the dimension of the vector space
formed by the solution of the system of the
40. Let A be a 6  6 matrix such that the following equations ?
equation Ax  b is consistent for each x1  x2  x3  0
vector b in  6 . A valid deduction from this x1  2 x2  0
information is that the equation Ax  0 has
x2  x3  0
nontrivial solutions.
1. 1 2. 2
41. For a 5  4 matrix A, the equation Ax  0 3. 3 4. 0
implies either A  0 or x  0 .
4. If the system of equations x  2 y  3z  1,
42. If a non-homogeneous system of n linear ( p  2) z  3,(2 p  1) y  z  2 is
equations in n variables has a solution, then inconsistent, then what is the value of p?
the coefficient matrix of the system must be 1
invertible. 1. 2 2.  3. 0 4. 2
2
5. The system of equation and kx  y  z  1 ,
43. If A is an n  n matrix such that for each b
x  ky  z  k , x  y  kz  k 3 does not have
in  n the equation Ax  b has a solution,
then A is invertible. a solution, if k is equal to
1. 0 2. 1
3. 1 4. 2
Assignment
6. The system of equations
-------------------- S C Q --------------------- 4 x1  x2  3x3  x4  0
2 x1  3 x2  x3  5 x4  0
1. Under which one of the following x1  2 x2  2 x3  3x4  0 has
condition does the system of equations
1. no solution
1 2 4   x  6 2. only one solution (0,0,0,0)
2 1 2   y    4
      3. infinite number of solutions
 1 2 a  4   z   a  4. only two solutions
have a unique solution ?
7. The system of equations
1. for all a  R 2. a  8
x  y  3z  4
3. for all a  Z 4. a  8
x z  2
2. The system of equations x y z  0
x  y  z 1 1. a unique solution
2. finitely many solutions
2x  3 y  z  5 3. infinitely many solutions
x  2 y  kz  4 4. no solution
where k  , has an infinite number of
solutions for 8. Consider the equation AX  B, where
1. k  0 2. k  1  1 2  3
3. k  2 4. k  3 A   and B    , then
 2 1 1
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
1. the equation has no solution.
 4

0 13. Let M be a m  n(m  n) matrix with rank m.

2.   is a solution of the equation Then,
0
3. there exists a non-zero unique solution 1. for every b in  m , Mx  b has unique
4. the equation has infinitely many solution solution
9. The system of the equations 2. for every b in  m , Mx  b has a solution
2x  y  5 but it is not unique
x  3 y  1 3. there exists b   m for which Mx  b has
3 x  4 y  k is consistent, when k is no solution
1. 1 2. 2 3. 5 4. 10 4. None of the above

10. The value of  for which the system of 14. Let A be a m  n matrix with row rank
equation  r  column rank. The dimension of the
x y z 0 space of solutions of the system of linear
equation AX  0 is
y  2z  0 1. r 2. n  r
 x  z  0 has more than one solution is 3. m  r 4. min (m, n)  r
1. 1 2. 0
1 15. Let A be an m  n matrix where m  n .
3. 4. 1
2 Consider the system of linear equation
AX  b , where b is an m  1 column vector
11. The system of equations and b  0. Which of the following is
x  2y  z  9 always true?
2 x  y  3z  7 1. The system of equations has no solution.
can be expressed as 2. The system of equations has a solution
x if and only if it has infinitely many
 1 2 1  9    solutions.
1.       y 3. The system of equations has a unique
 2 1 3  7   
z solution.
x 4. The system of equations has atleast one
 1 2 1  9    solution.
2.       y
 2 1 3  7   
z 16. The set of all solutions to the system of
x equations (1  i) x1  ix2  0,
 1 2 1    9  2 x1  (1  i ) x2  0 is given by
3.    y   
 2 1 3    7  1. ( x1 , x2 )  (0,0)
z
4. None of these 2. ( x1 , x2 )  (1,1)
  5 5  
3. ( x1 , x2 )  c  1,  cos  i sin  2
12. If 3 x  2 y  z  0
  4 4  
x  4y  z  0 where c is any complex number
2x  y  4z  0  3 3 
be a system of equation, then 4. ( x1, x2 )  c  cos , i sin  , where c is
 4 4 
1. it is inconsistent any complex number.
2. it has only the trivial solution x  0,
y  0, z  0 17. Let S be the solution space of a set of
3. it can be reduced to a single equation m homogeneous linear equations with real
and so a solution does not exist coefficients in n unknowns. If A is the
4. the determinant of the matrix of matrix of this system of equations, then
coefficient is zero 1. dimension S  n  rank A
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2. dimension S is always n The system has

3. dimension S is infinite 1. unique solution
4. dimension S  n  rank A 2. infinite number of solution
3. no solution
4. exactly two solutions
18. Consider the system of linear equations 23. Consider the system
x  y  z  3, x  y  z  4, x  5 y  kz  6 x  y  z  0; x  y  z  0
Then, the value of k for which this system then the system of equation have
has an infinite number of solutions is 1. no solution
1. k  5 2. k  0 2. infinite number of solution
3. k  1 4. k  3 3. unique solution
4. None of the above
19. Find the value of k for which the following
simultaneous equations x  y  z  3; 24. For the set of equations
x  2 y  3z  4; x  4 y  kz  6 will not x1  2 x2  x3  4 x4  2
have a unique solution. 3 x1  6 x2  3 x3  12 x4  6
1. 0 2. 5 The following statement is true
3. 6 4. 7 1. only the trivial solution
x1  x2  x3  x4  0 exists
20. In the matrix equation AX  B, which of 2. there are no solution
the following is a necessary condition for 3. a unique non-trivial solution exists
the existence of atleast one solution for the 4. multiple non-trivial solutions exists
unknown vector X ?
1. Augmented matrix [ A : B] must have the 25. Let A be a 4  3 matrix whose columns
same rank as matrix A . form a linearly independent set which
2. Vector B must have only non-zero conclusion is justified i.e., which are true?
elements. The set of rows in A is linearly dependent.
3. Matrix A must be singular. 2. The equation Ax  b is consistent for
4. Matrix A must be square.
every b in  4 .
3. The equation Ax  0 has a non-trivial
21. Solution for the system defined by the set
solution.
of equations 4 y  3 z  8;2 x  z  2 and
4. There is a matrix B s.t. AB  I 4 .
3 x  2 y  5 is
4
1. x  0; y  1; z  26. Consider the equation 2 x  2 y  1 and
3
2 x  2 y  1 over  3  0,1, 2 (is a finite
1
2. x  0; y  ; z  2 field with three elements under addition
2
1 modulo three). What is the solution of
3. x  1; y  ; z  2 ( x, y ) ?
2
1. (1,1) but not (2,0) 2. (2,0) but not (1,1)
4. not exist
1 
3. Both (1,1) and (2,0) 4.  ,0 
22. Consider the system of simultaneous 2 
equations
x  2 y  z  6; 2 x  y  2 z  6 ;
x y z 5
 6

27. Let A be a 3  3 matrix and consider the independent solutions

1 3. any solution x satisfies x1  x2  x3  0
system of equation AX   0  . Then, 4. any two solutions are linearly dependent
32. Consider the non-homogeneous system of
 1
linear equations Ax  b , where A is m  n ,
1. if the system is consistent, then it has a X   n , b   m , then
unique solution.
I. the corresponding homogeneous system
2. if A is singular, then the system has
infinitely many solution Ax  0 has unique solution  Ax  b has
3. if the system is consistent, then the infinitely many solutions for each vector
A 0 b in R m .
II. the corresponding homogeneous system
4. if the system has a unique solution, then Ax  0 has a non zero solution  there is a
A is non-singular
vector b in R m for which Ax  b has no
solution
28. A system of linear equations
Choose the correct code
x  2 y  z  11, 3 x  y  2 z  10, x  3 y  5
1. I and II are true
1. no solution 2. I is true but II is false
2. exactly one solution 3. I is false but II is true
3. exactly 3 solution 4. both I and II are false
4. infinitely many solution
33. The system of equations
29. Let A be an m  n matrix and x y z 0
b  (b1 , b2 ,..., bm )t be a fixed vector.
3x  6 y  z  0
Consider a system of m linear equations
x  2y  z  0
Ax  b, where x  ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )t .
has infinitely many solutions, then  is
Consider the following statements. equal to
I. If rank n the system has a unique 7 5
solution. 1. 7 2. 3. 4. 4
5 7
II. If rank  n , the system has
infinitely many solutions.
34. Let A be a 5  4 matrix with real entries
III. If b  0, the system has atleast one
such that Ax  0 if and only if x  0
solution.
where x is a 4  1 vector and 0 is null
Which of the following is correct?
1. I and II are true vector. Then, the rank of A is
2. I and III are true 1. 4 2. 5
3. Only I is true 3. 2 4. 1
4. Only III is true (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
35. Let A be an m  n matrix of rank n with
30. A homogeneous system of 5 linear real entries. Choose the correct statement.
equation in 6 variables admits 1. Ax  b has a solution for any b.
1. no solution in  6 2. Ax  0 does not have a solution.
2. a unique solution in  6 3. If Ax  b has a solution, then it is
unique.
3. infinitely many solutions in  6
4. yA  0 for some nonzero y, where y
4. finite, but more than 2 solutions in  6
denotes the transpose of the vector y.
(CSIR NET June 2015)
31. Consider the system of equations
Ax  0 where A is a 2  3 matrix. Then, it
36. Let A be a n  m matrix and b be a n  1
must be true that
vector (with real entries). Suppose the
1. there is a solution x  0
2. there are atleast two linearly
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equation Ax  b , x   m admits a unique ------------------- M C Q -------------------

solution. Then we can conclude that
1. m  n 2. n  m 1. Consider a homogenous system of linear
3. n  m 4. n  m equation Ax  0 , where A is an m  n real
(CSIR NET June 2016) matrix and n  m . Then which of the
following statements are always true ?
37. Let A be a 5  4 matrix with real entries 1. Ax  0 has a solution
such that the space of all solutions of the 2. Ax  0 has no nonzero solution
t
linear system AX t  1, 2,3, 4,5 is given 3. Ax  0 has a nonzero solution
4. Dimension of the space of all solutions
by 1  2s, 2  3s,3  4s, 4  5s : s   .
t
is at least n  m .
(CSIR NET June 2014)
(Here M t denotes the transpose of a
matrix M.) Then the rank of A is equal to 2. Let A be a 3  4 and b be a 3  1 matrix with
1. 4 2. 3 integer entries. Suppose that the system
3. 2 4. 1 Ax  b has a complex solution. Then
(CSIR NET Dec 2011) 1. Ax  b has an integer solution.
 1 1 1  1 2. Ax  b has a rational solution.
38. Let A   1 1 1  and b   3  . Then
  3. The set of real solutions to Ax  0 has
 2 3     a basis consisting of rational solutions.
4. If b  0 then A has positive rank.
the system AX  b over the real numbers
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
has
3. If A is a  5  5  matrix and the dimension
1. no solution whenever   7
2. an infinite number of solutions of the solution space of Ax  0 is at least
whenever   2
3. an infinite number of solutions if   2 two, then
and   7
4. a unique solution if   2
 
1. Rank A2  3  
2. Rank A2  3

(CSIR NET Dec 2017)

39. The system of equations :  
3. Rank A2  3  
4. Det A2  0
(CSIR NET June 2018)
1  x  2  x 2  3  xy  0  y  6

2  x  1 x 2  3  xy  1  y  5

1  x  1 x 2  0  xy  1  y  7
1. has solutions in rational numbers
2. has solutions in real numbers
3. has solutions in complex numbers
4. has no solution
(CSIR NET June 2018)
 8

True false key

1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T
5. F 6. F 7. F 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. T 14. T 15. F 16. F
17. F 18. F 19. T 20. F
21. F 22. F 23. F 24. F
25. F 26. F 27. T 28. F
29. T 30. F 31. F 32. T
33. T 34. T 35. T 36. F
37. F 38. T 39. T 40. F
41. F 42. F 43. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 4 2. 3 3. 1 4. 1
5. 4 6. 3 7. 3 8. 3
9. 4 10. 1 11. 3 12. 2
13. 2 14. 2 15. 2 16. 3
17. 1 18. 1 19. 4 20. 1
21. 4 22. 3 23. 2 24. 4
25. 1 26. 2 27. 4 28. 1
29. 4 30. 3 31. 1 32. 3
33. 2 34. 1 35. 3 36. 2
37. 2 38. 4 39. 4

MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 2,3,4 3. 1,4
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Chapter - 1
1.1 Vector space and subspace
Introduction : This section introduces the concept of vector space. A vector space is a collection of
objects called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied by numbers, called scalars. These
operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication must satisfy certain axioms. Historically, the
first idea leading to vector spaces can be tracked back as far as the 17th century’s analytic geometry,
matrices, system of linear equations and Euclidean vectors.
1.1 Vector space : Let  F ,  ,  be a field. The elements of F are called scalars. Let V be a non-empty

set whose elements are called vectors. Then V is a vector space over the field F (denoted by
V  F  if

(a) there is an internal composition in V called addition of vectors which is denoted by ‘+’ such that
for this composition V is an abelian group, i.e.,
(i)     V for all  ,  V .
(ii)        for all  ,  V .

(iii)               for all  ,  ,   V .

(iv)  an element 0  V such that   0    0   for all   V . This element 0  V is

called the zero vector.
(v) To every vector  V , there exists a vector   V such that       0       .

(b) There is an external composition in V over F called scalar multiplication and is denoted
multiplicatively, i.e., a  V for all a  F and for all   V . In other words, V is closed with
respect to scalar multiplication.
(c) The two composition, i.e., scalar multiplication and addition of vectors satisfy the following
conditions :
(i) a      a  a  a  F and   ,  V .

(ii)  a  b   a  b  a, b  F and    V .

(iii)  ab   a  b   a, b  F and   V .

(iv) 1.     V and 1 is the unity of the field F.

 2
Note 1 : A field K can be regarded as a vector space over any subfield F of K. If F is any field, then F
itself is a vector space over the field F.
Note 2 : If  is the field of complex numbers and  is the field of real numbers, then  is a vector
space over  because  is a subfield of  but  is not a vector space over  as  is not closed
with respect to scalar multiplication. For example, 2   and 3  4i   but  3  4i  2   .

 The set of all ordered n-tuples over a field F forms a vector space.
 Let S be any non-empty set and let F be any field. Let V be the set of all functions from S to F,
i.e., V   f | f : S  F  . Let the sum of two elements f and g in V be defined as follows :

f  g  x   f  x   g  x   x  S .

Also, let the scalar multiplication of an element f in V by an element c in F be defined as follows :

 cf  x   cf  x   x  S . Then V  F  is a vector space.

Note 3 : Let V be the set of all m  n matrices with entries from an arbitrary field K, then V forms a
vector space over the field F, where either F  K or F is subfield of K.
General Properties of a vector space : Let V  F  be a vector space and 0 be the zero vector of V.

Then,
(i) a0  0  a  F
(ii) 0  0   V .

(iii) a        a   a  V .

(iv)  a     a   a  F ,  a V .

(v) a      a  a   a  F and   ,  V .

(vi) a  0  either a  0 or   0 .

Theorem 1.1.1 Let V  F  be a vector space.

(i) If a, b  F and  is a non-zero vector of V, then a  b  a b.

(ii) If  ,  V and a is a non-zero element of F, then a  a    .

Example 1.1.1 Show that the set of all elements of type a  b 2  c 3 3 ; a, b, c   form a vector
space over the field  under usual addition and scalar multiplication of real numbers.

Solution : Given, V  a  b 2  c 3 3 | a, b, c   .

Let x  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3 . y  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 ; a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2   .
Then the addition and scalar multiplication is defined as :
x  y   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3 and  x   a1    b1  2   c1  3 3
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I. Under addition (Internal composition)

A1 Closure : Let x, y  V .

   
Then x  y  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3 V

 a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2    a1  a2 , b1  b2 , c1  c2  

 closure property holds in V.

A2 Associativity : Let x, y and z  V , where z  a3  b3 2  c3 3 3 ; a3 , b3 , c3  

    
Then x   y  z   a1  b1 2  c1 3 3   a2  b2 2  c2 3 3  a3  b3 2  c3 3 3 
  
 
 a1  b1 2  c1 3 3   a2  a3    b2  b3  2   c2  c3  3 3 

  a1   a2  a3     b1   b2  b3   2   c1   c2  c3   3 3

   a1  a2   a3     b1  b2   b3  2    c1  c2   c3  3 3   x  y   z

(  Associative law holds in  )

 Associative law holds in V
A3 Existence of identity : Let x  V , i.e., x  a  b 2  c 3 3 a, b, c  

Also, 0  0  0 2  0 3 3 V

   
Now 0  x  0  0 2  0 3 3  a  b 2  c 3 3   0  a    0  b  2   0  c  3 3

 a b 2  c3 3
Similarly x  0  x  0 x  x  x0

 0  0 2  0 3 3 is the additive identity in V.

A4 Existence of Inverse : Let x V , i.e., x  a  b 2  c 3 3 a, b, c  

Then  x   a    b  2   c  3 3  V  a, b, c     a, b, c   

  
Now x    x   a  b 2  c 3 3    a    b  2   c  3 3 
  a   a     b   b   2   c   c   3 3  0  0 2  0 3 3  0

Similarly,   x   x  0;

 x   x  0   x  x
 4

  x   a    b  2    c  3 3 is the additive inverse of x  a  b 2  c 3 3 in V.

A5 Commutativity : Let x, y  V ,

  
Then x  y  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 
( Commutative law holds in  )

  
 a2  b2 2  c2 3 3  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  y  x 
 Addition is commutative.
II. Under scalar multiplication (External Composition)
Let    and x  V

 
Then  x   a  b 2  c 3 3   a    b  2   c  3 3 (  , a     a  ; etc)

 V is closed under scalar multiplication.

III. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors
M1 Let  ,    and x  V


Then     x      a  b 2  c 3 3 
     a      b 2      c 3 3   a   a    b   b  2   c   c  3 3

  
 a  b 2  c 3 3   a   b 2   c 3 3 

 a b 2 c3 3   a  b 
2 c3 3 x x

Hence,     x   x   x   ,    and  x  V

M2 Let    and x, y  V

  
Then   x  y    a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a2  b2 2  c2 3 3 
  
   a1  a2    b1  b2  2   c1  c2  3 3     a1  a2      b1  b2  2    c1  c2  3 3

  a1   a2    b1   b2  2   c1   c2  3 3

  
  a1   b1 2   c1 3 3   a2   b2 2   c2 3 3 

  a1  b1 2  c1 3 3  a 2 
 b2 2  c2 3 3   x   y

Hence,   x  y    x   y     and  x, y  V

M3 Let  ,    and x  V

Then   x     a  b 2  c 3 3 

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   a     b  2    c  3 3     a      b   2     c  c 3 3

 
   a   b 2   c 3 3      a  b 2  c 3 3      x 
 
Hence,   x     x    ,    and x  V

M4 Let 1 be the unity element of  and x  V .

 
Then 1  x  1 a  b 2  c 3 3  1  a   1 b  2  1 c  3 3  a  b 2  c 3 3  x

Hence, V is a vector space over  .

Example 1.1.2 Let   be the set of positive real numbers. Define the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication as follows :
u  v  u  v  u , v    and au  u a ,  u    and a  

Show that   is a real vector space (vector space over  )

Solution :    

1. (Internal Composition) : (   ,  ) is an abelian group

A1 Closure : Since product of two positive real numbers is a positive real number.   is closed

with respect to ‘+’

A2 Associativity :  u  v   w   u  v   w and u   v  w   u   v  w 

Since  u  v   w  u   v  w  (in real numbers)

  u  v   w  u   v  w  u , v, w   

A3 Exitence of identity : For each u    , there exists 1    such that u  1  u 1  u

Also 1  u  1  u  u  1 is the additive identity.

1 1 1
A4 Existence of inverse : For each u    , there exists    such that u   u   1 and
u u u
1 1 1
 u  u  1  is the inverse of u
u u u
A5 Commutativity : u  v  u  v and v  u  v  u
Since u  v  v  u ,  u  v  v  u .
II. Scalar multiplication (External Composition)
Suppose u    and a  
 6

Then au  u a (Clearly u a    ,  u    and a   )

 For u    and a  , au       is closed with respect to scalar multiplication.

III. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors
Scalar multiplication is defined by a  u  u a ,  u    and a   . It satisfies the following
properties :
M1 1  u  u1  u
a a
M2 a u  v   u  v   u  v   u a  va

Also, au  av  u a  v a  u a  v a (By definition of ‘+’)

 a  u  v   au  av,  a   and u , v   

M3  a  b  u   u ab (By definition of scalar multiplication)

 u a  u b  u a  u b  au  bu
Hence,  a  b  u  au  bu  a, b   and  u   
a
M4  ab  u  u ab and a  bu   a  u b    u b   u ba  u ab

  ab  u  a  bu   a, b   and  u   

Hence,   is a vector space over  .

Example 2 : Show that the axiom u  v  v  u of a vector space can be derived from the other
axioms.
Proof : Commutativity can be derived from associativity, distributivity and from the existence of
inverses as : u  v    v  u   u  v   v  u (by distributivity)

 u  v  v  u (by associativity)

u 0u (by existence of inverse)

u u (by existence of inverse)
0
So, u v  vu
Exercise 1.1
1. (Number system) : Which of the following are vector spaces ?
(i)     (ii)     (iii)     (iv)    

(v)     (vi)     (vii)     (viii)    

(ix)     (x)     (xi)     (xii)    

(xiii)     (xiv)     (xv)     (xvi)    

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2. (n-tuples) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :

(i) n    (ii) n    (iii) n   

(iv)  n    (v)  n    (vi) n   

 
Notation : M m ,n  F    aij  aij  F = Set of all m  n matrices whose entries are from F.
mn

3. (Matrices) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :

(i) M m,n    over  (ii) M m,n    over  (iii) M m,n    over 

(iv) M m,n    over  (v) M m,n    over  (vi) M m,n    over 

Notation : Pn  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is a fixed non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials of degree atmost n with coefficients from F and the zero
polynomial.
4. (Polynomials of degree atmost n) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) Pn    over  (ii) Pn    over  (iii) Pn    over 

(iv) Pn    over  (v) Pn    over  (vi) Pn    over 

Notation : P  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is any non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials with coefficients from F.

5. (All polynomials) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) P    over  (ii) P    over  (iii) P    over 

(iv) P    over  (v) P    over  (vi) P    over 

6. (Functions) : Show that the set V of all real valued continuous functions of x defined on interval
 0,1 is a vector space over the field R of real numbers with respect to vector addition and scalar

multiplication defined by ( f1  f 2 ) x = f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x) for all f1 , f 2  V

(af1 ) x = af1 ( x) for all a  R , f1  V .

7. (Finite vector spaces) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) np over  p (ii) M m,n   p  over  p (iii) Pn   p  over  p

8. Find the number of elements in the vector spaces given in above question.
9. Write all the elements of following vector spaces :
 8

(i)  22 over  2 (ii) 32 over  2 (iii)  23 over  3

(iv) 33 over  3 (v) M 2,2   2  over  2 (vi) M 2,3   2  over  2

(vii) P2   2  over  2 (viii) P2   3  over  3 (ix) P3   2  over  2

10. Show that every field is a vector space over itself.

11. Show that every field is a vector space over its subfield .
12. Let   be the set of all positive real numbers. Define the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as : u  v  u.v for all u , v    and au  u a for all u    , a   . Show that

  is a vector space over  .

13. Let V  (a , b) : a , b   then show that V is not a vector space over reals under addition

and scalar multiplication defined as in each one of the following cases :

(i) ( a , b)  (c , d )  (0 , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , kb)
(ii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  (0 , kb)
(iii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , b)

(iv)  a , b    c, d    a  d , b  c  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(v)  a , b    c, d    a  c, b  d  and k  a, b    a, b 

(vi)  a, b    c, d    0, 0  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(vii)  a, b    c, d    ac, bd  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

14. Prove that the set of all vectors in a plane over the field of real numbers is a vector space over 
with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication.
 x y
15. Prove that the set of all matrices of the form  , where x, y   , the set of complex
 y x 
numbers , is a vector space over  with respect to matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

16. Show that the set   2  = a  b 

2 : a, b   is a vector space over  with respect to the

vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as ( a  b 2)  ( c  d 2)  ( a  c)  (b  d ) 2

and  ( a  b 2)  a  b 2 where a, b, c, d and  are all rational numbers.

17. Show that the set V of all polynomials with constant term 2 over  is not a vector space over  .
Further tell which fixed value can be assigned to the constant term so that V can become a vector
space.
Answers
1. (vi), (vii), (viii), (xi), (xii), (xvi) 8. (i) p n (ii) p mn (iii) p n1
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Practice set - 1
Exercise 1. Show that the set of all real valued continuous (differential or integrable) functions
defined on the interval  0,1 forms a vector space over the field of real numbers.

Exercise 2. Show that the set of all real convergent sequences is a vector space over the field of real
numbers.
Exercise 3. Let V be the set of all pairs  x, y  of real numbers, and let F be the field of real numbers.

Define  x, y    x1, y1    x  x1 ,0  , c  x, y    cx,0  . Is V, with these operations, a vector space over

the field of real numbers ?

Exercise 4. Let V be the set of all pairs  x, y  of real numbers, and let F be the field of real numbers.

Examine in each of the following cases whether V is a vector space over the field of real numbers or
not ?
(i)  x, y    x1, y1    x  x1, y  y1 
c  x, y    c x, c y  .

(ii)  x, y    x1, y1    x  x1, y  y1 

c  x, y    0, cy  .

(iii)  x, y    x1, y1    x  x1, y  y1 


c  x, y   c 2 x, c 2 y 
(iv)  x, y    x1, y1    x, y  and c  x, y    cx, cy 

Exercise 5. Let  be the field of real numbers and let Pn be the set of all real polynomials (of degree

at most n) over the field  . Then prove that Pn is a vector space over the field  .

1.2 Vector subspace :

Def. Let V be a vector space over the field F and let W  V . Then W is called a subspace of V if W
itself is a vector space over F with respect to the operations of vector addition and scalar
multiplication in V.
Note : Let V  F  be any vector space. Then V itself and the subset of V consisting of zero vector only

are always subspaces of V. These two are called improper subspaces. If V has any other subspace, then
 10
it is called a proper subspace. The subspace of V consisting of zero vector only is called the zero
subspace.
Theorem 1.2.1 The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset W of a vector space
V  F  to be a subspace of V is that W is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication in V,

i.e,
(i)  ,   W     W (ii)    W and a  F  a W
Theorem 1.2.2 The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset W of a vector space
V  F  to be a subspace of V if a, b  F and ,   W  a  b  W

1.2 Subspaces
Def. Subspace : Let V(F) be a vector space. A non empty subset W of V is said to be a subspace of
V if W itself is a vector space over F with the same vector addition and scalar multiplication as for V.
Remarks :
1. For every vector space V , the entire space V and zero space {0} are always subspaces of V and are
called improper subspaces. All subspaces other than these two are called proper subspaces.
2. It is clear that in any subset W of V , associativity of addition , commutativity of addition and four
properties of scalar multiplication are always satisfied. i.e., out of ten properties of a vector space ,
six are always satisfied in every subset. So to prove W a subspace our main emphasis is on the
four remaining properties, namely, closure of addition, existence of additive identity , existence of
additive inverse and closure of scalar multiplication.
Def . Disjoint subspaces : Let V(F) be a vector space. Two subspaces W1 and W2 of V are said to be

disjoint if their intersection is the zero subspace, i.e. W1  W2  0 .

Remark : By two disjoint sets A and B we mean that their intersection is empty. That intuition
should not be mixed up with the definition of disjoint subspaces.
Results :
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset W of a vector space V to be a subspace
of V is that W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication.
2. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) to be a
subspace of V is that au  v  W for all u , v  W and a  F .
3. A necessary and sufficient conditions for a non empty subset W of a vector space V(F) to be a
subspace are : (i) u  v  W for all u , v  W (ii) au  W for all a  F , u  W .
4. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset W of a vector space V(F) be a
subspace of V is that au  bv  W for all u , v  W ; a , b  F .
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5. The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V(F) is again a subspace of V(F).
6. The intersection of an arbitrary family of subspaces of a vector space is again a subspace of that
vector space.
7. The union of two subspaces of a vector space V(F) may not be a subspace of V(F) .
e.g., Consider the vector space V3  R  where V3  ( x , y , z ) : x , y , z  R then it can be

easily checked that W1  (x , 0 , 0) : x  R and W2  (0 , y , 0) : y  R are both

subspace of V3 .

Now consider , W1  W2  (x , 0 , 0) or (0 , y , 0) where x , y  R

Now 1,0,0  and  0,1,0  belongs to W1  W2 but 1,0,0    0,1,0   1,1,0   W1  W2 . Hence

W1  W2 is not closed under addition and so it is not a subspace of V3  R  .

8. The union of two subspaces is a subspace iff one is contained in the other.
9. Geometrical interpretation of subspaces of  3 :
(i) A line in the space  3 is a subspace iff it passes through the origin. Further,

 x, y, z    3
: a1x  b1 y  c1z  0, a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  0 is the mathematical representation of this

line.
(ii) A plane in the space  3 is a subspace iff it passes through the origin. Further,

 x, y, z    3
: a1x  b1 y  c1 z  0 is the mathematical representation of this plane.

Example 1 : Show that the set V   x, y    2 : xy  0 is not a vector subspace of  2 .

Proof : Let 1, 2   V and  2, 1  V , then 1, 2    2, 1   1,1  V

So, V is not closed under addition and therefore V is not a vector subspace of  2 .
Example 2 : If a vector space V is the set of all real valued continuous functions over R , then show
d2y dy
that the set W of solutions of differential equations 3 2  5  2 y  0 is a subspace of V.
dx dx
Solution : W is the set of solutions of differential equation.
d2y dy
3 2  5  2y  0 ......(1)
dx dx
Let y1 , y2  W , so y1 , y2 are solutions of differential equation (1) , i.e.
 12

d 2 y1 dy d 2 y2 dy
3 2
 5 1  2 y1  0 and 3 2
 5 2  2 y2  0
dx dx dx dx
Let  ,   R be any two scalars. To prove that W is a subspace we have to show that
 y1   y2  W

d2 d
2 
Consider 3  y1   y2   5  y1   y2   2  y1   y2 
dx dx
 d2y dy   d2y dy 
  3 21  5 1  2 y1    3 22  5 2  2 y2    .0   .0  0
 dx dx   dx dx 
  y1   y2 is a solution of differential equation (1).

  y1   y2  W and hence W is a subspace of V.

Exercise 1.2
1. Let V be a vector space given by V   3  ( x, y, z ) : x, y, z   then which of the following are

subspaces of V over  ?
(i) W = ( x , y , z ) : 3x  y  z  0 , x , y , z  

(ii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  y  z  0 , 2x  3 y  z  0, x , y , z  

(iii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  y  0, x , y , z  

(iv) W = ( x , y , z ) : x 2
 y 2  z 2  1 , x , y , z  

(v) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  3 y  4 z  0 , x , y , z  

(vi) W = ( x , 2 y , 3 z ) : x , y , z  

(vii) W = ( x, x , x) : x  

(viii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x , y , z  

(ix) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  0, x , y , z  

(x) W = ( x , y , z ) : xy  0, x , y , z  

2. Let V  M n () be the vector space of all n-square matrices over  . Which of the following sets of

matrices are subspaces of V.

(i) set of all diagonal matrices. (ii) set of all scalar matrices.
(iii) set of all lower triangular matrices. (iv) set of all upper triangular matrices.
(v) set of all super lower triangular matrices. (vi) set of all super upper triangular matrices.
(vii) set of all backward diagonal matrices. (viii) set of all backward scalar matrices.
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(ix) set of all symmetric matrices. (x) set of all skew symmetric matrices.
(xi) set of all hermitian matrices. (xii) set of all skew hermitian matrices.
(xiii) set of all orthogonal matrices. (xiv) set of all unitary matrices.
(xv) set of all normal matrices. (xvi) set of all idempotent matrices.
(xvii)set of all involutory matrices. (xviii)set of all nilpotent matrices.
3. What is your opinion in the above question, if the vector space M n () over  is replaced by

M n () over  ?

4. What is your opinion in the question 2, if the vector space M n () over  is replaced by

M n () over  ?

5. Let M2, 2(  ) denotes the vector space of all 2  2 matrices over reals. Determine which of the
following are subspaces of M 2,2    .

a b   a 0 
(i) W     : a , b , c   (ii) W     : a  
 c 0   0 0 
0 a   a 0 
(iii) W     : a   (iv) W     : a , b  
0 0   0 b 

(v) W  A  M 2,2 () : A 2  A (vi) W  A  M 2,2 () : A 2  I

(vii) W  A  M 2,2 () : A is singular

6. Let V(  ) be the vector space of all function from  to  (reals). Prove that the following subsets
are the subspaces of V(  )
(a) set of all odd functions (b) set of all even functions (c) set of all continuous functions.
7. Let Pn ( ) denotes the vector space of all polynomials of degree at the most n over the field of

real numbers. Determine which of the following are subspaces of Pn ( ) .

(i) W   f ( x ) : constant term of f ( x )  1 (ii) W   f ( x) : deg f ( x)  2

(iii) W   f ( x ) : deg f ( x )  2 (iv) W   f ( x ) : coeff. of x in f ( x ) is zero

(v) W   f ( x ) : f (2) = f (4)  0 (vi) W   f ( x ) : constant term of f ( x)  0

(vii) W =  f ( x ) : f (0)  1 (viii) W =  f ( x ) : deg f ( x )  4

(ix) W   f ( x) : f (1)  0 , f (3)  0 (x) W   f ( x ) : coefficient of x 2 is 1 or  1

 14

(xi) W   f ( x) : having positive coefficient

Answers
1. (i), (ii), (v), (vi), (vii) 2. (i) to (x) 3. (i) to (xii)
4. (i) to (xii). In fact (xi) and (xii) are just (ix) and (x)
5. (i) to (iv) 7. (iii) to (vi) , (viii) and (ix)
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True-false exercise
1. The set of all polynomials that take the
value 1 at the point 0 is a vector space.
2. The set of all polynomials that take the
value 0 at the point 1 is a vector space.
3. One of the axioms for a vector space is the
equation x  0  x for all x (or 0  x  x ).
4. One of the axioms for a vector space is the
equation 1x  x for all x.
5. The set of all polynomials p of degree
atmost 7 that take the value 0 at the point 7
(i.e., p(7)  0 )is a vector space.
6. The set of all n  n matrices is not a vector
space because AB is usually different from
BA.
7. An example of a vector space is the set of
all polynomials of the form
p  t   a  bt 2  ct 5  dt 3 . (Here a, b, c, d
are parameters.)
8. An example of a vector space is the set of
all polynomials of the form
p  t   a  bt  ct 2  dt 3 that have the
property p 1  0 .
9. The set of all polynomials p such that
p  3  p  5  is a vector space.
10. The set of all vectors having the form
 3t , 2t  1,5t  , where t is a parameter
ranging over  is a subspace in  3 .
Page 1
11. For any m  n matrix A and for any vector
b in  m , the set of solutions to the system
Ax  b is a subspace of  n .
12. The set of all vectors x   x1 , x2  such that
x1  0 and x2  0 is a subspace of  2 .
13. A vector space is a subspace of itself.
14. The set of all vectors x   x1 , x2 , x3 , x4  that are
linear combinations of  4, 2,0,1 and 1,3, 1, 2 
and in addition satisfy the equation
2 x1  3 x2  5  0 , is a subspace of  4 .
15. If u and v are arbitrary real numbers, then
the set of all vectors of the form
 3u 3
 5v, 2u 3  7v, u 3  11v,5u 3  v  is a
subspace of  4 .
16. The vectors  x1 , x2 , x3 , x4  in  4 that obey
the inequality 3 x1  x2  x4  5 x3 form a
subspace in  4 .
17. The sum of two subspaces in a vector space
is also a subspace in that vector space.
18. The union of any number of subspaces in a
vector space is another subspace in that
vector space.
19. Consider the set of all polynomials of the
form p  t   a  t 2  3  5 , where the
coefficient a ranges over  . This is a
subspace of the vector space 4 .
20. The vector space of all polynomials has as
one of its subspaces the set of polynomials
 2

having the form a 1  t   b  t 2  t 3  . Here a 33. The smallest subspace in a vector space V
is the set consisting solely of the zero
and b are arbitrary real numbers.
element of V.
21. The set of all polynomials of the form
34. The intersection of these two plane
t 4  a1t 3  a2t 2  a3t  a4 is not a subspace of 4
3 x1  2 x2  4 x3  0 and 2 x1  3x2  8  0 is
22.  2 is not a subspace of  3 .
a subspace in  3 .
23. If x, y and z are three nonzero vectors in
 n , then the set of linear combinations
Assignment
x  ay  bz is a subspace of  n  ‘0’   n
24. The set of all m  m upper triangular
------------------------- S C Q -----------------------
matrices is a subspace of  mm
.
25. The set of invertible n  n matrices is a
1. Consider the real vector space V   3 and
subspace of  nn . following of its subsets
26. The set of all non-invertible n  n matrices
I. S   x, y, z  V : x  y  0
is a subspace of  nn
.
27. The set  x , x : x x  0 is a subspace of
II. T   x, y, z  V : x  0
1 2 1 2

2 . III. W   x, y, z   V : z  0

28. In  3 , the set of all vectors of the form Which one of the following statement is

(1, a,  a) is a subspace. correct?

1. S , T and W are subspaces
29. In  4 , the set of all vectors of the form
(a  b, 2a  c, 2b  c, a  b  4c) is a 2. Only S and W are subspaces
3. Only T and W are subspaces
subspace.
4. Only S and T are subspaces
30. In 33 , the set of all matrices of the form
2. If V is the real vector space of all mapping
 a 0 0
 0 b 0  is a subspace. from  to
 
 a 0 c   , V1  { f  V : f ( x )  f ( x )} and

31. An example of a subspace in  n is the set V2  { f V : f ( x)   f ( x )}, then which

of all solutions of the equation Ax  0 , one of the following is correct ?

where A is an m  n matrix. 1. Neither V1 nor V2 is a subspace of V .

 a b 2. V1 is a subspace of V , but V2 is not a

32. The set of all matrices of the form  
 b c  subspace of V .
is a subspace of  22
. 3. V1 is not a subspace of V , but V2 is a

subspace of V .
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4. Both V1 and V2 are subspace of V . 4. not a vector subspace of  2 , since it is

3. Let R be the set of all real number and not closed under vector addition

 2   x1 , x2  : x1  , x2  . Then, which (GATE 2004)

7. If V and W are subspaces of  n , then
one of the following is a subspace of
1. V  W is necessarily a subspace of  n
 2 over  ?
2. V  W is never a subspace of  n
1.  x , x  : x
1 2 1  0, x2  0
3. V  W is a subspace of  n if and only if
2.  x , x  : x  , x
1 2 1 2  0
one of V ,W is contained in the other
3.  x , x  : x
1 2 1  0, x2  0
4. V  W is a subspace of  n if and only if
4.  x ,0  : x  
1 1 one of V ,W in {0}
4. Suppose X   a, b, c, d  : b  c  4; 8. Consider the set of all functions f defined

Y   a, b, c, d  : a  b  c on [0,1] such that

I. f ( x )  0 at a finite number of points in
Z   a, b, c, d  : b  0, c  d 
[0,1]
Which of these subset of the vector space
II. f has a local maxima at x  1 / 2
 is /are subspace(s) ?
4

III. f has a local extrema at x  1 / 2

1. X only
3. X ,Y and Z
5. Which one of the following is correct?
1.  is a vector space over  .
2.  is a vector space over  .
3.  is a vector space over  .
4. None of the above.
6. The set V  {( x, y )   2 : xy  0} is
1. a vector subspace of 
2. not a vector subspace of  , since
every element does not have an inverse
in V
3. not a vector subspace of  , since it is
not closed under scalar multiplication
2. Y and Z
Then, the correct code is
4. X and Z
1. only (I) is vector space over R
2. only (II) is vector space over R
3. only (III) is vector space over R
4. None of the above
9. Which of the following sets are subspaces of
P (the vector space of all polynomials)
1. { p  P : degree of p  4}
2
2. { p  P : degree of p  3}
2
3. { p  P : degree of p  4 and p '(0)  1}
4. None of the above
10. Which of the following sets are subspaces
2
of the space C (a, b) of all real-valued
continuous functions defined on the open
 4

interval (a, b) 14. Let V be the vector space of all n  n

1. { f  C (a, b) : f ( x0 )  0, x0  (a, b)} matrices over R . Then, the set W ,

consisting of all matrices which commute
2. { f  C (a, b) : f '( x)  0, for all x  (a, b)}
with a given matrix M i.e.,
  ab  
3.  f  C (a, b) : f   1 W  { A  V : AM  MA}
  2  
1. is a subspace of V
4. None of the above
2. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed
11. Which of the following sets are subspaces
w.r.t. vector addition
of the space C (a, b) of all real-valued
3. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed
continuous functions defined on the open
w.r.t. scalar multiplication
interval (a, b)
4. None of the above
1. { f  C (a, b) : f ( x )  x 2 f ( x)}
15. Which of the following is not a vector
2. { f  C (a, b) : 2 f "'( x)  3 xf "( x ) subspace of the vector space of
2
– f '( x)  x f ( x)  0} polynomials with real coefficient
b 1. W consists of all polynomials divisible
3. { f  C (a, b) :  f ( x )dx  0}
a
by x
4. All of the above
2. W  { p ( x )  V : p(3)  0}
12. Which of the following sets is not a
3. W  { p ( x )  V : p (a)  p(1  a), a  R}
subspace of C (a, b)
4. W consists of all polynomials with
1. { f  C (a, b) : lim
a b
f ( x )  0}
x
2
integral coefficient
16. Consider the set of all functions f defined
2. { f  C (a, b) : lim
a b
f ( x)  1}
x
2 on [0,1] such that
3. { f  C (, ) : f ( x )  f ( x )} 1  3
I. f    0 II. f    1
4. All of the above 2  4
13. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 III. f ( x )  x f ( x) IV. f (0)  f (1)
matrices over  . Then, the set W , Then, the correct code is
consisting of all matrices A for which 1. only I is vector space.
A2  A , 2. only I and IV are vector spaces.
1. is a subspace of V 3. only I, III and IV are vector spaces.
2. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed 4. all are vector spaces.
with respect to vector addition
3. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed
w.r.t. scalar multiplication
4. Both (b) and (c)
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---------------------- M C Q -----------------------  x 
C   x, y  : x y  0 , D   x, y  :  0, y  0 
1. V be the vector space of all n  n real  y 
matrices over R and W1 ,W2 be the Then
collection of all symmetric and skew 1. A is a subspace
symmetric matrices respectively in V, then 2. B is a subspace

1. W1 is a subspace of V 3. C is a subspace
4. D is a subspace
2. W1 is not a subspace of V
5. In the vector space  2    , consider the
3. W2 is a subspace of V
subsets
4. W2 is not a subspace of V
A  x, y  : x 2  y 2  0
2. V be the vector space of all n  n complex
matrices over C and W1 ,W2 be the B  x, y  : x 2  y 2  0

collection of all hermitian and skew Then

hermitian matrices respectively in V, then 1. A is a subspace
1. W1 is a subspace of V 2. B is a subspace
3. A is not a subspace
2. W1 is not a subspace of V
4. B is not a subspace
3. W2 is a subspace of V
6. Let V be the vector space of all real valued
4. W2 is not a subspace of V
functions defined on  0,1 . Let W1 , W2 , W3
3. V be the vector space of all n  n complex
be the collection of all continuous
Matrices over R and W1 ,W2 be the
functions, differentiable functions,
collection of all hermitian and skew monotonic functions respectively in V, then
hermitian matrices respectively in V, then 1. W1 is a subspace
1. W1 is a subspace of V
2. W2 is a subspace
2. W1 is not a subspace of V
3. W3 is a subspace
3. W2 is a subspace of V
4. All are subspaces
4. W2 is not a subspace of V 7. Let M be the vector space of all 3  3 real
4. In the vector space  2    , consider the  2 1 0
matrices and let A   0 2 0 
subsets
0 0 3
 
A   x, y  : x  y  0 , B   x, y  : x  y  0
 6
Which of the following are subspaces of M 2. V2   A  M n : det( A )=0
1.  X  M : XA  AX  3. V3   A  M n : trace( A )=0
2. X  M : X  A  A  X  4. V4   BA: A  M n  , where B is some
3.  X  M :trace  AX   0 fixed matrix in M n .
4.  X  M :det  AX   0 (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
(CSIR NET June 2011)
8. Which of the following are subspaces of True false key
the vector space  3 ? 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T
1.  x, y, z  : x  y  0 5. T 6. F 7. T 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. F 12. F
2.  x, y, z : x  y  0
13. T 14. F 15. F 16. F
3.  x, y, z : x  y  1 17. T 18. F 19. F 20. T
4.  x, y, z : x  y 1 21. T 22. T 23. F 24. T

(CSIR NET June 2015) 25. F 26. F 27. F 28. F

29. T 30. T 31. T 32. T
9. Let A be an m  n real matrix and b   m
33. T 34. F
with b  0
1. The set of all real solutions of Ax  b is
a vector space. Assignment key
2. If u and v are two solutions of Ax  b , SCQ
then u  1    v is also a solution of 1. 4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 2
5. 4 6. 4 7. 3 8. 4
Ax  b for any    .
9. 4 10. 1 11. 4 12. 2
3. For any two solutions u and v of Ax  b ,
13. 4 14. 1 15. 4 16. 3
the linear combination u  1    v is

also a solution of Ax  b only when

MCQ
0    1.
1. 1,3 2. 2,4 3. 1,3 4. 1,2
4. If rank of A is n, then Ax  b has at 5. 1,4 6. 1,2 7. 1,2,3 8. 1,2
most one solution. 9. 2,4 10. 3,4
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
10. Let M n denote the vector space of all n  n
real matrices. Among the following subsets
of M n , decide which are linear subspaces.

1. V1   A  M n : A is nonsingular
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Chapter - 2
2.1 Linear Combinations
Def . Linear Combination : Let V(F) be a vector space. A vector v  V is said to be Linear
Combination (L.C.) of the vectors v1 , v2 ,............., vn  V if v can be expressed as

v  a1v1  a2v2  .............  anvn where a1 , a2 ,............., an  F are scalars.

Def. Linear Span : Let S be a non empty subset of vector space V(F) then the set of all linear
combinations of finite number of elements of S is called linear span (or span) of S. It is denoted by
 n 
 S  or L(S) i.e. L  S   S   ai vi : ai  F , vi  S , n finite  .
 i1 
Remarks :
(i) Here it should be noted very carefully that the set S may be finite or infinite but L(S) contains
linear combinations of only finite number of elements of S . In fact , linear combination of infinite
elements is not defined , in general .
(ii) Every non empty set is always contained in its linear span . Let S be a non empty subset of
vector space V , for any v  S , we can write v  1 . v  L(S)  S  L(S)

(iii) The linear span of empty set  is defined to be 0 .

Results :
1. The set of all linear combinations of a non-empty set S of a vector space V(F) is the smallest
subspace of V(F) containing S.
OR
In a vector space V , L(S) is the smallest sub – space containing S.
2. L W   W iff W is a subspace of V.

Def. Generating (Spanning) set : A non empty set S of vector space V is called a generating set of V
if every element v  V is a linear combination of finite number of elements of S i.e. V  L  S  .

Def. Finitely generated vector space : As clear by its name , a vector space V over F is said to
finitely generated if it is generated by finite number of vectors.
e.g.  n and Pn    are finitely generated vector space.

Def. Infinitely generated vector space : A vector space V over a field F is called infinitely generated if
it can not be generated by finite number of vectors e.g. the vector space P    of all polynomials
 2

over a field is infinitely generated vector space. The vectors {1 , x , x 2 ,...., x n,....} generates P   

but no finite set can generate P    .

2 0
Example 1 : Express the matrix   as L.C. of the matrices
 4 5

 0  3 0 0   2 3
P  , Q  , R .
2 0  2 1  0 5
Solution : Method I :
Let a1 , a2 , a3 be the scalars such that

2 0   0 3  0 0  2 3
 4 5  a1  2 0   a2  2 1   a3  0 5
       
 2 0   2a3 3a1  3a3 
  4 5   2a  2a
   1 2 a2  5a3 

 2a3  2 ......(1)

3a1  3a3  0 ......(2)

2a1  2a2  4 ......(3)

a2  5a3  5 ......(4)

Equations (1) , (2) and (3) give , a1  a2  a3  1

But this solution does not satisfy (4)
 Equations (1) , (2) , (3) , (4) have no solution.
Hence , the given matrix can not be written as a L.C. of P , Q , R.
Method II :
Construct a matrix A by writing the elements of matrix P,Q and R in columns i.e.,

0 0 2 2 0 0 2 : 2
 3 0 
3 0  3 0 3 : 0 
A  and b    . Then  A : b  
2 2 0 4 2 2 0 : 4
     
0 1 5  5  0 1 5 : 5

2 2 0 : 4
 3 0 3 : 0 
operate R3  R1 , we get ~ 
0 0 2 : 2
 
0 1 5 : 5

1 1 0 : 2
 1 0 1 : 0 
R1 R2 R3
operate R1  , R2  , R3  , we get ~ 
2 3 2 0 0 1 : 1
 
0 1 5 : 5 
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1 1 0 : 2
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R2  R1  R2 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1
 
0 1 5 : 5

1 1 0 : 2
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R4  R4  R2 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1
 
0 0 4 : 7 

1 1 0 : 2 
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R4  R4  4 R3 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1 
 
0 0 0 : 11

2 0 
  A   3,   A : b   4 , therefore the system Ax  b is not consistent and hence   cannot be written
 4 5 
as the linear combination of P,Q and R.

Exercise 2.1
1. Express the vector v = (4,  5, 9,  7) as a linear combination of vectors v1  (1, 1,  2, 1) ,

v2  (3, 0, 4,  1) , v3  (1, 2, 5, 2)

2. Is it possible to express the vector v  (2,  5, 4) as a linear combination of v1  (1,  3, 2) and

v2  (2,  1, 1) .

3. Consider the vector v  (1, 2, k ) in 3    . For what value of k (if any) the vector v can be

expressed as a linear combination of vectors v1  (3, 0,  2) and v2  (2,  1,  5) ?

3 1
4. Express the vector v =   in the vector space of 2  2 matrices as a linear combination of
1 2
1 1   1 1 1 1
v1    , v2    , v3   .
 0 1  1 0 0 0 
 a b 
5. Find the condition on a , b , c such that the matrix   is a linear combination of
b c 
1 1   1 1 1 1
v1    , v2    , v3   .
 0 1  1 0 0 0 
 4
6. If S and T are two non-empty subsets of a vector space V(F), then show that
(a) S T  L(S)  L(T)
(b) L ( S  T ) = L(S) + L(T)
(c) L (L (S)) = L(S)
7. Is the vector (3,  1, 0,  1) in the subspace of  4 spanned by the vectors v1  (2,  1, 3, 2) ,

v2  (1, 1, 1,  3) and v3  (1, 1, 9,  5) ?

8. Let V3 = 3    and S = { v1  (1, 1, 0) , v2  (0,  1, 1) , v3  (1, 0, 1) } . Prove that

(a , b , c)  L(S) iff a = b + c.
9. In the complex vector space  2    does (1 + i , 1  i ) belongs to < (1 + i ,1) , (1 , 1  i) > ?

10. Which of the following polynomials belong to the vector space generated by
{x 3 , x 2  2 x , x 2  2 ,1  x}

(i) 3 x 2  x  5 (ii) 2 x3  3 x 2  3 x  7 (iii) x 4  7 x  2

11. Consider the vectors u  1, 2,3 and v   2,3,1 in 3 .

(a) Write w  1,3,8  as a linear combination of u and v.

(b) Write w   2, 4,5  as a linear combination of u and v.

(c) Find k so that w  1, k , 4  is a linear combination of u and v.

(d) Find conditions on a, b, c so that w   a, b, c  is a linear combination of u and v.

2
12. Write the polynomial f  t   at 2  bt  c as a linear combination of the polynomials p1   t  1 ,

p2  t  1, p3 1.

13. Show that span(S) = span S  0. That is, by joining or deleting the zero vector from a set, we do

not change the space spanned by the set.

Answers
1. v  3v1  2v2  v3 2. No 3. k =  8 4. v  2v1  v2  2v3
5. a  b  2c  0 7. No 9. Yes 10. only (i)
11
11. (a) w  3u1  u2 (b) Impossible (c) k  (d) 7a  5b  c  0
5
12. Using f  xp1  yp2  zp3 , we get x  a, y  2a  b, z  a  b  c .
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2.2 Linear independence and dependence

Def. Linearly dependent (L.D.) vectors : Let V be a vector space over a field F. The vectors
v1 , v2 ,......., vn are said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars a1 , a2 ,....., an (not all zero)

such that a1v1 + a2v2 +......+ anvn = 0

OR
Some finite vectors are said to be linearly dependent if their linear combination can be made zero
without taking all scalars zero.
Def. Linearly independent (L.I.) vectors : Vectors which are not L.D. are called L.I.
OR
Vectors v1 , v2 ,......., vn are called linearly independent if , whenever

a1v1 + a2v2 +......+ anvn = 0 for some scalars ai ’s , then a1 = a2 =.......= an = 0

OR
Some finite vectors are said to be L.I. if the only way to make their linear combination zero is to take
all scalars zero.
Def. An infinite subset of V is said to be linearly independent if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent , otherwise it is linearly dependent.
Results :
1. The empty set is defined to be linearly independent.
2. (i) A set containing only the zero vector i.e. {0} is linearly dependent.
(ii) A set containing only a non – zero vector is linearly independent.
3. A set which contains the null vector ‘0’ is linearly dependent.
4. If two vectors are L.D. , then one of them is scalar multiple of other.
5. Every super set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
6. Every subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
7. If a vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vr then the set {v , v1 , v2 ,.........., vr }
is linearly dependent.
8. If the set {v1 , v2 ,.........., vr } is L.I. and the set {v1 , v2 ,.........., vr , v} is L.D. , then v is a linear

combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vr .

9. The set of non – zero vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vn of a vector space V(F) is L.D. iff one of the vectors
 6

vr (r  1) is a linear combination of the preceding vectors.

10. To determine that given vectors are L.D. or L.I.
Input : Vectors v1 , v2 ,......., vn are given.

Output : v1 , v2 ,........, vn L.D. or L.I.

Working Steps :
(i) Take n scalars a1 , a2 ,......., an and form the system a1v1 + a2v2 +.........+ anvn = 0 ......(1)

(ii) Solve the system (1) to find the values of a1 , a2 ,........, an .

(iii) If a1 = a2 =..............= an  0 is the only solution of (1) , then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are linearly

independent.
(iv) If system (1) has a non-trivial solution i.e. atleast one ai is non-zero, then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are

linearly dependent.
Remark : In above method , we are not required to find the actual values of a1 , a2 ,........, an rather

our only need is to decide whether the system has a non – trivial solution or not.
11. To determine that given vectors are L.D. or L.I.
Input : Vectors v1 , v2 ,.............., vn are given.

Output : v1 , v2 ,.............., vn L.D. or L.I.

Working Steps :
(i) Construct a matrix A by writing the given vectors in the column.
(ii) Reduce the matrix A into row echelon form by using elementary row operation.
(iii) Number of non – zero rows gives the rank of A i.e.  (A) . If  (A) = number of columns
of A , then given vectors are L.I. and if  (A) < number of columns of A , then given vectors
are L.D.
12. Vectors constructed from given L.I. vectors : Let v1 , v2 ,...., vn are L.I. vectors and suppose

w1 , w2 ,...., wm are constructed as

w1  a11v1  a12 v2  ....  a1nvn

w2  a21v1  a22v2  ....  a2 nvn
.............................................
wm  am1v1  am 2v2  ....  amn vn

Let A   aij  denotes the coefficient matrix of above system, then

mn

(i) if m  n then w1 , w2 ,...., wm are L.D.

(ii) if m  n then w1 , w2 ,...., wm are L.I. if   A   m and L.D. if   A   m .

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Result : If v1, v2 ,...., vn    n be a L.I. set and P is a n  n real invertible matrix, then the set

Pv1, Pv2 ,...., Pvn is also L.I.

Proof : Let 1Pv1   2 Pv2  ....   n Pvn  0

 P 1v1   P  2v2   ....  P  nvn   0

 P 1v1   2v2  ....   n vn   0

 1v1   2v2  ....   n vn  0 (  P is invertible)

 1   2  .....   n  0 (  v1, v2 ,...., vn are L.I.)

Example 1 : Determine whether the following vector is linearly dependent or independent

(1 , 2 ,  3 , 1) , (3 , 7 , 1 , 2 ) , (1 , 3 , 7 , 4 ).
Solution : We construct a matrix A whose columns are given vectors i.e.
1 3 1
2 7 3
A =  
 3 1 7 
 
 1 2 4 
1 3 1 
0 1 1 
~   (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 0 10 10 
 
 0 5 5
1 3 1
0 1 1
~   ( Operating R 3  R 3  10R 2 , R 4  R 4  5R 2 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Here ,  (A) = 2 < number of columns. So the given vectors are L.D.

Example 2 : Determine whether the polynomials x 3  5 x 2  2 x  3 , x 3  1 , x 3  2 x  4 are linearly

dependent or independent.
Solution : We construct a matrix A by writing the coefficients of given polynomials in columns of A
1 1 1
 5 0 0 
i.e. A = 
 2 0 2
 
 3 1 4
 8

1 1 1
0 5 5 
~  (Operating R 2  R 2  5R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 )
0 2 4
 
 0 4 1

1 1 1
0 1 1  1
~  (Operating R 2  R 2 )
0 2 4 5
 
 0 4 1

1 1 1
0 1 1 
~  (Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 , R 4  R 4  4R 2 )
0 0 2
 
0 0 5

1 1 1
0 1 1  5
~  (Operating R 4  R 4  R 3 )
0 0 2 2
 
0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Here  (A) = 3 = number of columns. So the given vectors are L.I.

Exercise 2.2
1. Determine whether the following set of vectors are linearly dependent or independent
(i) (1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3), (0 , 1 , 2) in 3   

(ii) (1 , 2 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 1) , (7 , 4 , 1) in 3   

(iii) (1 ,  2 , 3) , (2 , 3 , 4) , (0 , 1 , 2) in 3   

(iv) (2 , 3 , 1 ,  1) , (1 ,  1 ,  2 ,  4) , (3 , 1 , 3 ,  2) , (6 , 3 , 0 , 7) in  4   

(v) (1 , 2 , 3 , 4) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) in  4   

(vi) (1 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 ,  1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 3)  in  4   

(vii) (0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1) in 5   

(viii) (1  i , 2i ) , (1 , 1  i) in  2   

(ix) (1  i , 2i ) , (1 , 1  i) in  2   

2. In the vector space of polynomials of degree  4, which of the following vectors are L.I.
(i) x 2  x  1 , x , 1 (ii) x 3  2 x  1 , x3  x  1 , x  1

(iii) x 4  x3 , x 4  1 , x 3  x 2 , x 2  x , x  1 (iv) x 4  x , x 3  1 , x 3  1
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 2 3 6
3. Show that the three row vectors as well as the three column vectors of the matrix  0 4 2  are
 5 2 2 

linearly independent.
4. Prove that the four vectors (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 1 , 1) are linearly dependent
but any three of them are linearly independent .
5. Prove that the non – zero rows in an echelon matrix form a linearly independent set.
 1   1   
6. Find  if the vectors  1 ,  2  ,  0  are linearly dependent.
 3   3  1 

7. Prove that the vectors (a1 , a2 ) and (b1 , b2 ) in  2    are linearly dependent if a1b2  a2b1  0 .

8. If v1 , v2 ,........, vn are linearly independent vectors of a vector space V , then show that none of

them can be a zero vector.

9. Let S be a set of four vectors such that any three of them are linearly independent. Does it follow
that the four vectors are linearly independent ?
10. In the vector space     , prove that the set {1 , u} is L.I. iff u is irrational.

11. Under what conditions on scalar a   , the vectors (1  a , 1  a ) and (1  a , 1  a ) in  2   

are linearly dependent.

12. Show that the set {1 , i} is linearly dependent in the vector space     but {1 , i} is linearly

independent in the vector space     .

13. Determine whether the following vectors in  4 are linearly dependent or independent :
(a) (1, 2, –3, 1), (3, 7, 1,–2), (1, 3, 7, –4), (b) (1, 3, 1, –2), (2, 5, –1, 3), (1, 3, 7, –2).
14. Determine whether the following polynomials u, v, w in   t  are linearly dependent or

independent
(a) u  t 3  4t 2  3t  3, v  t 3  2t 2  4t  1, w  2t 3  t 2  3t  5

(b) u  t 3  5t 2  2t  3, v  t 3  4t 2  3t  4, w  2t 3  7t 2  7t  9 .
15. Show that the following functions f, g, h are linearly independent :
(a) f  t   et , g  t   sin t , h  t   t 2 (b) f  t   et , g  t   e 2t , h  t   t .
 10

16. Show that u   a, b  and v   c, d  in  2 are linearly dependent if and only if ad  bc  0 .

17. Suppose u1,..., ur , w1 ,..., ws  is a linearly independent subset of V. Show that

span  ui   span  w j   0 .

18. If u , v , w are linearly independent , then show that the vectors u  v , v  w , u  2v  w are
linearly independent.
19. If v1 and v2 are vectors in V and a , b  F , show that the set {v1 , v2 , av1  bv2 } is linearly

dependent.
20. Show that if {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } is a linearly independent set of vectors and a1 , a2 ,......., an 1 are

any scalars , then the set {v1  a1vn , v2  a2 vn ,....., vn1  an1vn } is also linearly independent.

21. Let u , v , w be the vectors of V(F) and a, b  F . Show that the set {u , v , w} is L.D. if the set
{u  av  bw , v , w} is L.D.
22. If u , v , w are L.I. in V(F) , then show that u  v , v  w , w  u are L.I.
23. Suppose u, v, w are linearly independent vectors. Prove that S is linearly independent where :
(a) S u  v  2 w, u  v  w, u  w (b) S  u  v  3w, u  3v  w, u  w .

24. Suppose v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent. Prove that S is linearly independent where

(a) S a1v1, a2v2 ,...., anvn  and each ai  0 .

(b) S  v1,...., vk 1, w, vk 1,...., vn  and w   i bi vi and bk  0 .

1. (i) Linearly dependent
(iv) Linearly dependent
(vii) Linearly dependent
2. (i) Linearly Independent
(iv) Linearly Independent
13. (a) Dependent
Answers
(ii) Linearly dependent (iii) Linearly Independent
(v) Linearly dependent (vi) Linearly Independent
(viii) Linearly Independent (ix) Linearly dependent
(ii) Linearly Independent (iii) Linearly dependent
6.  = 1 9. No 11. a   i
(b) Independent 14. (a) Independent (b) Dependent
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2.3 Basis and dimension

Def. Basis of a vector space : Let V be a vector space over the field F. A set of vectors
v1 , v2 ,........, vn  V is called a basis of V if

(i) v1 , v2 ,.........., vn are L.I. and (ii) v1 , v2 ,.........., vn span V .

Remark : The basis for a vector space is not unique.

Def. Minimal generating set : A subset S of a vector space V is said to be minimal generating set if
(i) S is a generating set of V. (ii) Any proper subset of S can not generate V.
Def. Maximal Linearly independent set : A subset S of a vector space V is said to be maximal linearly
independent set if
(i) S is linearly independent.

(ii) No proper superset of S is linearly independent i.e. if S  S then S must not be linearly

independent.
Results :
1. A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn  V is a basis of V iff each element of V can be uniquely

expressed as a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn .

2. If S ={ v1 , v2 ,...., vn }spans a vector space V(F), then there exists a subset of S which is a basis of V.

3. A minimal generating set is always a basis in a finitely generated vector space.

4. A maximal linearly independent set is always a basis in a finitely generated vector space.
5. If S = u1 , u2 , ..., un  spans a vector space V(F), then any n  1 vectors in V are linearly

dependent. In words, a set containing more vectors than dimension is always linearly dependent.
6. If V is a finitely generated vector space , then any two basis of V have same number of elements.
Def . Dimension of a vector space : The numbers of elements in any basis of a vector space V(F) is
called dimension of V and is denoted by dimV.
If dimV = n , then V is called n dimensional vector space. A vector space of finite dimension is
called finite dimensional vector space .
7. If dim V = n and S = {v1 , v2 ,......., vn } is L.I. subset of V then S is a basis of V .

OR
A L.I. set of n vectors in a n-dimensional vector space is always a basis .
 12

8. If dim V = n and S = {v1 , v2 ,......, vn } generates V then S is a basis of V.

OR
A generating set of n vectors in a n-dimensional vector space is a basis .
9. In a finite dimensional vector space we have
No. of elements in any L.I. set   No. of elements in any basis   No. of elements in any generating set
10.   adj  A    1 if A  M n    and M A   X  M n    : AX  O then dim  M A   n 2  nr . Where

r is the rank of matrix A.

Tables of basis :
Table 1
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1  1 a  ib s.t. a  ib  0 1

2  1, i a  ib, c  id  s.t. ad  bc  0 2

3  ---- --- 

4  1 a ; a  0 , a 1

5    --- --- 

6   1  p 1
  ; p, q  0
q

Table 2
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

2 n    1,0,..., 0  ,  0,1,..., 0  ,....,  0,0,...,1  Any 2n L.I. vectors 2n

 
 i,0,...,0  ,  0, i,..., 0  ,....,  0,0,..., i  

3 n    ---- --- 

4 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

5 n   --- --- 

6 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

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Table 3
Sr. Vector space Standard basis General Dimension
No. basis
1 M m ,n    over  1 0 ... 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1  Any mn
0 0 ... 0   0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 ,   ,....,   mn
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
      L.I.
0 ... ... 0   0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 
vectors
.......................
0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 ,   ,....,  
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
     
1 0 ... 0  0 1 ... 0  0 0 ... 1 

2 M m ,n    over  1 0 ... 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1 Any 2mn

0 0 ... 0   0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 , ,....,  2mn
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
      L.I.
 0 ... ... 0   0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
....................... vectors
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0
 ,   ,....,  
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
1 0 ... 0 0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1

i 0 ... 0 0 i ... 0 0 0 ... i

0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 ,  , ...., 
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
0 ... ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
.......................
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
 ,   , ....,  
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
i 0 ... 0 0 i ... 0 0 0 ... i

3 M m ,n    over  ---- --- 

4 M m ,n    over  Same as 1 Any mn mn

L.I.
vectors
5 M m ,n    over  --- --- 
Any mn
6 M m ,n    over  Same as 1 mn
L.I. vectors
 14

Table 4
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 
2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

2 Pn    over  1, x, x 2 ,....., x n  Any 2  n  1 L.I. vectors 2  n  1

 2 n
i, ix, ix ,....., ix 
3 Pn    over  ---- --- 

4 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 

2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

5 Pn    over  --- --- 

6 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 

2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

Table 5
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 P    over  1, x, x ,.....
2 ---- 

2 P    over  2
1, x, x ,.....  ---- 
 2 
i, ix, ix ,.....
3 P    over  ---- --- 

4 P    over  1, x, x ,.....

2 --- 

5 P    over  --- --- 

6 P    over  1, x, x ,.....

2 --- 

Example 1 : A subspace W of R5 is generated by the vectors

v1 = (1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , v2 = (1 , 2 ,  1 ,  2 , 1)
v3 = (3 , 5 , 1 , 2 , 5) , v4 = (3 , 6 , 3 , 6 , 3).
Find a basis of W and dimension of W. Also extend this basis to get a basis of R5.
Solution : We construct a matrix A whose rows are the given vectors
1 1 1 2 3
1 2 1 2 1 
A = 
3 5 1 2 5
 
3 6 3 6 3

Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 , we get

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1 1 1 2 3
0 1 2 4 2 
A ~ 
0 2 4 8 4 
 
0 3 6 12 6 

Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 , R 4  R 4  3R 2 , we get

1 1 1 2 3
0 1 2 4 2
A ~ 
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Hence basis of W is
{(1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 ,  2 ,  4 ,  2) } and so dim W = 2.
To extend this to form a basis of R5 , we have to select three more vectors out of standard basis
e1 = (1 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0) , e2 = (0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , e3 = (0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0) ,

e4 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , e5 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1) of R5.

By noticing these five vectors , we find that e3 , e4 and e5 form a row echelon matrix with basis of
W. Hence these three vectors together with basis of W forms a linear independent set and therefore a
basis of R5.
So, (1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 ,  2 ,  4 ,  2) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1 , 0) and (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1)
forms a basis of R5.
Exercise 2.3
1. Which of the following set are L.I. generating set, basis of the vector space     .

 7 
(i) 1,i (ii) 1, 2,i (iii) 2,3i (iv) 2,3i, i 
 2 

(v) 2i,3i (vi) 2, 2  3i (vii) 2,3, 4  5i (viii) 1  i,1  i

(ix) i, 2  3i (x) 2  3i, 4  6i (xi) 2  3i, 3  4i (xii) 1, i,1  i

(xiii) 3,1  i (xiv) 4,3i (xv) i, i (xvi) 1  i,1  i, 2

2. Determine whether or not the following sets form a basis of 3    .

(i) {(4 , 3 , 2) , (2 , 1 , 0) , ( 1 , 1 , 1)} (ii) {(1 , 3 , 2) , (2 , 4 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1)}

 16

(iii) {(1 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (4 , 5 , 0)} (iv) {(2 , 4 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 1)}

(v) {(1 , 2 , 1) , (5 , 0 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 0) , (5 , 2 , 1)}

3. Determine whether or not the following sets form a basis of  4    .

(i) {(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 0 , 4)}

(ii) {(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)}
(iii) {(1 ,  2 , 5 ,  3) , (0 , 7 ,  9 , 2) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)} .

4. Let {u , v , w} be a basis for the vector space  3 . Prove that the sets {u  v , v  w , w  u} and

{u , u  v , u  v  w} are also bases of  3 .

5. Show that the set {(1,0,0), (1,1,0), (1,1,1)} is a basis of 3    but not a basis of 3    or 3   

d3y dy
6. Let V be the vector space of solutions of the differential equation 3
 7  6 y  0 . Show that
dx dx
V    is a 3-dimensional real vector space. Find a basis of this vector space.

7. Determine whether each of the following is a basis of the vector space n  t  :

(a) { 1, 1+t, 1  t  t 2 , 1  t  t 2  t 3 , …., 1  t  t 2  ....  t n 1  t n },

(b) { 1+t, t  t 2 , t 2  t 3 , …., t n 2  t n1 , t n 1  t n }.

8. Find a subset of u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 that gives a basis for W  span  ui  of 5 where :

(a) u1  (1, 1, 1, 2, 3), u2  (1, 2, –1, –2, 1), u3  (3, 5, –1, –2, 5), u4  (1, 2, 1, –1, 4)

(b) u1  (1, –2, 1, 3, –1), u2  (–2, 4, –2, –6, 2), u3  (1, –3, 1, 2, 1), u4  (3, –7, 3, 8, –1)

(c) u1  (1, 0, 1, 0, 1), u2  (1, 1, 2, 1, 0), u3  (2, 1, 3, 1, 1), u4  (1, 2, 1,1, 1)

(d) u1  (1, 0, 1, 1, 1), u2  (2, 1, 2, 0, 1), u3  (1, 1, 2, 3, 4), u4  (4, 2, 5,4, 6)

9. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of   t  spanned by :

(a) u  t 3  2t 2  2t  1, v  t 3  3t 2  3t  4, w  2t 3  t 2  7t  7 ,

(b) u  t 3  t 2  3t  2, v  2t 3  t 2  t  4, w  4t 3  3t 2  5t  2
10. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of V  M 2.2 spanned by

 1 5  1 1  2 4   1 7 
A  , B  , C  , D 
 4 2   1 5  5 7   5 1 
11. Find a homogeneous system whose solution space is spanned by the following sets of three vectors :
(a) (1, –2, 0, 3, –1), (2, –3, 2, 5, –3), (1, –2, 1, 2, –2)
(b) (1, 1, 2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1, 4, 3), (3, 5, 4, 9, 7).
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12. Let V  M n ,n    be the vector space over the field  , then find the dimension and a basis of

following subspaces W of V.
(i) W = set of all diagonal matrices in V.
(ii) W = set of all scalar matrices in V.
(iii) W = set of all lower triangular matrices in V.
(iv) W = set of all upper triangular matrices in V.
(v) W = set of all super lower triangular matrices in V.
(vi) W = set of all super upper triangular matrices in V.
(vii) W = set of all backward diagonal matrices in V.
(viii) W = set of all backward scalar matrices in V.
(ix) W = set of all symmetric matrices in V.
(x) W = set of all skew symmetric matrices in V.
13. (a) What is the dimension and basis of W in above question, if the vector space M n () over 

is replaced by M n () over  ?

(b) What is your opinion for the set of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices in this case.
14. (a) What is the dimension and basis of W in question 14, if the vector space M n () over  is

replaced by M n () over  ?

(b) Also, find the dimension and basis for the set of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices in
this case.
15. Find the dimension of following vector space over  ?


(i) V   aij  : aij  0 if i  j  n  1
nn

(ii) V   a 
ij : aij  0 if i  1 or n
nn

(iii) V   a 
ij 
: aij  0 if i  1 or n or j  1 or n
nn

(iv) V   a ij : a1 j  a2 j for 1  j  n 

n n

(v) V   a 
ij : aii  0 and aij  a ji  ij
nn

(vi) V   x1 , x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x3  .....  x99  0 : xi  

(vii) V   x1, x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x2  ......  x50 and x51  x52  ....  x100  0, xi  
 18

(viii) V   x1, x2 ,...., xn  : x1  x3  x5  ....  xk  0 where k is the largest odd integer less than n

(ix) V   x1, x2 ,....., xn  : x3  x3k for k  1


(x) V   aij  : aij  akl if i  j  k  l
nn

(xi) V   a 
ij : aij  0 if i divides j 
nn

(xii) V   p  x   P4    : p 1  p  2   p  3

(xiii) V   p  x   P4    : p 1  p  2   p  3  0


(xiv) V   aij  : aij  a ji , a1 j  a2 j  i, j
n n

(xv) V   x1, x2 ,....., xn  : x1  x4  x9  .....  0


(xvi) V   aij  : aij  a ji and aij  0 if j  1
nn

(xvii) V   a  ij 
: aij  0 if i  j  1
nn

(xviii) V   a  ij : aij  0 if i  j is even 

nn

(xix) V  a0  a1 x  .....  a100 x100 : ai  0 if i  3n for some integer n


(xx) V   aij  : aij  0 if i or j  1 and aij  a ji
nn

(xxi) V   x, y, z, t  : x  y  2t  0, 2 x  y  z  0, 3 x  2t  z  0

(xxii) V   x, y, z, t  : x  y  0, z  t  0

(xxiii) V   x, y, z, t  : 2 x  y  0, x  y  z  7t  0

(xxiv) V   x1, x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x3  0, x3  x5  0,...., x97  x99  0

(xxv) V   x1, x2 ,...., x2015  : xi  0 if i is a perfect square

Answers
1. (i) L.I., generating set, basis (ii) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(iii) L.I., generating set, basis (iv) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(v) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis (vi) L.I., generating set, basis
(vii) L.D., generating set, not a basis (viii) L.I., generating set, basis
(ix) L.I., generating set, basis (x) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis
(xi) L.I., generating set, basis (xii) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(xiii) L.I., generating set, basis (xiv) L.I., generating set, basis
(xv) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis (xvi) L.D., generating set, not a basis
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2. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes (v) No

3. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) Yes
7. (a) Yes. (b) No, since dim n  t   n  1 , but the set contains only n elements

8. (a) u1 , u2 , u4 ; (b) u1 , u3 ; (c) u1 , u2 , u4 ; (d) u1 , u2 , u3

9. (a) dim W  3 (b) dim W  3 10. dim W  2

11. (a) 5 x  y  z  s  0, x  y  z  t  0; (b) 3 x  y  z  0, 2 x  3 y  s  0, x  2 y  t  0

n n  1 n n  1
12. (i) n (ii) 1 (iii) (iv)
2 2
n n 1 n n 1
(v) (vi) (vii) n (viii) 1
2 2
n n  1 n n 1
(ix) (x)
2 2
n n  1 n n  1
13. (a) (i) n (ii) 1 (iii) (iv)
2 2
n n 1 n n 1
(v) (vi) (vii) n (viii) 1
2 2
n n  1 n n 1
(ix) (x)
2 2
(b) In this case, hermitian matrices reduces to symmetric and skew-hermitian matrices reduces to
skew-symmetric.
14. (a) (i) 2n (ii) 2 (iii) n  n 1 (iv) n  n 1

(v) n  n 1 (vi) n  n 1 (vii) 2n (viii) 2

(ix) n  n 1 (x) n  n 1

(b) n 2 , n 2

(iii) n  2
2
15. (i) n 2  n (ii) n 2  2n (iv) n 2  n

n n 1
(v) (vi) 99 (vii) 50 (viii) n 1
2
 n  n   n   n 
(ix) n    1 (x) 2n 1 (xi) n 2        ....    
 3    1   2   n  
 20

n n 1
(xii) 3 (xiii) 2 (xiv) (xv) n   n 
2  

n  2n 1  n2 
(xvi) (xvii) n 2  2n  2 (xviii)   (xix) 67
2 2
 
n n 1
(xx) (xxi) 2 (xxii) 2 (xxiii) 2
2
(xxiv) 51 (xxv) 1971
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.4 Basis and subspaces of finite vector spaces

Results :
1. Let Vn   p  be a finite vector space of dimension n over the field  p then the total number of

distinct basis is
p n
 p n1  p n  p n 2  ..... p n  p  p n  1
n!
2. Let Vn   p  be a finite vector space of dimension n over the field  p then the total number of

subspaces of dimension r is
p n
 p r 1  p n  p r 2  ..... p n  p  p n  1
p r
 p r 1  p r  p r 2  ..... p r  p  p r  1

Exercise 2.4
1. Find the number of distinct basis of the following vector spaces :
(i) 32   2  (ii)  23   3  (iii)  25   5  (iv)  33   3 

(v) M 2,3   2  (vi) M 2,2   3  (vii) P3   2  (viii) P2   3 

2. Find the number of 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional subspaces of the following vector spaces.
Hence find the total number of proper subspaces and subspaces. Also write all the distinct basis and
all subspaces.
(i) 32   2  (ii) P2   3  (iii)  33   3 

Answers
1. (i) 28 (ii) 24 (iii) 240 (iv) 1872
(v) 27998208 (vi) 1010880 (vii) 840 (viii) 1872
2. (i) 1-dimensional 7, 2-dimensional 7, total subspaces 16, no. of distinct basis 28.
(ii) 1-dimensional 13, 2-dimensional 13, total subspaces 28, no. of distinct basis 1872.
(iii) 1-dimensional 13, 2-dimensional 13, total subspaces 28, no. of distinct basis 1872.
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True-false exercise 10. If a set of vectors v1, v2 ,....., vn  spans

1. If a system of linear equations Ax  b is
 m , then every vector in  m has a unique
consistent, then the vector b is in the span
representation as a linear combination of
of the set of columns of A.
v1, v2 ,...., vn .
2. If the system of equations Ax  b is
11. The set of all vectors having the form
consistent, then b is in the span of the set of
rows of A.  a  2b, b  a,3b  5a  is the span of the set

3. The span of the set of rows in an m  n 1, 1, 5 ,  2,1,3 .

matrix A is the same as the set 12. The vector  3,1,11 is in the span of the set
 Ax : x   n . of vectors (3,2,5), (1,1,1), (0,0,1).
4. The system of equations Ax  b is 13. The vector (12, 1, –21) is in the span of this

consistent if x is in the span of the set of set of three vectors : {(11,3,7), (0,12,5),

columns of A. (0,0,66)}.
14. The span of the set of columns in an n  m
5. If the columns of a matrix A span  k , then
matrix A is the same as the set
for every vector b in  k the system of
equations Ax  b is consistent.  Ax : x   n .
6. If the vector b is not in the span of the set 1 2 9 5 
15. Let A    . Every solution
of columns of the matrix A, then the system  0 1 2 6 
of equations Ax  b is inconsistent. to the equation Ax  0 is a linear
7. If the vector b is in the span of the set of 10   21
rows of a matrix A, then the equation  4  18 
combination of the vectors   and   .
Ax  b is consistent. 2 0
   
8. If each column of an m  n matrix A has a 0 3
pivot position, then the columns of A span 16. Let u  1,3, 2  , v   2,  1,3 and

m . w   3, 2,5  . The set u , v, w is linearly

9. These three vectors span 3 : dependent.
0 0  3 17. Let v1, v2 ,...., vn  be a set of n vectors in
0 5  2
     
 5   8  9   m , and suppose that m  n . A valid
 2
conclusion is that the set is linearly
dependent.
18. If S is a linearly dependent set of vectors,
then each vector in S is a linear
combination of the other vectors in S.
19. The span of a set of vectors u1, u2 ,...., uk 
is the collection of all vectors that can be
written in the form c1u1  c2u2  ....  ck uk ,
using integers c1, c2 ,...., ck .
20. If n  m , the span of a set of n vectors in
 m is a subset of  n .
21. The vector (9,3,7) is in the span of the set
of vectors (3,2,1), (1,2,0), and (3,0,0).
2
22. If x, y and z are three points in  , then
there exist scalars a, b, c (not all zero),
such that ax  by  cz  0 .
23. If u , v and w are any three points in 3 ,
then there are three scalars a, b and c such
that au  bv  cw  0 and a  b  c  0 .
24. The span of a pair of vectors u and v is the
set of all vectors that are either a multiple
of u or a multiple of v.
25. If x is a nonzero vector in  n and if
ax  bx, then a  b .
26. Define functions p0  t   3, p1  t   5t ,
p2  t   t 2 , and p3  t   2t 3 . The span of
this set of four functions is the vector space
of all polynomials of degree at most 3.
27. If m vectors are selected in  n , and m  n ,
then the span of that set of vectors is  n .
28. A set of three vectors can span  4 .
29. If two sets of vectors have the same span,
then the sets must be the same.
30. If two sets of vectors differ, then the span
of the two sets must be different.
5 1
31. The vector 15  is in the span of  4  and
 
 3  2 
 3
7 
 
 1 
32. If two sets of vectors have the same span,
then the two sets contain the same number
of elements.
33. If a set of two or more vectors is linearly
independent, then the removal of a vector
from that set will not disturb the linear
independence.
34. If a vector space V is spanned by a set of n
vectors, then every set of n  1 vectors in V
is linearly independent.
35. If a set of vectors is linearly dependent,
then we can add vectors to the set and make
it linearly independent.
36. A set of vectors is linearly dependent if
some nontrivial linear combination of
vectors in the set is 0.
37. Let V  span u1, u2 ,...., un  in some vector
space. A linearly independent set in V can
have no more than n elements.
38. The vector  3, 4,7  is a linear combination
of the two vectors  6,5, 2  and  5, 2, 1 .
39. If S is a linearly independent set of n
vectors in a vector space V, and if Q is a
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subset of m elements in V that spans V, then
mn.
40. If v1, v2 ,...., vn  is a linearly dependent set
in a vector space, then a correct conclusion
is that vn is a linear combination of the
vectors v1, v2 ,...., vn1 .
41. If a set of three vectors u , v, w is linearly
dependent, then one of the three is a
multiple of another.
42. If a vector space V is spanned by a set of m
vectors and if some other set of n vectors in
V is linearly independent, then n  m .
43. Any set of six 2  2 matrices is linearly
dependent.
44. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly
dependent indexed set, then the matrix has
more columns than rows.
45. If A is an m  n matrix whose rows form a
linearly independent set, then n  m .
46. Let A be an m  n matrix and let B be an
n  k matrix. If k  m , a valid conclusion
is that the columns of AB form a linearly
dependent set in  m .
47. Each row of the product AB is a linear
combination of the rows in A.
48. If A is an m  n matrix whose columns
form a linearly independent set, then
n m.
49. If A is an invertible n  n matrix, then the
rows of A form a linearly independent set.
Page 3
50. If a set of n vectors is linearly independent
in an n–dimensional vector space, then the
given set spans the vector space.
51. If a set of n vectors spans an n–dimensional
vector space, then the given set is linearly
independent.
52. A basis for a vector space V is defined to be
any set that spans V.
53. A basis for a vector space is a spanning set
that is as large as possible.
54. If a vector space V has a basis consisting of
exactly n vectors, then any linearly
independent set in V can have at most n
vectors.
55. If u1, u2 ,...., un  is a linearly independent
set in a vector space V, then the dimension
of V is at least n.
56. If a set of n vectors spans a vector space V,
then the dimension of V is at least n.
57. If a vector space V has a spanning set
v1, v2 ,...., vn  and if w1, w2 ,...., wn  is a
linearly independent set in V, then
w1, w2 ,...., wn  is a basis for V.
58. Any linearly independent set of n
polynomials, each of degree at most n, is a
basis for n .
 0 1 1 0  1 1
59. The matrices  ,  ,   and
 1 1 1 1   0 1
1 1 
1 0 form a basis for the vector space of
 
 4
all 2  2 matrices. II. No linearly independent subset of V
60. The dimension of the space spanned by contains more than n elements.
these four vectors is two : 1,3, 4,7  , Which of the above statement is/are
correct?
 2, 1,1,5 , 5,1,6,17 , 3, 2,5,12 .
1. I only 2. II only
61. If u1 , u2 , u3 span V, then w, u1 , u2 , u3 span V.
3. Both I and II 4. Neither I and II
62. Let A be an n  n matrix. If B and C are 2. Consider the vector space V over the field
linear combinations of powers of A, then B of real numbers spanned by the set
and C commute with each other.
S   0,1,0,0  , 1,1,0,0  , 1,0,1, 0 
63. If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are linearly independent,
 0,0,1, 0 ,(1,1,1,0),(1,0,0,0)
then u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly independent.
What is the dimension of V ?
 5 1. 1 2. 2
64. The vector  1  is a linear combination of 3. 3 4. 4
 4 
3. Let X  (3, 2, 1), Y  (2, 4,1)
 1 0  3 Z  (4,0, 3) and W  (10, 4, 5) be vector
the columns of the matrix  3 2 2 
in 3 , a real vector space. Which one of
 2 0 1 
the following is correct ?
65. Every subspace in a vector space V is the
1. 2 X  Z  W , Y  Z  W
span of some set of vectors in V.
2. 2 X  Y  Z , Y  2Z  W
66. If u1 , u2 , u3 span V, then dim V  3.
3. X  Z  W , 2 X  Y  Z
67. If A is a 4  8 matrix, then any six columns
4. Y  2 Z  W , X  Y  Z
are linearly dependent.
68. If u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly independent, then 4. Let F [ x] be the ring of polynomials in one
variable x over a field F with the relation
u1 , u2 , u3 ,w are linearly dependent.
x n  0, for a fixed n  N . What is the
69. If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are linearly independent
dimension of F [ x] over F ?
then dim V  4 .
1. 1 2. n  1
3. n 4. infinite
Assignment
5. Which one of the following is correct ? The
------------------------ S C Q --------------------
set S  {a  ib, c  id } is a basis for the
1. Let V be a vector space over the field F of
vector space C over R iff
dimension n . Consider the following
1. ad  bc  0 2. ad  bc  0
statements
3. ad  bc  0 4. ad  bc  0
I. Every subset of V containing n elements
is a basis of V .
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6. Let S  {(1, i,0),(2i,1,1),(0,1  i,1  i )} be a Which of the following statement given

subset of the complex vector space C 3 and above is/are correct ?

T  {(1,1,1),(1,1,0), (1,0,0)} be a subset of 1. I only 2. II only

3. Both I and II 4. Neither I nor II
the real vector space  3 . Which one of the
11. A basis of
following statements is correct ?
V  { x, y, z , w    4 : x  y  z  0,
1. S and T are both basis.
y  z  w  0, 2 x  y  3 z  w  0} is
2. S is a basis but T is not a basis.
1. {(1, 1, 1,0), (0, 1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 3, 1)}
3. S is not a basis but T is a basis.
2. {(1, 1, 0, 1)}
4. Neither S nor T is a basis.
3. {(1, 0, 1, 1)}
7. Consider the real vector space  3 . The
4. {(1, 1, 0, 1), (1, 0, 1, 1)}
subspace {( x, y, z )   3 : y  x} of  3 is
(GATE 2007)
generated by which one of the following ?
12. Let v1 , v2 and v3 be the vector space V over
1. {(1,1,0),(0,0,1)}
the field F . If r and s are arbitrary element
2. {(1,1,0),(1,0,0)}
of F and the set v1 , v2 , rv1  sv2  v3  is
3. {(1,0, 0),(0,1,0)}
4. {(1,0,1),(0,0,1)} linearly dependent, then v1 , v2 , v3 is

8. What is the dimension of the vector space 1. linearly dependent set

C over the field R ? 2. a null set
1. 1 2. infinite 3. 2 4. 4 3. linearly independent set
9. Which one of the following polynomials 4. None of the above

lies in the linear span of S  {1,1  x  x 2 }? 13. The dimension of the subspace of  3
spanned by (3,0,1),(1,2,1) and (3,0,1)
1. 5 x 2  5 x  1 2. 100 x 2  10 x  10
1. 0 2. 1
3.  ( x 2  1) 4. 7 x 2   x  3
3. 2 4. 3
10. Given the vector
14. The set
  (1, 2,3),   (3,1,0),   (2,1,3) and
 1 2 4   2 4 8  
  (1,3,6) S1    ,   and
 3 0 1  6 0 2  
Consider the following statements
S 2  u 3  3u  4, u 3  4u  3 are
I.  is a linear combination of  and  .
II.  is a linear combination of  and  . 1. both linearly dependent
2. both linearly independent
 6

3. S1 is linearly dependent but S 2 is not Select the correct answer using the codes

4. S 2 is linearly dependent but S1 is not given below

1. I and II 2. II and III
1 0 0 
 3. III and IV 4. I and IV
15. Let M   0 cos   sin   , where

19. Which one of the following statement is
 0 sin  cos  
correct ?

0    . Let V u   3 , Mu t  u t . 1. There is no vector space of dimension 1.
2
Then, the dim V is 2. Any three vectors of a vector space of

1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 dimension 3 are linearly independent.

3. There is one and only one basis of a
(GATE 2008)
vector space of finite dimension.
16. If S  {(1,1, 0),(2,1,3)}  3 , then which
4. If a non-zero vector space V is
one of the following vectors of R 3 is not in
generated by a finite set S , then V can
the span [S ] ?
be generated by a linearly independent
1. (0,0,0) 2. (3,2,3)
subset of S .
4  20. Let n be a positive integer and let H n be
3. (1,2,3) 4.  ,1,1
3 
the space of all n  n matrices A  (aij ) with
17. In 3 , consider the three statement about
entries in  satisfying aij  ars whenever
the subset E  {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1),
(1,1,1), (1,1,0)} i  j  r  s (i, j, r , s  1, 2,..., n). Then, the
I. E is linearly dependent set. dimension of H n , as a vector space over R is
II. Any three vector of E are linearly 1. n2 2. n 2  n  1
independent. 3. 2n  1 4. 2n  1
III. Any four vectors of E are linearly
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
dependent. 21. Let V be the vector space of m  n matrices
Which of the above statement are correct?
over a field K, then the dimension of V is
1. I,II and III 2. I and II
1. n 2. m 3. mn 4. mn
3. I and III 4. II and III
22. Let V be the vector space of ordered pairs
18. Which of the following sets of vector in
of complex numbers over the real field  .
 are linearly independent ?
3
Then, the dimension of V is
I. {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (1,1,0)}
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
II. {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)}
23.The dimension of () is
III. {(0,1,0), (1,0,1), (1,1,0)}
1. 1 2. finite
IV. {(0,0,1), (0,1,0), (0,1,1)}
3. infinite 4. None of these
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24. Let V be the vector space of real 3. 4 4. None of these

polynomials of degree not exceeding 2. Let 29. The dimension of the vector space
f ( x)  x  1, g ( x )  x  1,

V  A   aij 
nn

: aij  , aij   a ji over the
2 2
h( x)  x  1, j ( x )  x  1.
field  is
Then the set  f , g , h, j is
1. linearly independent 1. n2 2. n 2  1

2. linearly dependent fg  h n2
3. n2  n 4.
2
3. linearly dependent because
(GATE 2009)
f  gh 0
30. The vector space 3 () is of dimension
4. linearly dependent because
1. 1 2. 3
f  g h j  0
3. 2 4. None of these
25. Let W1 and W2 be finite dimensional
31. Let P (3)  {a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3 : ai  R,
subspaces of a vector space V . If
i  0,1, 2,3}. Under the standard operation
dim W1  2, dim W2  2,dim(W1  W2 )  3,
of addition (+) and scalar multiplication (.),
then dim (W1  W2 ) is
P(3) is
1. 1 2. 2
1. not a vector space
3. 3 4. 4
2. a vector space of infinite dimension
26. In the vector space  , the coordinate
3
3. a vector space of dimension 3
vector of (3,5,2) relative to the ordered
4. a vector space of dimension 4
basis {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} is
32. Consider
1. (5,3,2) 2. (3,5,2)
S  {a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3 : ai  }
3. (2,5,3) 4. (2,3,5)
with usual addition and multiplication
27. Let V be the vector space of all
1. S does not form a vector space
2  2 matrices over the field F . The
2. for vector space with dim 4
dimension of V is
3. S does not form vector space because
1. 2 2. 3
does not have identity
3. 4 4. None of these
4. form a vector space with dim 3
28. The dimension of the vector space spanned
33. If (m,3,1) is a linear combination of vectors
by (1,2,3,1) and (1,1,2,3) is
1. 1 2. 2
 8

(3,2,1) and (2,1,0) in  3 , then the value of 4. None of the above

m is 38. Let Vn (Z p ) be a vector space of dimension
1. 1 2. 3 n over the field Z p . Then, the total number
3. 5 4. None of these
of subspaces of dimension r are
34. The number of elements in the vector space
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p r 1 )
of polynomials of degree atmost n in 1.
( p r  1)( p r  p)...( p r  p r 1 )
which the coefficients are the elements of
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 )
the field  p over the field  p , p being a 2.
r!
prime number is ( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 )
3.
1. p n1 2. pn p!

3. p n1 4. None of these ( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 )

4.
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p r 1 )
35. Let V be the vector space of all real
polynomials. Consider the subspace 39. Let Vn (Z p ) be a vector space of dimension

W spanned by t 2  t  2, t 2  2t  5, n over the field Z p . The total number of

5t 2  3t  4 and 2t 2  2t  4 . Then, the basis of the vector space V3 ( Z 3 ) are

dimension of W is 1. 11232 2. 11223
1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1 3. 1024 4. 1872
(GATE 2006) 40. Let Vn (Z p ) be a vector space of dimension
36. The set of all x   for which the vectors
n over the field Z p . The total number of
(1, x,0) , (0, x 2 ,1) and (0,1, x ) are linearly
subspaces of dimension 1 of the vector
independent in  is 3
space V2 ( Z 5 ) is
1. {x  R : x  0} 2. {x  R : x  0}
1. 1 2. 2
3. {x  R : x  1} 4. {x  R : x  1}
3. 3 4. 6
(GATE 2005) 41. It is given that v1 , v2 ,..., vn are n non-zero
37. Let Vn (Z p ) be a vector space of dimension
orthogonal vectors. The dimension of the
n over the field Z p . Then, the total number vector space spanned by the 2n vectors
of distinct basis are v1 , v2 ,..., vn ,  v1 ,  v2 ,..., vn is
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 ) 1. 2n
1.
n! 2. n+1
n n n n1
( p  1)( p  p)...( p  p ) 3. n
2.
p!
4. dependent on the choice of v1 , v2 ,..., vn
n n n n1
( p  1)( p  p)...( p  p )
3.
(n ! p !)2
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42. Consider the set of vectors (columns) 45. Let v1 , v2 , v3 be the three non-zero vectors in
defined by X  {x  R 3 : x1  x2  x3  0,  n are linearly dependent, then
where xT  [ x1 , x2 , x3 ]T }. 1. v3 must be a linear combination of

Which of the following is true? v1 and v2

1. {[1, 1,0]T ,[1,0, 1]T } is a basis for the 2. v2 must be a linear combination of
subspace X . v1 and v3
T T
2. {[1, 1,0] ,[1,0, 1] } is a linearly
3. v1 must be a linear combination of
independent set, but it does not span
v2 and v3
X and therefore is not a basis X .
4. None of the above
3. X is not a subspace for R 3
46. Let S , T be subsets of a vector space V and
4. None of the above
S  T . Consider the following statements.
43. Let M nn ( R) be the set of all n  n matrices
I. If T is linearly independent, then so
 n 
and S  [dij ] s.t. dij  0if i  j and  dii  0  , is S .
 i 1 
II. If T generates V , then S also must
then
generate V .
1. the set S does not form a subspace of
III. If S is linearly independent, then T
M nn .
must be linearly independent.
2. the set S is not closed w.r.t. IV. If S generates V , then so does T
multiplication.
Then,
3. the set S form a subspace of dimension
1. I and III are true, but I and IV are false
n1
2. I and IV are true, but II and III are false
4. the set S form a subspace of dimension 3. I and III are true, but II and IV are false
2
n 1 . 4. II and IV are true, but I and III are false
44. S  {( x1 , x2 ,..., x100 )  . s.t. 47. Let {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } be a basis of  4 and
x1  x2  ...  x50 , x51  x52  ...  x100  0 } v  a1v1  a2 v2  a3v3  a4 v4 , where
Then dim S is ai  R, i  1, 2,3, 4. Then,
1. 49 2. 50
{v1  v, v2  v, v3  v, v4  v} is a basis of  4
3. 47 4. 51
if and only if
 10

1. a1  a2  a3  a4 52. Which one of the following is not a basis of

2. a1a2 a3a4  1 R3 ?
1
3. a1  a2  a3  a4  1 1. {(3,0,0),(0, 1, 0),(0,0, )
2
4. a1  a2  a3  a4  0 2. (0,0,3),(1,2,3),(1,2,1)
(GATE 2004) 3. (1,2,1),(1,1,1),(1,3,5)
48. Let V be vector spaces of n  n matrices 4. (1,1,0),(1,2,3),(0,0,1)
over  , and W be the subspace of matrices 53. Which of the following sets of function is
with entries in each row adding upto zero. linearly dependent in the vector space
Then, the dimension of W is C[0,1] of real continuous functions over
n  n  1 [0,1]?
1. n 2.
2
1. {1, x, x 2  1} 2. { 2, x 2 , x 3 ,3x 2  2}
3. n  1 4. n(n  1)
3. {x  1, x 2  1} 4. {x 2  1, x 2  5}
49. Let S  {(0,1, ),( ,1, 0),(1, ,1)}. Then
54. Let {e1 , e2 , e3} be a basis of a vector space
S is a basis for  3 if and only if
V over R . Consider the following sets
1.   0 2.   1
A  {e2 , e1  e2 , e1  e2  e3 }
3.   0 and  2  2 4. 1    1
B  {e1 , e1  e2 , e1  e2  e3 }
50. Let S  {(1,0,1), (2,1,4)}. The value of k
C  {2e1 ,3e2  e3 ,6e1  3e2  e3},
for which the vector (3k  2,3,10) belongs
then,
to the linear span of S is 1. A and B are basis of V
1. 2 2. 2 2. A and Care basis of V
3. 8 4. 3 3. B and C are basis of V
51. Let S  {x1 , x2 ,..., xm } and 4. only B is a basis of V
T  { y1 , y2 ,..., yn } be the subsets of the 55. Let V be the vector space of all 5  5 real
vector space V . Then, skew-symmetric matrices. Then, the
1. if S and T are both linearly dimension of V is
independent, then m  n 1. 20 2. 15
2. if S is a basis for V and if T spans V 3. 10 4. 5

then m  n 56. Let

3. if S is a basis for V and if T in linearly V  {( x1 , x2 ,..., x100 )  R100 : x1  2 x2  3 x3

independent, then m  n and x51  x52  ...  x100  0}.
4. if S is linearly independent and if Then, dim V is
T spans V, then m  n 1. 98 2. 49
3. 99 4. 97
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57. The dimension of the subspace 1. 2 2. 3 3. 4 4. 5

{( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) : 3x1  x2  x3  0} of (GATE 2004)

 5 is 62. The set {e 2 x , e3 x }, x  , is

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 1. LI over 
(GATE 2006) 2. LD over 
58. The dimension of the vector space of all 3. LI over any interval (a, b), only when
symmetric matrices of order n  n(n  2) 0  ( a, b)
with real entries and trace equal to zero is 4. None of the above
 n2  n   n2  n  63. Choose the correct statement
1.   1 2.   1
 2   2  1. Every subset of a LI set is LI
2. Every superset of a LI set is LI
 n 2  2n   n 2  2n 
3.   1 4.   1
 2   2  3. Every subset of a LD set is LD
4. Every subset of a LD set is LI
(CSIR NET June 2011)
59. Consider the subspace W  {[aij ] : aij  0 64. Let Q[ 3]  {a  b 3 : a, b  Q}, then
which of the following is correct?
if i is even } of all 10  10 real matrices.
Then, dimension of W is 1. Q[ 3] is infinite dimensional vector

1. 25 2. 50 3. 75 4. 100 space over R

(GATE 2008) 2. Q[ 3] is two-dimensional vector space
60. The number of distinct bases of a two over R
dimensional vector space over Z 3 is 3. Q[ 3] is two-dimensional vector space
1. 24 2. 27 over Q
3. 9 4. 48 4. R is finite dimensional vector space
61. Let
over Q[ 3]
v1  (1, 2,0,3,0)
65. The dimension of the vector space of all
v2  (1, 2, 1, 1,0), 3  3 real symmetric matrices is
v3  (0, 0,1, 4,0), 1. 3 2. 9 3. 6 4. 4

v4  (2, 4,1,10,1) and v5  (0,0, 0,0,1). (GATE 2002)

The dimension of the linear span of 66. The vectors u  [3  2,1  2]T and

{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5} is v  [7,1  2 2]T in  2 are

 12
1. LI over  2. LI over  on [a, b] over real field  . Consider the
3. LI over  4. All of these following statements
67. Let u , v, w are LI vectors. Then, consider I. f and g are LI on [a, b] implies that
the statements they are LI on each subinterval of
I. u  v  2 w, u  v  w and u  w are LI [ a, b]
II. u  v  3w, u  3v  w and v  w are LD II. f and g are LD on [a, b] implies that
Choose the correct code they are LD on each subinterval of
1. I is true but II is false [ a, b]
2. I is false but II is true III. f and g are LI on any subinterval of
3. both I and II are true [a, b] implies that they are LI on [a, b]
4. both I and II are false
IV. f and g are LD on any subinterval of
68. Let V be the space of 2  2 matrices over
[a, b] implies that they are LD on [a, b] .
R and let W be the subspace generated by
Then,
 1 5  1 1  2 4
 4 2  ,  1 5 ,  5 7  and 1. only I and II are true
     
2. only II and III are true
 1 7 
 5 1  3. only III and IV are true
 
4. only I and IV are true
Then, dimension of W is
 1 0 1
1. 2 2. 3 3. 4 4. 5
72. Consider the matrix M   0 1 0  and
69. Which of the following sets of vectors is a  1 1 1
 
basis for  3
let S M be the set of 3  3 matrices N , such
I. {(1, 2,3),(3,5,7),(5,8,11)}
that MN  0 . Then, the dimension of the
II. {(1,0,1),(0,1,0),(1,0,1)}
real vector space S M is equal to
III. {(1, 2,3), (2,3, 4),(2, 4,6)}
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
1. only I and II 2. only II
73. Let S be the set of all n  n matrices over
3. only I and III 4. only I
 with zero trace. Then,
70. Let S  {(1, 2,3),(1,0, 1)}. The value of
1. S is not a vector space
k for which the vector (2,1, k ) belongs to
2. S is a vector space of dimension n  1
the linear span of S is 3. S , together with the identity matrix,
1. 1 2. 1 3. 2 4. 0 form a vector space
71. Let f and g be two elements of the vector 4. S is a vector space and it has a basis
space of all continuous functions defined consisting of n 2  1 matrices
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74. Let S  {x1 ,  x2 , x3} and 78. Let V be a 3dimensional vector space over

T  {x1  x3 , x1  x2 , 2 x2  x3  x1} . 
the field F3  of 3 elements. The
3
Then
number of distinct one dimensional
1. Both S and T are basis for  3
subspaces of V is
2. S is not a basis for  but T is a basis for
3
1. 13 2. 26
 3
3. 9 4. 15
3. T is not a basis for  but S is a basis for
3
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
 3
1 3 5 a 13
4. Neither S nor T is a basis for  3 79. Let A   0 1 7 9 b  where
75. Let W be the space spanned by  0 0 1 11 15

f  sin x and g  cos x. Then for any real a, b  . Choose the correct statement.
value of  , f1  sin( x   ) and 1. There exist values of a and b for which

g1  cos( x   ) . Which of the following is the columns of A are linearly

independent.
not true ?
2. There exist values of a and b for which
1. are vectors in W
Ax=0 has x=0 as the only solution.
2. are linearly independent
3. For all values of a and b the rows of A
3. do not form a basis for W
span a 3dimensional subspace of  5 .
4. form a basis for W
4. There exist values of a and b for which
76. If V is a vector space over an infinite field
rank(A)=2.
F such that dim V  2 , then the number of
(CSIR NET June 2013)
distinct subspaces V has is
80. Consider the following row vectors
1. 2 2. 3
a1  1,1,0,1,0,0  , a2  1,1,0,0,1, 0  ,
3. 4 4. infinite
a3  1,1,0,0, 0,1 , a4  1,0,1,1,0,0  ,
1 1 1 
a5  1,0,1,0,1, 0  , a6  1,0,1,0,0,1 ,
77. Let A   2 2 3  and
 x y z  The dimension of the vector space spanned
by these row vectors is
let V  x, y, z    3 :det  A   0. Then the
1. 6 2. 5
dimension of V equals
3. 4 4. 3
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
(GATE 2007)
 14
81. The dimension of vector space of all ----------------------- M C Q -----------------------
symmetric matrices A   a jk  of order
1. Let n be an integer, n  3, and let
n  n  n  2  with real entries a11  0 and
u1 , u2 ,...., un be n linearly independent
trace zero is
elements in a vector space over  . Set
n2  n  4 n2  n  4
1. 2. u0  0and un1  u1. Define
2 2
n2  n  3 n2  n  3 vi  ui  ui 1 and wi  ui1  ui for i 1, 2,...., n.
3. 4.
2 2 Then
(CSIR NET June 2012) 1. v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent, if
82. Let x  ( x1 , x2 , x3 ), y  ( y1 , y2 , y3 )   3
be
n  2010 .
linearly independent. Let 2. v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent, if
1  x2 y3  y2 x3 ,  2  x1 y3  y1x3 ,
n  2011 .
 3  x1 y2  y1 x2 . If V is the span of x, y, 3. w1 , w2 ,...., wn are linearly independent, if
then n  2010 .
1. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0} 4. w1 , w2 ,...., wn are linearly independent, if
2. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0} n  2011 .
3. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0} (CSIR NET Dec 2012)

4. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0} 2. Let n be an interger  2 and let M n   

(CSIR NET June 2016) denote the vector space of n  n real

83. Which of the following subsets of  4 is a matrices. Let B  M n    be an orthogonal

basis of  4 ? matrix and let Bt denote the transpose of B.
B1  (1,0, 0,0),)(1,1,0,0),(1,1,1,0),(1,1,1,1) Consider WB  B t AB : A  M n    . Which
B2  (1, 0,0,0),)(1, 2, 0,0), (1,2,3,0), (1, 2,3, 4) of the following are necessarily true ?
B3  (1, 2,0,0),)(0,0,1,1),(2,1,0,0),(5,5,0, 0) 1. WB is a subspace of M n    and
1. B1 and B2 but not B3
dim WB  rank  B  .
2. B1 , B2 and B3
2. WB is a subspace of M n    and
3. B1 and B3 but not B2
dimWB  rank  B  rank  B t 
4. Only B1

(CSIR NET Dec 2016) 3. WB = M n   

4. WB is not a subspace of M n   

(CSIR NET Dec 2012)

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3. Let v1 ,...., vn  be a linearly independent

subset of a vector space V where n  4. Set

wij  vi  v j . Let W be the span of

w ij |1  i, j  n . Then

1. w ij |1  i  j  n spans W.

2. w ij |1  i  j  n is linearly

independent subset of W.
3. w ij |1  i  n  1, j  i  1 spans W.

4. dimW  n .
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
4. Let V denote a vector space over a field F
and with a basis B  e1 , e2 ,...., en  . Let

x1 , x2 ,...., xn  F . Let

C  {x1e1 , x1e1  x2e2 ,...., x1e1  x2e2  ....  xnen }.

Then
1. C is a linearly independent set implies
that xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n.

2. xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n implies that

C is linearly independent set.

3. The linear span of C is V implies that
xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n.

4. xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n implies that

the linear span of C is V.

(CSIR NET June 2014)
 16

True false key 53. 2 54. 1 55. 3 56. 4

1. T 2. F 3. F 4. F 57. 4 58. 2 59. 2 60. 1

5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F 61. 2 62. 1 63. 1 64. 3

9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T 65. 3 66. 3 67. 3 68. 1

13. T 14. T 15. T 16. T 69. 2 70. 4 71. 2 72. 4

17. F 18. F 19. F 20. F 73. 4 74. 1 75. 3 76. 4

21. T 22. T 23. F 24. F 77. 3 78. 1 79. 3 80. 3

25. T 26. T 27. F 28. F 81. 1 82. 1 83. 1

29. F 30. F 31. T 32. F

33. T 34. F 35. F 36. T MCQ
37. T 38. T 39. F 40. F 1. 2,3,4 2. 2,3 3. 1,3

41. F 42. T 43. T 44. F 4. 1,2,3,4

45. F 46. T 47. F 48. F

49. T 50. T 51. T 52. F
53. F 54. T 55. T 56. F
57. T 58. F 59. T 60. T
61. T 62. T 63. T 64. T
65. T 66. F 67. T 68. F
69. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 2 2. 3 3. 2 4. 3
5. 4 6. 1 7. 1 8. 3
9. 1 10. 2 11. 4 12. 1
13. 3 14. 3 15. 2 16. 3
17. 3 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
21. 3 22. 4 23. 3 24. 4
25. 1 26. 2 27. 3 28. 2
29. 3 30. 2 31. 4 32. 2
33. 3 34. 1 35. 3 36. 3
37. 1 38. 1 39. 4 40. 4
41. 3 42. 1 43. 3 44. 2
45. 4 46. 2 47. 3 48. 4
49. 3 50. 2 51. 4 52. 2
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Chapter - 6
More Topics on Vector Space
6.1 Row space, column space and null space of a matrix
Def. Row space of a matrix : The space generated by rows of a matrix is called its row space. If A is

a m  n real matrix then its row space is a subspace of  n .

Def. Column space of a matrix : The space generated by columns of a matrix is called its column

space. If A is a m  n real matrix then its column space is a subspace of  m .

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a a22 ... a2n 
If A   21  then row space of A   a , a ,..., a  ,  a , a ,..., a  ,...,  a , a ,..., a 
11 12 1n 21 22 2n m1 m 2 mn
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 

column space of A   a11, a21,...., am1  ,  a12 , a22 ,...., am 2  ,.....,  a1n , a2n ,...., amn 

Result : The dimension of row space and of the column space of a matrix are both equal to the rank of
the matrix.
Def. Null space of a matrix : Let A be a m  n matrix then null space of A is defined as

Null space of a A   x : Ax  0 , where x is a n  1 vector and 0 is a m  1 vector.

Clearly null space of A is a subspace of  n .

Result :
1. If A is a m  n matrix then dimension of null space of A is n  r , where r is the rank of the matrix A.
2. If two matrices are row equivalent then their null spaces are same, however converse is not true.
Identical subspaces : Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a finite dimensional vector space V and
let S1 and S2 be their spanning sets respectively. Then W1 and W2 are identical i.e. W1 = W2 if
every vector of S1 can be expressed as linear combination of vectors of S2 and every vector of S2
can be expressed as linear combination of vectors of S1.
Results :
1. Suppose A and B are two matrices such that AB is defined. Then row space of AB is contained in
the row space of B and the column space of AB is contained in the column space of A.
2. Suppose A and B are row reduced echelon matrices. Then A and B have the same row space if and
only if they have the same non zero rows.
 2

3. The row space of a matrix A is same as the column space of AT .

4. Row spaces of two matrices of same size are same iff they are row equivalent.
5. Two matrices are row equivalent then their column spaces need not be same.
6. The system Ax  b is consistent iff b  column space  A  .

Example 1 : Show that the subspace spanned by the vectors v1  (1 , 2 , 1) , v2  (1 , 2 , 3) and the

subspace spanned by the vectors w1  (0 , 0 , 1) and w2  (1 , 2 , 5) are identical.

Solution : Let us express v1 and v2 as linear combinations of w1 and w2 .

Let (1 , 2 , 1)  a (0 , 0 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 5)
 b  1 , 2b  2 , a  5b  1
 a  4 and b  1
 v1  4 w1  w2

Now let (1 , 2 , 3)  a (0 , 0 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 5)

 b  1 , 2b  2 , a  5b  3
 a  2 and b  1
 v2  2 w1  w2

Again we express w1 and w2 as linear combinations of v1 and v2 .

Let (0 ,0 , 1)  a(1 , 2 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 3)

 a  b  0 , 2a  2b  0 , a  3b  1
1 1
 a   and b 
2 2
1 1
 w1   v1  v2
2 2
Now let (1 , 2 , 5)  a (1 , 2 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 3)
 a  b  1 , 2a  2b  2 , a  3b  5
 a  1 and b  2
 w2  v1  2v2
Thus v1 , v2 are linear combinations of w1 , w2 and w1 , w2 are linear combinations of v1 , v2 ,

therefore the subspace generated by v1 , v2 is identical with the subspace generated by w1 , w2 .

Exercise 6.1
1. Find the dimension of row space and column space of each of the following matrices :
 1 3 2 5 4  1 2 3 2  1 1 2 
 1 4 1 3 5   1 3 2 0  4 5 5 
(a)  , (b)  , (c)  
 1 4 2 4 3  3 8 7 2  5 8 1 
     
 2 7 3 6 13   2 1 9 10   1 2 2 
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2. For k = 1,2,…,5, find the number nk of linearly independent subsets consisting of k columns for

each of the following matrices :

1 1 0 2 3  1 2 1 0 2
(a) A  1 2 0 2 5  , (b) B   1 2 3 0 4  .
1 3 0 2 7   1 1 5 0 6 

1 2 1 3 1 6 1 2 2 1 2 1
2 4 3 8 3 15  2 4 5 4 5 5 
3. Let (a) A   , (b) B   .
1 2 2 5 3 11  1 2 3 4 4 6
   
4 8 6 16 7 32  3 6 7 7 9 10 

For each matrix (where C1 ,...., C6 denote its column) :

(i) Find its row canonical form M.
(ii) Find the columns that are linear combinations of preceding columns.
(iii) Find columns (excluding C6 ) that form a basis for the column space.

(iv) Express C6 as a linear combination of the basis vectors obtained in (iii).

4. Determine which of the following matrices have the same row space :

1 1 3
1 2 1 1 1 2 
A , B , C   2 1 10 
3 4 5  2 3 1
 3 5 1 

5. Determine which of the following subspaces of 3 are identical :

W1  span[(1, 1, –1), (2, 3, –1), (3, 1, –5)], W2  span[(1, –1, –3), (3, –2, –8), (2, 1, –3)]

W3  span[(1, 1, 1), (1, –1, 3), (3, –1, 7)]

6. Determine which of the following subspaces of  4 are identical :

W1  span[(1, 2, 1, 4), (2, 4, 1, 5), (3, 6, 2, 9)], W2  span[(1, 2, 1, 2), (2, 4, 1, 3)],

W3  span[(1, 2, 3, 10), (2, 4, 3, 11)]

7. Find two different basis for (i) the row space and (ii) the column space of each matrix M :
0 0 3 1 4 1 2 1 0 1
1 3 1 2 1  1 2 2 1 3 
(a) M   , (b) M   .
3 9 4 5 2 3 6 5 2 7
   
4 12 8 8 7 2 4 1 –1 0
 4

Answers
1. (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 3
2. (a) n1  4 , n2  5 , n3  n4  n5  0 (b) n1  4 , n2  6 , n3  3, n4  n5  0

1 2 0 1 0 3
0 0 1 2 0 1
3. (a) (i) M    (ii) C2 , C4 , C6
0 0 0 0 1 2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

(iii) C1 , C3 , C5 (iv) C6  3C1  C3  2C5 .

1 2 0 0 3 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
(b) (i) M   (ii) C2 , C5 , C6
0 0 0 1 1 2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

(iii) C1 , C3 , C4 (iv) C6  C1  C3  2C4

1 0 7 
1 0 7  1 0 1 
4. A ~   , B~  and C ~  0 1 4 
0 1 4 0 1 1  0 0 0 

 1 0 2 
5. W1 and W2 are row equivalent to  0 1 1  , but not W3 .
 0 0 0 

1 2 0 1 
1 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 
6. W1 ~  0 0 1 3 , W2 ~   and W3 ~  
 0 0 0 0  0 0 1 1  0 0 1 3

7. (a) (i) (1, 3, 1, 2, 1), (0, 0, 1, –1, –1), (0, 0, 0, 4, 7); C1 , C3 , C4 .

(b) (i) (1, 2, 1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1, 1, 2) (ii) C1 , C3 .

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6.2 Sums, direct sums and intersections

Def. Linear sum of subspaces : Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector space V , then linear
sum of W1 and W2 is denoted by W1 + W2 and is defined as :
W1 + W2 = {w1  w2 : w1  W1 , w2  W2 } .

Further a vector space V is said to be linear sum of its subspaces W1 and W2 if every v V can be
expressed as v  w1  w2 ; w1  W1  w2  W2 .

Def . Direct sum of subspaces : A vector space V(F) is said to be direct sum of its two subspaces W1
and W2 if every v  V can be uniquely expressed as
v  w1  w2 ; w1  W1 , w2  W2

We denote the direct sum of W1 and W2 by W1  W2 .

Results :
1. Linear sum of two subspaces is a subspace.
2. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V(F) , where V is finite dimensional.
Then dim(W1  W2 )  dim W1  dim W2  dim(W1  W2 ) .

3. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a vector space V(F) to be a direct sum of its subspaces
W1 and W2 are that (i) V = W1  W2 (ii) W1  W2 = {0}.
OR
The necessary and sufficient condition for a vector space V to be direct sum of its two subspaces
are that V is linear sum of these two subspaces and they are disjoint.
4. If a finite dimensional vector space V is a direct sum of its two subspaces W1 and W2 , then
dim V = dim W1 + dim W2.
5. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V ( F ) then

max{dim W1  dim W2  dimV ,0}  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1,dim W2}

Proof : We know that W1  W2  W1  dim W1  W2   dimW1 ……(1)

Also, W1  W2  W2  dim W1  W2   dim W2 …….(2)

 From (1) and (2), we have

dim W1  W2   min dimW1 ,dim W2 
 6

Now, W1  W2  V  dim W1  W2   dimV

 dim W1  dim W2  dim W1  W2   dimV

 dim W1  dim W2  dim V  dim W1  W2 

 dim W1  W2   dimW1  dim W2  dimV ………(3)

Also, dim W1  W2   0 ………(4)

 From (3) and (4), we have

dim W1  W2   max dim W1  dimW2  dim V , 0

 max dimW1  dim W2  dimV , 0  dim W1  W2   min dim W1 , dim W2 

6. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V ( F ) then

max{dim W1,dim W2 }  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1  dimW2 , dim V }

Proof : We know that

dim W1  W2   dimW1  dimW2  dim W1  W2   dim W1  dim W2 ……(1)

Also, dim W1  W2   dim V ……(2)

 From (1) and (2), we have

dim W1  W2   min dim W1  dim W2 ,dim V 

Now, W1  W1  W2  dim W1  dim W1  W2  …..(3)

Also, W2  W1  W2  dim W2  dim W1  W2  …..(4)

From (3) and (4), we have

dim W1  W2   max dimW1 , dimW2 

 max{dim W1,dim W2 }  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1  dimW2 , dim V }

7. If S1 is a generating set of W1 and S 2 is a generating set of W2 then S1  S2 is a generating set of

W1  W2 .

8. If B1 is a basis of W1 and B2 is a basis of W2 then B1  B2 is a generating set of W1  W2 , but not

necessarily a basis.
9. Suppose W1 ,W2 ,....,Wr are subspaces of a vector space V, then

(i) span W1,W2 ,...,Wr  W1  W2  ....  Wr .

(ii) If Si spans Wi for i 1,...., r , then S1  S 2  ....  S r spans W1  W2  ....  Wr .

10. If W1,W2 and W3 are the subspaces of a vector space V, then

(i) W1  (W2  W3 )  (W1  W2 )  (W1  W3 ) .

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Proof : Let z  x  y  W1  W2   W1  W3 

 x W1  W2 , y W1  W3

 x W1 and x  W2 , y  W1 and y  W3

Now, x, y W1  x  y  W1  z  W1

and x W2 , y W3  x  y  W2  W3  z  W2  W3

 z  W1  W2  W3 

 W1  W2   W1  W3   W1  W2  W3 

(ii) W1  (W2  W3 )  (W1  W2 )  (W1  W3 ) .

Proof : Let z  x  y  W1  W2  W3 

 x W1 , y  W2  W3

 x W1 , y W2 and y  W3

 x  y  W1  W2 and x  y  W1  W3

 z  W1  W2 and z  W1  W3

 z  W1  W2   W1  W3 

 W1  W2  W3   W1  W2   W1  W3 

Example 1 : If W1 and W2 are subspaces of the vector space R4 (R) spanned by the sets

S1 = {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (2 , 3 , 3 , 1)} and

S2 = {(1 , 2 , 2 , 2) , (2 , 3 , 2 , 0) , (3 , 5 , 4 , 2)} respectively .Then find
(i) dim W1 (ii) dim W2 (iii) dim ( W1  W2 ) (iv) dim ( W1  W2 ).

Solution : (i) To find a basis of W1 , we consider a matrix whose rows are the vectors of S1 .
1 1 0 1 
i.e. A =  1 2 3 0 
 2 3 3 1 

1 1 0 1 
~  0 1 3 1 (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 )
 0 1 3 1
 8

1 1 0 1 
~  0 1 3 1 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 ) which is in row echelon form.
 0 0 0 0 

Thus the non – zero rows {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 3 ,  1)} form the basis of W1 and so dim W1 = 2
(ii) To find a basis of W2 , we consider a matrix whose rows are the vectors of S2 .
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 
i.e. B =  2 3 2 0  ~  0 1 2 4 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 )
 
 3 5 4 2   0 1 2 4

1 2 2 2 
~  0 1 2 4 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )
 0 0 0 0 
which is in row echelon form.
Thus the non – zero rows {(1 , 2 , 2 , 2) , (0 ,  1 ,  2 ,  4)} form the basis of W2 and
so dim W2 = 2.
(iii) We know that W1  W2 = < W1  W2 > . Therefore W1  W2 is generated by vectors of

S1  S2 = {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (2 , 3 , 3 , 1) (1 , 2 , 2 ,2) , (2 , 3 , 2 ,0) , (3 , 5 , 4 , 2)}

Now we consider a matrix C formed by writing the vectors of S1  S2 in rows i.e.

1 1 0 1
1 2 3 0 

2 3 3 1
C=  
1 2 2 2
2 3 2 0
 
3 5 4 2
Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 , R 4  R 4  R1 , R 5  R 5  2R1 , R 6  R 6  3R1 , we get
1 1 0 1 
 0 1 3 1
 
 0 1 3 1
C~  
0 1 2 1 
 0 1 2 2 
 
 0 2 4 1
Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 , R 4  R 4  R 2 , R 5  R 5  R 2 , R 6  R 6  2R 2 , we get
1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 0 0
C ~ 
0 0 1 2 
0 0 1 1
 
0 0 2 1 
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Operating R 5  R 5  R 4 , R 6  R 6  2R 4 , we get

1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 0 0
C ~  
0 0 1 2 
0 0 0  3
 
0 0 0  3

Operating R 6  R 6  R 5 and taking zero rows in the bottom , we get

1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 1 2
C~  
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Thus the non – zero rows (1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 3 ,  1) , (0 , 0 ,  1 ,  2) , (0 , 0 , 0 ,  3) form a basis
of W1  W2 and so dim ( W1  W2 ) = 4.

Now we know that dim ( W1  W2 ) = dim W1 + dim W2  dim( W1  W2 )

 4 = 2 + 2  dim ( W1  W2 )

Hence dim ( W1  W2 ) = 0.

Exercise 6.2
1. If W1 and W2 are two-dimensional subspaces of  3 , then show that W1  W2  0 .

2. Suppose W1 and W2 are subspaces of V such that dim W1  4 , dim W2  5 , and dimV=7. Find the

possible dimensions of W1  W2 .

3. Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of 3 for which dim W1  1 , dim W2  2 , and W1 / W2 . Show

that  3  W1  W2 .

4. Consider the following subspaces of 5 :

W1  span[(1, –1, –1, –2, 0), (1, –2, –2, 0, –3), (1, –1, –2, –2, 1)]
 10

W2  span[(1, –2, –3, 0, –2), (1, –1, –3, 2, –4), (1, –1, –2, 2, –5)]

(a) Find two homogeneous system whose solution spaces are W1 and W2 , respectively.

(b) Find a basis and the dimension of W1  W2 .

5. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be the following subspaces of 3 :

W1  a, b, c  : a  c, W2   a, b, c  : a  b  c  0 , W3  0,0, c 

Show that : (a)  3  W1  W2 , (b) 3  W2  W3 , (c) 3  W1  W3 . When is the sum direct ?

6. Consider the subspaces U   a, b, c, d : b  2c  d  0 and W  a, b, c, d  : a  d , b  2c of  4 .

Find a basis and the dimension of : (a) U, (b) W, (c) U  W

7. Suppose W1 ,W2 ,W3 are subspaces of a vector space V. Show that

W1  W2   W1  W3   W1  W2  W3  . Find subspaces of  2 for which equality does not hold.

8. Let V be the vector space of n-square matrices. Let W1 be the subspace of upper triangular

matrices, and let W2 be the subspace of lower triangular matrices. Find (a) W1  W2 (b) W1  W2 .
9. Give an example to show that the linear sum of two subspaces need not be always the direct sum .
10. Let V be the vector space of all n  n real matrices. Let W1 and W2 be the set of all n  n real

symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices respectively, then show that V  W1  W2 .

11. Let V be the vector space of all functions from  to  . Let W1 and W2 denotes the subspaces of

all even and odd functions respectively, then show that V  W1  W2 .

Answers
2. dim W1  W2   2,3 or 4

4. (a) (i) 3x  4 y  z  t  0 (ii) 4 x  2 y  s  0

4x  2 y  s  0 9x  2 y  z  t  0

(b) Basis : {(1, –2, –5, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0, –1)}; dim U  W   2

5. The sum is direct in (b) and (c)

6. (a) dim U = 3, (b) dim W  2 , (c) dim U  W  1

7. In  2 , let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be, respectively, the line y  x , the x–axis, the y–axis.

8. (a) Diagonal matrices, (b) V

9. W1  {( x, y, z )   3 : x  y}, W2  {( x, y, z )   3 : x  y  z  0}
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6.3 Coordinates

Def. Co ordinate Vector : If the set B  {v1 , v2 ,......., vn } is a basis of a vector space V(F) , then a

vector v  V can be expressed uniquely as v  a1v1  a2 v2  .........  anvn for some scalars

a1 , a2 ,......, an . The coefficients a1 , a2 ,......, an in the linear combination of v are called co – ordinates of

v relative to the basis B. The vector  a1 , a2 ,......, an  is called the coordinate vector of v relative to the

basis of B.
Example 1 : Find the coordinates of the vector ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4) relative to the ordered basis
B = {(0 , 1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0)} for V4.
Solution : Consider
(1, 2,3, 4)  a1 (0,1,1,0)  a2 (0,0,1,1)  a3 (1,0,0,1)  a4 (0,1,0,0)

= (a3 , a1  a4 , a1  a2 , a2  a3 )

 a3  1 , a1  a4  2 , a1  a2  3 , a2  a3  4

On solving , we have a2  5 , a1  2 , a4  4 , a3  1

Hence , the coordinates of (1, 2,3, 4) relative to the basis of B are 2,5, 1, 4 .

Exercise 6.3
1. In 3    , find the coordinates of vector u w.r.t. a basis (u1 , u2 , u3 ) where

(i) u = (4 , 5 , 6) ; u1  (1 , 1 , 1) , u2  (1, 1 , 0) , u3  (1, 0 ,  1)

(ii) u  (1 , 0 ,  1) ; u1  (0 , 1 ,  1) , u2  (1 , 1 , 0) , u3  (1 , 0 , 2) .

2. In 3    , find the coordinates of (2i, 3  4i, 5) w.r.t. the basis {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.

3. The vectors u1  1,  2  and u2   4,  7  form a basis S of  2 . Find the coordinates vector [v] of v

relative to S where : (a) v   5,3 , (b) v   a, b  .

4. The vectors u1  1, 2, 0  , u2  1,3, 2  , u3   0,1,3 form a basis S of 3 . Find the coordinates vector

[v] of v relative to S where (a) v   2,7,  4  , (b) v   a, b, c  .

5. S  t 3  t 2 , t 2  t , t  1, 1 is a basis of P3    . Find the coordinates vector [v] of v relative to S

where (a) v  2t 3  t 3  4t  2 (b) v  at 3  bt 2  ct  d .

 12

6. Let V  M 2.2 . Find the coordinates vector [A] of A relative to S where :

1 1  1 1 1 1  1 0   3 5 a b 

S   ,  , 0 0  ,  0 0   and (a) A   , (b) A   .
1 1  1 0      6 7  c d 

Answers
1. (i) ( 15 ,  10 , 9 ) (ii) (  3 , 3 ,  2)
2. 3  2i ,  2  4i , 5 3. (a) [–47, 13], (b) [–7a –4b, 2a + b]

4. (a) [–11, 13, –10], (b)  c  3b  7 a,  c  3b  6a, c  2b  4a 

5. (a) [2, –1, –3, 5] (b) [ a, b  c, c  b  a, d  c  b  a ]

6. (a)  7, 1,  13,10 (b)  d , c  d , b  c  2d , a  b  2c  2d 

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.4 Extension to basis

Extension theorem : If V is a finitely generated vector space , then any set of linearly independent
vectors can be extended to a basis of V.
Method I : To extend a given linearly independent set of V to form a basis.
Input : A linearly independent set S = {v1,v2 ,....,vm } of a vector space V is given where dim V = n.

Output : A basis B of V such that S  B.

Working Steps :
(i) Let S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } denotes the standard basis of V.

(ii) As dim V = n and S already contains m elements , so we have to choose n  m vectors out of
S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } .

(iii) Select the vector e1 out of S and check the linear independence of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vm , e1 .
If these are linearly dependent then remove e1 and if linearly independent then take e1.
(iv) Now select the vector e2 and check the linear independence of e2 together with the set obtained in
step (iii). If these are linearly dependent then remove e2 and if linearly independent then take e2.
(v) Repeat the above process for e3 , e4 ,…. until n  m vectors out of S are selected. These
n  m vectors together with S form a basis B of V.
Method II : To extend a given linearly independent set of V to form a basis.
Input : A linearly independent set S = {v1,v2 ,....,vm } of a vector space V is given where dim V = n.

Output : A basis B of V such that S  B.

Working Steps :
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(i) Let S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } denotes the standard basis of V.

(ii) As dim V = n and S already contains m elements , so we have to choose n  m vectors out of
S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } .
(iii) Construct a matrix A by writing the given vectors in the row.
(iv) Reduce the matrix A into row echelon form by using elementary row operations.
(v) Select the n  m standard basis ei corresponding to the column Ci which do not contain the pivot.

These n  m vectors together with S form a basis B of V.

Remark : This is not the only way to extend a basis.
Example 1 : Extend the set of vectors {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3)} to form a basis of R3.
Solution : Method I :
Let v1 = (1 , 2 , 3) and v2 = (2 , 2 , 3)
Now we know that standard basis of R3 is e1  (1 , 0 , 0) , e2  (0 , 1 , 0) , e3  (0 , 0 , 1)

Consider the set S = {v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 , e3}

Any basis of R3 has three vectors , so only one vector out of {e1 , e2 , e3} is required to form a basis

together with v1 and v2 .

First we check v1 , v2 , e1 for linear independence.

Construct a matrix whose rows are v1 , v2 and e1

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
i.e. A =  2 2 3 ~  0 2 3 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R1 , R 3  R 3  R1 )
 1 0 0  0 2 3

1 2 3 
~  0 2 3 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )
 0 0 0 

which is in row echelon form.

Thus  (A) = 2 < number of vectors.
Hence first three vectors of S are L.D.
Now we check the vectors v1 , v2 , e2 for linear independence.

Construct a matrix whose rows are v1 , v2 , e2

 14

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
B =  2 2 3 ~  0 2 3 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 )
 0 1 0  0 1 0 

1 2 3 
1
~  0 2 3  (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )

2
 0 0  3 2 

which is in row echelon form. Thus  (B) = 3 = number of vectors.

Thus the three vectors v1 , v2 , e2 i.e. (1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 0) are linear independent and

hence form a basis of R3.

Method II :
Construct a matrix A whose rows are v1 and v2

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
A=  ~  (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 )
 2 2 3  0 2 3
which is in row echelon form and the third column does not contain the pivot .Therefore, the three
vectors v1 , v2 , e3 i.e. (1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 0 , 1) are linear independent and hence form a basis

of R3.

Exercise 6.4
1. Extend the following sets of vectors to form a basis of  3 .
(i) {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 ,  2 , 0)} (ii) {(0 , 1 , 2) , (2 , 1 , 4)} (iii) {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0)}

2. Extend the set {(0 , 0 , 0 , 3) , (1 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 ,  1 , 0)} to form a basis of  4 .

3. Extend the set S = {(1 , 1 , 0)} to form two different bases of 3    .

4. Extend the set {(1, 2, 3, 4,5) , (2, 3, 6, 1, 2)} to form a basis of  5 .

Answers
1. The answer is not unique , however one answer of each part is given
(i) {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 ,  2 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)}
(ii) {(0 , 1 , 2) , (2 ,  1 , 4) , (1 , 0 , 0)}
(iii) {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0)}
2. The answer is not unique , however one answer is given
{(0, 0, 0, 3) ,(1, 1, 0, 0) ,(0, 1,  1, 0),(0, 1, 0, 0)} .
3. {(1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 1)} , {(1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)}
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6.5 Complementary subspace

Def. Complementary Subspace : Let W be a subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If
there exist a subspace W of V such that V is direct sum of W and W i.e. V = W  W , then W
is called complementary subspace (or simply complement) of W .
Results :
1. Every subspace W of a finite dimensional vector space V(F) has a complementary subspace W
and dim W = dim V  dim W.
2. Complement of a subspace need not be unique.
3. Method : To determine a complement of a subspace.
Input : A subspace W is given.
Output : Complementary subspace W .
Working Steps :
(i) First find a basis of W.
(ii) Extend this basis to form a basis of V.
(iii) Generate a subspace W by the additional vectors used to extend the basis.
(iv) This W is a complement of W.
Example 1 : Give an example to show that complement of a subspace need not be unique.
Solution : Consider the vector space V = R2 (R) and its subspaces
W1 = {(x , 0) : x R}
W2 = {(0 , y) : y R}
W3 = {(z , z) : z R}
Let (x , y) V be any arbitrary element , then we can write
( x , y )  ( x , 0)  (0 , y )  W1 +W2

 V = W1 + W2 ......(1)
Now , let ( x , y )  W1  W2 be any element , then

(x , y )  W1 and (x , y )  W2

 y = 0 and x = 0 [ By definition of W1 and W2 ]

 (x , y) = (0 , 0) = 0
Thus , W1  W2 = {0} ......(2)
 16
By (1) and (2) , V = W1  W2 and therefore by definition of complementary subspace , W2 is a
complementary subspace of W1.
Again any ( x , y )  V can be expressed as
( x , y )  ( x  y , 0)  ( y , y )  W1 +W3

 V = W1 + W3 ......(3)
If (x , y)  W1  W3 be any arbitrary element , then
( x , y )  W1 and ( x , y )  W3

 y = 0 and x = y [ By definition of W1 and W3 ]

 x=y =0
 (x , y) = (0 , 0) = 0
Thus W1  W3 = {0} ......(4)
By (3) and (4) , V = W1  W3 and therefore W3 is also a complementary subspace of W1.
Example 2 : Find a complement of a subspace W generated by (1 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 2 , 3) in V = R3(R).
Solution : Here W = < (1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3) >
Clearly (1 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 2 , 3) are linearly independent as neither of them is a multiple of other.
So , the set {(1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3)} is a basis of W.
Now we extend this to form a basis of R3. For this we have to choose one vector out of standard basis
{ (1 , 0 , 0 ) , ( 0 , 1 , 0 ) , ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) } . Let us choose (0 , 0 , 1) for this purpose .
To check the independence of these three vectors , we see that
1 0 1
1 2 3 20
0 0 1

and so { (1 , 0 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) } is a L.I. set and hence it is a basis of R3.

Now we know that complement of a subspace W is generated by additional vectors which are used to
extend the basis of W to a basis of V. Here the additional vector used for extension of basis is (0 ,0,1) .
So , complement of W = W = < ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) > .

Exercise 6.5
1. Find a complement of a subspace W generated by (1, 2 , 5,  3) , (2, 3, 1,  4) and (3, 8,  3,  5)
in  4    .

Answers
1. W = < (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) >
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6.6 Quotient spaces

Def . Coset : Let V(F) be a vector space and W be a subspace of V , then for any v  V , the set
v  W={v  w : w  W} is called left coset of W formed with v or generated by v and the set

W  v  w  v : w  W is called right coset of W formed with v or generated by v. Since the vector

space V(F) is commutative w.r.t addition , so W  v  v  W and so it is known as simply coset of W

formed with v.
Results :
1. Let W be a subspace of a vector space V(F) and let V W be the set of all cosets of W in V i.e.

V W  {v  W : v  V} then V W is a vector space under the operations defined by

(u  W)  (v  W)  (u  v )  W and a(u  W)  au  W
and V W is called quotient space of V w.r.t. W.
2. Let W be a sub space of a finite dimensional vector space V(F) , then
dim(V W)  dim V  dim W .
Remark : To find the basis of V W we first extend the basis of W to form a basis of V and then take
the cosets of W formed with additional vectors which are used for extension of basis. These cosets
form a basis of V W .
Example 1 : If V is the vector space of all square matrices of order 2 over R and
 a b  
W =   : a , b , c  R  . Find a basis of V W .
 0 c  
a b
Solution : First we find a basis of W. We see that any matrix   of W can be expressed as
0 c 
a b 1 0 0 1  0 0
 0 c  = a  0 0   b  0 0   c 0 1  .
       
1 0 0 1 0 0
Also the matrices   ,   ,   are clearly linearly independent.
0 0 0 0 0 1
 1 0 0 1 0 0 
Thus the basis for W is   0 0  ,  0 0  ,  0 1   . Now we extend this basis to the basis of V ,
       
namely
 18

 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 , 0 0 , 1 0 , 0 1 
         
We know that the basis of V W consists of the cosets formed with the additional vectors which are
used for the extension of basis of W to a basis of V. Here the additional vector used for the extension
0 0
of the basis is   .
1 0
 0 0  
Thus , the basis of V W is W    .
 1 0  

Exercise 6.6
1. Determine dim V W , where V       , W      .

2. Determine dim V W where V    2    , W   2   

3. Let A = {( x , y , 0) , x , y  R} and B = {(0 , y , z ) : y , z  R} be two subspaces of 3    .

Verify that dim  (A + B) A   dim  B A  B  .

4. If W is a subspace of R3(R) generated by {(1 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0)} , find basis and dimension of

V W.
5. If V is a vector space of all 2  2 matrices over R and W is the set of all 2  2 diagonal matrices
over R , then show that W is a subspace of V. Also find dim ( V W ).

  a a  
6. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 matrices over C. Let W1     : a , b , c  C ,
b c  
 a b 
W2     : a , b , c  C  be two subsets of V. Verify that W1 and W2 are subspaces of V
 a c  
 W +W2   W1 
and dim  1   dim  .
 W2   W1  W2 

Answers
1. 1 2. 2 4. Basis = {W + (0 , 0 , 1)} , dim  1 5. 2
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True-false exercise 1

11. The vector  2  is in the kernel of the
T  1
1. The vector x   7, 6, 5 is in the kernel of
1 1 3
1 3 5  matrix  .
the matrix    2 1 4
 2 1 4 
12. If Ker  A   Ker  B  , then A ~ B .
 3 7 6
2. The kernel of  2 1 0 consists solely of 13. If the system Ax  0 has a free variable,
 3 0 0 then the system has many solutions. In this

the vector 0. case, the kernel (or null space) of A has

3. If Ax  b and Ay  b , then x  y is in the dimension 1or greater.

14. If two matrices are row equivalent to each
kernel of A.
other, then their column spaces are the
4. If Ax  b and Ay  b , then y  x is in the
same.
kernel of A.
 3 4 
5. If two matrices A and B are row equivalent,
15. The column space of  6 1  contains the
then their kernels are the same.
 2 5 
6. Column space of a matrix A is the set of all
T
vectors that can be expressed as linear vector 1, 20, 16 .

combinations of the columns of A. 3 3 

7. Every solution of the equation Ax  b is 16. The column space of  7 4 contains the
the sum of two vectors in the kernel of A.  1 2 

8. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly T

vector  3, 29, 3 .
dependent set of vectors, then the kernel of
17. The vector 16,13,  21 is in the row space
that matrix contains nonzero vectors.
1 2 3 T
 3 4 2 
9. Let A   and x  1, 5,3 . of the matrix  .
 1 3 7 
 2 1 1
Then x is in the kernel of A. 18. The vector  3,  17,  10  is in the row
10. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly  3 4 2 
space of the matrix  .
independent set of vectors, then the kernel 1 3 7 
of that matrix contains only the zero vector. 19. The row space of a matrix A is not changed if
an elementary row operation is applied to A.
 2
20. A vector u is in the column space of a
matrix A if and only if u  Ax for some
vector x.
21. If A is row equivalent to B, then A and B
may have different column spaces.
22. If two matrices are row equivalent to each
other, then they have the same row space.
23. If a vector v is in the column space of a
matrix A, then the equation Ax  v has
more than one solution.
24. If a vector v is in the row space of a matrix
A, then the equation Ax  v is consistent.
25. The row space of a matrix A is the same as
the column space of AT .
26. For some matrix, its row space and its
column space are the same.
27. The coordinate vector of x   15,35, 2 
with respect to the basis having elements
u1  1,3, 2  , u2   2, 4, 1 and
u3   2, 2,0  is  3, 4, 5  .
28. The coordinate vector of x  1,5,1 with
respect to the basis having elements
u1  1,3, 2  , u2   2, 4, 1 and
u3   2, 2,0  is 1,1,1 .
29. If A is a 7  13 matrix and if its reduced
echelon form has exactly five nonzero
rows, then the row space of A has
dimension five.
30. Let A be a 7  13 matrix. Let its reduced
echelon form have five nonzero rows at the
top and two zero rows at the bottom. It
follows that the first five rows of A provide
a basis for the row space of A.
31. Let E be the reduced row echelon form of
A. The pivot columns of E form a basis for
the column space of A.
32. Let x1   3,6, 2  , x2   1,0,1 and
u   3,12,7  . The coordinate vector of u
with respect to the basis  x1, x2 is  2,3 .
33. Let  2 have a basis, B containing the two
vectors u1  1, 2  and u2   2,3 . Let
x   3,5  . Then  x B  1, 1 .
1  2
34. If b1    and b2    then the
3  1
 6 
coordinates of the vector   relative to
17 
the basis b1, b2  are 4 and –5.
Assignment
----------------------- S C Q --------------------
1. Let M mn    be the set of all m  n
matrices with real entries. Which of the
following statements is correct ?
1. There exists A  M 25    such that the
dimension of the null space of A is 2.
2. There exists A  M 25    such that the
dimension of the null space of A is 0.
3. There exist A  M 25    and
B  M 52    such that AB is the 2  2
identity matrix.
4. There exist A  M 25    whose null
space is
 x , x , x , x , x   
1 2 3 4 5
5
: x1  x2 , x3  x4  x5 
(CSIR NET June 2014)
J.R. INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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Page 3

2. Which of the following matrices has the 6. Which vector is not in the column space of
 4 8 4  1 0 2
same row space as the matrix  3 6 1  ?  2 3 1 ?
 
2 4 0  3 5 1 
 
1 2 0 1 1 0  4  3
1.   2.  
0 0 1 0 0 1 1.  5  2.  3 
 6   4 
0 1 0 1 0 0
3.   4.  
0 0 1 0 1 0 0  11 
3. The row space of a 20  50 matrix A has 3.  3  4.  1 
 5   2 
dimension 13. What is the dimension of the
space of solutions of Ax  0 ?  1 3 7
1. 7 2. 13 7. Consider A   2 1 4 
 1 2 3 
3. 33 4. 37
(CSIR NET June 2015) Which set spans the column space of A ?
4. Let A be an m  n matrix whose columns  1   3    1   0  
   
form a linearly dependent set of vectors in 1.  2  , 1   2.  0  ,  1  
 1  2    0   0  
 m . Which conclusion is correct ?          

1. The kernel of A is not simply {0}.   1  0  1    7  

   
2. n  m 3.  0  , 1  ,  2   4.   4  
  0  0   0   3 
3. The kernel of A contains only the zero          
vector.  2  3 
4. The reduced row echelon form of A has 8. Consider v       where  and 
a zero row.  3   

5. Let v1  (1,0,3), v2  (0, 2, 4). For what are arbitrary real numbers. A matrix whose
column space consists of all vectors of this
value of h will the vector y  (3, 4, h) be in
form is
the subspace spanned by v1 and v2 ? 3 2 
3 1 2 
1. 0 2. 7 1. 1 1 2.  
3 1  1 1 3 
3. 17 4. 0
3 4   3 4
3. 1 2  4.  1 2 
1 6   1 6 
 4

 6a  b   1 3 9 7 
9. Consider v   a  b  12. Consider A   0 1 4 3 
 6a   2 1 2 1 

A matrix whose column space consists of What set spans the column space of this
all vectors having this form is : matrix ?
 6 1 1 6  1   0    1   9  
1.  0 1 2.  1 1     
1.  0  ,  1   2.  0  ,  4  
 6 0   0 6   0   0    0   0  
         
1 5 1 6   1  3   9   7  
3.  1 1  4.  0 1  
3.  0  , 1 
 
4.  4 ,  3 
 0 6   1 6   2  1   0   0  
         
3 6 3 13. Assume that these two matrices are row
10. Consider A   2 4 3  equivalent to each other :
 3 6 4 
2 3 5 2 4 
What set spans the column space of the A   4 6 15 7 15 
 
matrix A ?  6 9 20 10 25

3   1   0   2 3 5 2 4
   
1.   2   2.  0  ,  1   B  0 0 5 3 7 
3   0   0    
         0 0 0 1 6 

 1   0     3   3  Which set of columns in A spans the

   
3.  2  ,  3  4.  2  ,  3  column space of A ?
  3   4    3   4 
          1. 1,4,5 2. 1,3,4

3 3 6 3. 1,2,3 4. 1,2,4
11. Consider A   2 3 5  1 2 1  1
 3 4 7  14. Suppose A   2 0 2  w0 
 
What set spans the column space of A ?  3 2 3   1 

  1  0  0    1   0   Determine the right statement :

 
1.  0  , 1  , 0  
  0  0  1  
      
  3   3 
 
3.  2  ,  3 
  3   4 
    
 
2.  0  ,  1   1. w  Col( A) 2. w  Null( AT )
 0   0  
     3. w  Row( A) 4. w  Null( A)
 3   3   6   15. Let A be the 1 3 matrix 1 2 3 . What
 
4.  2  ,  3  ,  5  
 3   4   7   pair of vectors spans the null space of A ?
      
 0   0    2   3  
   
1.  2  ,  0   2.  1  ,  0  
 0   3     0  1  
         
J.R. INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
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Page 5

 1   1    2   3   1. 1 2. 2
   
3.  2  ,  0   4.  1 ,  0   3. 3 4. 4
 0   3   0   1 
          3 6 3
19. Consider A   2 4 3 
 1 3 7
 3 6 4 
16. Consider A   2 1 4 
 1 2 3  A basis for the null space of A is
Which set spans the null space of A ?  1    1   0  
   
 1    3   7   1.  0   2.  0  ,  1  
     0    0   0  
1.   2   2.  1  ,  4         
  1    2   3 
         2   0 
   
 1    3   7   3.   1  4.   3  
     0   4 
3.   2   4.  1  ,  2        
0   0   0  
         1 2 0 4 0 
17. Let A be an n  n matrix whose null space 20. Consider A  0 0 1 9 0 
0 0 0 0 1 
is spanned by a single nonzero vector.
Which conclusion is not justified ? A set of vectors that spans the null space of
1. The equation Ax  b is inconsistent for this matrix is

some vector b in  n .  1   0    2  4  
         
2. A is not invertible.  2   0    1   0  
1.  0  ,  1   2.  0  ,  9  
3. A2 is invertible.  4   9    0   1  
         
4. The set of rows in A is linearly dependent.  0   0    0   0  
18. Assume that these two matrices are row
 2   4    2  
equivalent to each other    
3.  0  ,  9   4.  4  
2 3 5 2 4   0   0    9  
       
A   4 6 15 7 15 
  1 3 0 2 
 6 9 20 10 25 21. Consider A   
 0 0 1 5
2 3 5 2 4
A spanned set for the null space of this
B  0 0 5 3 7 
  matrix is
 0 0 0 1 6 

The number of vectors needed to span the

null space of A is :
 6

  0  0    1   0   25. Which set spans 3 ?

         
 3 0   3 0 
1.   ,    2.   ,      1  1  
  0  0    0   1    
1. Span  2  ,  0  
 2  5    2   5    0  1  
    
 3   2  
      0  
 1 0   3  2    
3.   ,    4.   ,    2. Span  0  
 0   5    0   5    0  
 0   1     

22. Let V be the column space of an m  n  3  1  4  

 
3. Span  0  , 1 ,  1  
matrix, A. Which conclusion is not  1  1  2  
      
justified ?
1. V is spanned by a single vector.   0   1  0  
 
4. Span  2  ,  0  , 1  
2. V is a subspace of  m .   3   0  0  
      
3. For every x in  n , Ax is in V.
26. Let A be an m  n matrix, b   m , then the
4. V is spanned by a set of m vectors.
system of equations Ax  b has a solution
23. Let p1 ( x)  5 x 3  2 x 2  4 x  3
if and only if
2
p2 ( x)   x  3 x  7, 1. b  column space of A
p3 ( x)  2 x3  4 x 2  8 x  5, 2. b  row space of A

p4 ( x )  x 3  2 x  5 . 3. b  0

What is the rank of the matrix 4. rank[A, b ] > rank A

corresponding to these polynomials as 27. If W1   0, x2 , x3 , x4 , x5  : x2 , x3 , x4 , x5  

rows ? and
1. 0 2. 1 W2   x1 ,0, x3 , x4 , x5  : x1 , x3 , x4 , x5   be
3. 2 4. 3
subspace of  5 , then dim W1  W2  is
1 3 2 7
2 1 1 1  equal to
24. Consider 
7 6 5 10  1. 5 2. 4
 
1 0 2 5 3. 3 4. 2

What is the least number of vectors that 28. Let M 22 ( R) be the vector space of 2  2
span the column space of this matrix ? matrices over R and
1. 0 2. 1  x y 
W1     : x, y  R  and
3. 2 4. 3 0 x 
J.R. INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
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Page 7

 x y   W  {(a, b, c, d ) : a  b  0, c  2d }
W2     : x, y, z  R  , then
 z 0   Then, dim of U ,W and U  W are
dim (W1  W2 ) is equal to respectively
1. 0 2. 1 1. 2,3,1 2. 3,2,1
3. 2 4. 3 3. 2,2,2 4. 1,2,3
29. If W be a subspace of a finite dimensional 33. Let V be the vector space of polynomials of

vector space V ( F ), then dim V / W is equal degree  3;W1  V be the subspace of

to polynomials of degree  2;W2  V is the

1. dim V  dim W 2. dim V  dim W subspace of polynomials vanishing at 0.
dim V Then, which of the following is not true?
3. 4. None of these
dimW
1. Span of W1 and W2 is V
24
30. Let S and T be two subspaces of R such
2. W1 is isomorphic to W2
that dim ( S )  19 and dim (T )  17 , then the
3. Dim (W1  W2 )  2
1. smallest possible value of dim  S  T 
4. Dim W1  dim W2
is 2
34. If W1   0, x, y  : x, y  F  and
2. largest possible value of dim ( S  T )
is 18 W2   x,0, y  : x, y  F  are two subspace
3. smallest possible value of dim ( S  T ) of F 3 , where F n is a vector space of
is 19 dimension n. Then, the subspace W1  W2 is
4. largest possible value of dim ( S  T )
isomorphic to the vector space.
is 22
1. F 1 2. F 2 3. F 3 4. 2F 4
(GATE 2004)
35. W is a 3-dimendsional subspace of a finite
31. Let V and W be subspaces of  . Then, n
dimensional vector space V . If the quotient
1. dim (V  W ) must be dim V +dim W space V / W has dimension 8, the dimension
2. dim (V  W )  dim V  dim W of V is
3. dim(V  W )  min(dimV , dimW ) 1. 3 2. 8
4. dim(V  W )  max{dimV ,dim W } 3. 11 4. 5
32. Let U and W be the following subspaces of 36. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be subspace of a vector
 4 : U  {(a, b, c, d ) : b  c  d  0} space V such that W3  W1 . Then, which
 8
one of the following is correct ?
1. W1  (W2  W3 )  W2  W1  W3
2. W1  (W2  W3 )  W3  W1  W2
3. W1  (W2  W3 )  W2  W1  W3
4. None of the above
37. Let A be a 4  4 matrix. Suppose that the
null space N  A  of A is
3. Let V1 ,V2 be subspaces of a vector space V.
Which of the following is necessarily a
subspace of V ?
1. V1  V2
2. V1  V2
3. V1  V2   x  y : x  V1 , y  V2 .
4. V1 \ V2   x  V1 and x V2 

 x, y, z, w  4 : x  y  z  0, x  y  w  0 . (CSIR NET June 2012)

4. For arbitrary subspaces U, V and W of a
Then
finite dimensional vector space, which of
1. dim ( column space ( A) ) = 1
the following hold
2. dim ( column space ( A) ) = 2
1. U  V  W   U  V  U  W
3. rank  A   1
2. U  V  W   U  V  U  W
4. S  1,1,1, 0  , 1,1, 0,1 is a basis of
3. U  V   W  U  W   V  W 
N  A .
4. U  V   W  U  W   V  W 
(CSIR NET June 2017)
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
5. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be three distinct subspaces
--------------------- M C Q --------------------------
of 10 such that each Wi has dimension 9.

 
1. Let V   aij  : aij   be the real vector
nn
Let W  W1  W2  W3 . Then we can
conclude that
 
space and W1   aij  : aij  a ji and
nn
1. W may not be a subspace of 10

 
W2   aij  : aij   a ji then
nn
2. dim W  8
3. dim W  7
1. V W1  W2 2. V  W1  W2
4. dim W  3
3. W1  W2  0 4. V  W1  W2
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
2. If V is the real vector space of all mapping 6. Let A be an m  n matrix with rank r. If the
from  to  , W1  { f  V : f ( x )  f ( x)} linear system AX  b has a solution for
and W2  { f V : f ( x)   f ( x)}, then each b   m , then
1. V W1  W2 2. V  W1  W2 1. m  r
2. the column space of A is a proper
3. W1  W2  0 4. V  W1  W2
subspace of  m
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3. the null space of A is a non-trivial True false key

subspace of  n whenever m  n 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F

4. m  n implies m  n 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T

(CSIR NET Dec 2017) 9. T 10. T 11. T 12. F

13. T 14. F 15. T 16. F
17. F 18. F 19. T 20. T
21. T 22. T 23. F 24. F
25. T 26. T 27. T 28. T
29. T 30. F 31. F 32. T
33. F 34. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 1 3. 4 4. 1
5. 3 6. 1 7. 1 8. 4
9. 2 10. 4 11. 3 12. 3
13. 2 14. 4 15. 4 16. 1
17. 3 18. 2 19. 3 20. 2
21. 3 22. 1 23. 4 24. 4
25. 4 26. 1 27. 3 28. 2
29. 1 30. 3 31. 4 32. 2
33. 4 34. 1 35. 3 36. 2
37. 2

MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,2,3 3. 1,3 4. 2,3
5. 2,3 6. 1,4
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Chapter - 7
Linear transformations

7.1 Definitions and examples

Def. Linear Transformation : Let U and V be two vector spaces over a same field F , then a function
T : U  V is called a linear transformation or vector space homomorphism if
(i) T(u  v) = T(u )  T(v ) for all u, v  U
(ii) T(au ) = a T(u ) for all a  F , u  U
Remark : The above two properties in the definition of L.T. can be combined into a single property ,
namely , T(au  bv)  aT(u )  bT(v) for all a, b  F and u , v  U
Def. Linear Operator : A linear transformation is called a linear operator if the vector space on both
sides is same.
Def. Linear Functional : A linear transformation is called a linear functional if the vector space on
the right hand side is the field of scalars.
Example 1 : Show that the function T : R3  R3 defined by T(x , y , z) = ( x , y , 0) is a linear
transformation . Such a mapping in which one coordinate on R. H. S. is 0 is called a Projection
mapping .
Solution : Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two vectors of R3 , then

T(u  v) = T( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , z1  z 2 )

= ( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , 0)

= ( x1 , y1 , 0)  ( x2 , y2 , 0)

= T( x1 , y1 , z1 )  T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

= T(u )  T(v)
Also , for any scalar a , we have
T(au ) = T(ax1 , ay1 , az1 )

= (ax1 , ay1 , 0)

= a( x1 , y1 , 0)

= aT( x1 , y1 , z1 )
 2
= aT(u) . So T is a linear transformation.
Example 2 : Show that the function T : R3  R2 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y  2 z , x  z  1)
is not a linear transformation.
Solution : Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two vector of R3 , then

T(u  v) = T( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , z1  z 2 )

= ( x1  x2  y1  y2  2 z1  2 z2 , x1  x2  z1  z2  1) ......(1)

Also , T(u )  T(v ) = T( x1 , y1 , z1 )  T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

= ( x1  y1  2 z1 , x1  z1  1)  ( x2  y2  2 z2 , x2  z2  1)

= ( x1  y1  2 z1  x2  y2  2 z2 , x1  z1  1  x2  z2  1)

= ( x1  x2  y1  y2  2 z1  2 z2 , x1  x2  z1  z2  2) ......(2)

By (1) and (2) , we have T(u  v)  T(u )  T(v)

Hence T is not a linear transformation.

Exercise 7.1
1. Determine which of the following mappings are linear transformation. .
(i) T :  3   2 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (z , 2 x  y )

(ii) T :  2   2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x 2 , y )

(iii) T :  3   4 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (2 x  y , z , x , y  1)

(iv) T :  3  3 defined by T( x , y , z)  (| x | , y , z )

(v) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = x 2  y 2

(vi) T :  2   2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x cos   y sin  ,  x sin   y cos  )

(vii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y , y  z , z  x)

(viii) T : ( )  ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x  iy
(ix) T : ( )  ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x

(x) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = 2 x  3 y

(xi) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = xy

(xii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y , 3 z , 0)

(xiii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x, y, z )=( x, ay, z) , a is a non-zero real number.

2. Zero mapping : Let U and V be any vector spaces then the mapping O:U  V defined by
O(u )  0 for all u  U is called zero mapping. Prove that zero mapping is a linear transformation.
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3. Identity mapping : Let V be any vector space then the mapping I:V  V defined by I(v)  v for all
v  V is called identity mapping. Prove that identity mapping is a linear transformation.
4. Projection mapping : The mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0) is called projection
of space onto the xy -plane. Prove that T is a linear transformation.
5. Define the following projection mappings and prove that they are linear :
(i) Projection mapping of space onto the yz –plane.
(ii) Projection mapping of space onto the xz –plane.
(iii)Projection mapping of space onto x -axis.
(iv)Projection mapping of space onto y -axis.
(v) Projection mapping of space onto z -axis.
6. Translation mapping : The mapping T :  3   3 defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  a, y  b, z  c ) is called
translation mapping, where a, b, c (atleast one non-zero)are real constants. Prove that T is not a
linear transformation.

7. Rotation mapping : The mapping T :  3  3 defined by z

T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )
θ T(v)
rotates a vector v about the z –axis through
v
an angle  in anti clockwise sense. 0 y
(as shown in the adjoining figure.)
x
Prove that T is a linear transformation.
8. Reflection mapping : The mapping T :  2   2
y
defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 ) T(v)

reflects a vector v about the line passing through origin

v
and making an angle  with positive x –axis. θ
x
(as shown in the adjoining figure.)
Prove that T is a linear transformation.
9. Matrix mapping : Let A be a m  n matrix over a field F. The mapping T : F n  F m defined by

T (v )  Av for all v  F n is called matrix mapping. Prove that T is a linear transformation.

10. Derivative mapping : Let P(  ) denotes the vector space of all real polynomials. A mapping
 4

D : P(  )  P(  ) defined by D( f ( x))  f ( x) for all f ( x)  P() is called derivative mapping.

Show that D is a linear operator on P(  ). Further tell whether D is one – one or onto or neither or
both.
11. Integral mapping : Let V be the vector space of all integrable functions on  . The mapping T :
b
V   defined by T(f ) =  f ( x)dx for all f  V and a , b   is called integral mapping.
a

Show that T is a linear functional.

12. Let V be the vector space of all polynomials over  and g (t ) is a fixed polynomial in V.
b
A mapping T : V   is defined by T(f ) =  f (t ).g (t ) dt where a, b   and f  V
a

Show that T is linear functional.

13. Let Mn(F) be the vector space of all n  n matrices over a field F. Let M be a fixed n  n matrix.
Which of the following mappings T : Mn(F)  Mn(F) are linear :
(i) T(A) = AM for all A  M n (F)

(ii) T(A) = MA for all A  M n (F)

(iii) T(A) = AM + MA for all A  M n (F)

(iv) T(A) = MA+AM for all A  M n (F)

(v) T(A) = AM  MA for all A  M n (F)

(vi) T(A) = A+M for all A  M n (F)

(vii) T(A) = M+A for all A  M n (F)

14. Let M2 (  ) be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and P2 ( ) be a vector space of

all polynomial of degree at most 2 with real coefficients. A mapping T : M 2 ( )  P2 () is

 a b   2
defined by T      a  (b  c ) x  dx . Show that T is linear transformation.
 c d  
15. Consider the linear map T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  (3x  5 y , 2 x  3 y ) and the

unit circle S {( x, y ): x 2  y 2  1} in  2 , then find (i) T ( S ) (ii) T 1 ( S ) .

16. Consider the linear map T : 3   3 defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z, y  2 z , y  3 z ) and

the unit sphere S {( x, y , z ): x 2  y 2  z 2 1} in  3 , then find (i) T ( S ) (ii) T 1 ( S ) .

17. Let H be the plane x  2 y  3z  4 in  3 and let T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z, y  2 z , y  3 z ) , then find

(i) T ( H ) (ii) T 1 ( H ) .
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Answers
1. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No (v) No.
(vi) Yes (vii) Yes (viii) Yes (ix) Yes (x) No
(xi) No (xii) Yes (xiii) Yes
13. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
15. (i) 13 x 2  42 xy  34 y 2  1 , (ii) 13 x 2  42 xy  34 y 2 1

16. (i) x 2  8 xy  26 y 2  6 xz  38 yz  14 z 2  1, (ii) x 2  2 xy  3 y 2  2 xz  8 yz  14 z 2 1

17. (i) x  y  2 z  4 , (ii) x  6 z  4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.2 Properties and construction of linear transformations

Results :
1. Let T : U  V be a liner transformation, then
(i) T(0)  0 , where 0 on L.H.S. is of U and 0 on R.H.S. is of V.
(ii) T(u )   Tu  for all u  U

(iii) T(u1  u2 )  T(u1 )  T(u2 ) for all u1 , u2  U

(iv) T(a1u1  a2u2  .........  anun ) = a1T(u1 )  a2T(u2 )  .........  an T(un ) where ui  U

and ai ’s are scalars.

2. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and vectors u1 , u2 ,........., un  U are

linearly dependent , then T(u1 ) ,T(u2 ) ,.........,T(un ) are also linearly dependent.
OR
A linear transformation T : U  V carries L.D. vectors of U into L.D. vectors of V and the
dependency relation remains same.
3. Images of L.I. vectors under a linear transformation need not be L.I.
4. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation, then T is one-one iff it carries linearly independent
vectors to linearly independent vectors.
5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and T(u1 ) ,T(u2 ) ,....,T(un ) are L.I. , then

u1 , u2 ,..., un are also L.I.

6. Pre-images of L.D. vectors under a linear transformation need not to be L.D.

 6
7. Let T : U  V be an onto linear transformation. Show that T is one-one iff pre-images of L.D.
vectors under T are L.D. vectors.
Def. Equality of two linear transformations : Let T1 , T2 : U  V be two linear transformation. Then
T1 and T2 are said to be equal if T1 (u )=T2 (u ) for all u  U and then we write T1 = T2

8. Let T1 , T2 : U  V be two linear transformations and u1 , u2 ,...., un be a basis of U. If

T1 (ui ) = T2 (ui ) for all i , then T1 = T2

OR
If two linear transformations agree on a basis of their domain , then they are equal.
9. Let U and V be two vector spaces , where dim U is finite. Let { u1 , u2 ,..., un } be a basis of U and

v1 , v2 ,...., vn be any n vectors in V. Then there is a unique linear transformation T : U  V

such that T(ui )  vi , i  1 , 2 ,..., n .

METHOD 7.2.1 : To find T when image of a basis set is given.

Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation. A basis { u1 , u2 ,...., un } of U is given and

T(u1 ) = v1 , T(u2 ) = v2 .... and T(un ) = vn are given.

Output : Defining formula for T.
Working Steps :
(i) Take any arbitrary vector u of U and let u  a1u1  a2u2  .....  anun ......(1)

(ii) Solving (1), find the values of a1 , a2 ,....., an .

(iii) Substitute the values of a1 , a2 ,...., an , in (1) itself and then apply T on both sides to obtain the

relation T(u )  a1T(u1 )  a2 T(u2 )  ....  an T(un )

(iv) Now use the given values of T(u1 ),T(u2 ),....,T(un ) to get T(u ) = a1v1  a2 v2  ....  anvn and thus T

is found.

10. Two finite dimensional vector spaces over the same field are isomorphic if and only if they have
the same dimension.
11. Every n-dimensional vector space V(F) is isomorphic to Fn.
12. For any field F , Fn  Fm iff n = m.
13. There is no one – one onto linear transformation from  m to  n where m  n .

METHOD 7.2.2 : To find T when image of a subset of a basis is given

Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim U = n. A L.I. set {u1 , u2 ,...., um } , where

m < n is given and T(u1 ) = v1 , T(u2 ) = v2 ,...,T(um ) = vm are given.

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Output : Defining formula for T.

Working Steps :
(i) First extend the set {u1 , u2 ,...., um } to a basis of U and let the basis obtained be

{u1 , u2 ,..., um , um1 ,..., un }

(ii) There is no condition on T(um1 ) ,...,T(un ) so for our simplicity we assume that

T(um1 )  ...  T(un )=0

(iii) Now find T by using Method 7.2.1.

Remark : T(um1 ),...,T(un ) in above method can be taken any vectors of V. So the answer of this

problem is not unique but there are infinitely many linear transformations satisfying the conditions
given in the example. However , in case images of vectors of a whole basis are given , then T is
unique.
Example 1 : Let u1  (1, 1,  1), u2  (4, 1, 1), u3  (1, 1, 2) be a basis of R3.

Let T : R3  R2 be a linear transformation such that T(u1 )  (1,0), T(u2 )  (0,1), T(u3 )  (1,1) . Find

T.
Solution : Let u  ( x, y , z )  R 3 be any vector since u1 , u2 , u3 is a basis of R3 , so there exist scalars

a, b, c such that
u  au1  bu2  cu3 ......(1)

( x , y , z)  a (1 , 1 ,  1)  b(4 , 1 , 1)  c(1 ,  1 , 2)
 a  4b  c  x ……(i)
abc  y ……(ii)
 a  b  2c  z ……(iii)
Adding (i) and (iii) , 5b + 3c = x + z
Adding (ii) and (iii) , 2b + c = y + z
From these two , b   x  3 y  2 z , c  2 x  5 y  3z
and then using (ii) , a  3x  7 y  5 z
Now , by (1)
T(u ) = T(au1  bu2  cu3 )

= aT(u1 )  bT(u2 )  cT(u3 )

 8

= (3 x  7 y  5 z )(1, 0)  ( x  3 y  2 z )(0, 1)  (2 x  5 y  3z )(1, 1)

 T( x, y , z )  (5 x  12 y  8 z, x  2 y  z )

Example 2 : Find a linear transformation T : R 3  R 2 such that

T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0) and T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 1) and then verify your result.
Solution : We know that to determine a linear transformation T we need a basis of domain and the
images of all vectors of basis under T.
Here T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0) and T(1,  1,0) = (1,1)
But (1 , 1 , 0) and (1 ,  1 , 0) does not form a basis of R3. However they are L.I. Let us extend this
basis by adjoining a vector (0 , 0 , 1) with it. Let us check that {(1 , 1 , 0),(1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} is a
L.I. set. Consider a matrix
1 1 0 1 1 0
A =  1 1 0  ~  0 2 0  [Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 ]
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

which is row echelon form.

Clearly ,  (A) = 3 = number of vectors , hence the given vectors are L.I.
Now , we need image of (0 , 0 , 1) i.e., T(0 , 0 , 1). A particular image of this vector (0 , 0 , 1) is not
asked in the question so any arbitrary vector of R2 can be taken as its image. For the sake of
simplicity , we take T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0).
Now , we are ready with
T(1 , 1 , 0) = (1 , 0) 
T(1,  1,0) = (1 , 1)  ......(1)

and T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0) 

Now this example has reduced to the examples of above type.

Let ( x, y, z )  R 3 be any vector and let
( x, y , z )  a (1,1,0)  b(1, 1,0)  c (0,0,1) ......(2)
 ab  x ; ab  y ; cz
x y x y
Solving , a , b , cz
2 2
Using these values in (2)
x y x y
( x , y , z)  (1 , 1 , 0)  (1,  1 , 0)  z (0 , 0 , 1)
2 2
Applying T on both sides
x y x y
T ( x , y , z)  T (1 , 1 , 0)  T (1 , 1 , 0)  zT (0 , 0 , 1)
2 2
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x y x y
= (1 , 0)  (1 , 1)  z (0 , 0) [By (1)]
2 2
 x y
= x ,  ......(3)
 2 
which is the required linear transformation.
Verification : From (3) , we see that
T(1 , 1 , 0) = (1 , 0) and T (1 , 1 , 0) = (1,1) which are same as asked in the example.

Exercise 7.2
1. Give an example of a linear transformation to show that a linear transformation not necessarily
carries a L.I. set to a L.I. set.
2. What is the necessary and sufficient condition for a linear transformation to carry a L.I. set to a L.I.
set.
3. Which of the following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other :
(i) P5 () (ii) M 2,3 ( ) (iii)  6 ( ) (iv) 3 ( ) (v) M 2,4 ()

(vi) P7 () (vii) P8 ( ) (viii)  4 ( ) (ix) 8 () (x) M 4,2 ()

4. Find a linear transformation in each of the following cases and verify your answer.
(i) T :  2   2 such that T(2,3) = (4 , 5) and T(1 , 0) = (0 , 0)
(ii) T :  2   3 such that T(2 , 5)  (1, 2 , 3) and T(3 , 4) = (0 , 1 , 5)

(iii) T :  3   2 such that T(1 , 1 , 1) = (2, 1), T(1 , 1 , 0)=(2, 1) , T(1 , 0 , 0) =(2, 1)
(iv) T : P2 ()  P2 () such that T(1  x )  1  x , T(2  x ) = x  3x 2 and T( x 2 )  0

5. Find a linear transformation in the following cases , which maps

(i) (1 , 1 , 1) and (1 , 1 , 2) in R3 to (1 , 0) and (1 , 1) in R2 respectively.
(ii) (1 , 2 , 3) and (0 , 1 , 2) in R3 to (1 , 1) and (1 , 2) in R2 respectively.
Also verify your answer in both (i) and (ii).
6. Show that there exists no linear transformation T :  2   2 such that T (1 , 1)=(1 , 2) ,
T (1 , 2) = (1 , 3) , T (2 , 3) = (2 , 4).
7. Does there exist a linear transformation T :  2   2 such that T (1 , 1) = (1 , 2) , T (1 , 2) = (1 , 3),
T (2 , 3) = (2 , 5). If yes, find it.
 10

Answers
1. T ( x, y , z )  (2 x,3 y ) 2. T must be one-one 3. (i) , (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v), (vi), (viii), (ix), (x)

 4y 5y   4 x  3 y 13 x  4 y 37 x  y 
4. (i) T(x , y) =  ,  (ii) T( x , y )   , , 
 3 3   23 23 23 

(iii) T( x , y , z )  (2 x , x) (iv) T(a  bx  cx 2 ) = ( a  2b)  bx  3(a  b) x 2 .

5. The answer is not unique, but by taking image of third vector as (0, 0), the answers are
(i) T(x, y, z) = (x, x  z) (ii) T(x, y, z) = ( x + y,  3x + 2y)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.3 Matrix of a linear transformation

Def. Ordered basis : A basis of a vector space is called an ordered basis if its vectors are written in a
certain specific order. e.g. Let B = {v1 , v2 , v3} is a basis of a vectors space V. Let us change

the order of its vectors and let B = {v2 , v1 , v3} , then B and B are same basis but different ordered

basis since order of three vectors in B and B is different.

Note : It may be difficult for a curious reader to digest above definition , because he or she may think
that if we change the order of vectors in a basis , then how this can affect our subject. The answer to
this curiosity is : As far as our previous work of linear transformation is concerned , the order of
vectors is a useless thing , but in the associated matrix of a linear transformation (which we are going
to study now) , the order of vectors certainly has an effect. We will see it soon.
Def. Matrix of a Linear Transformation relative to ordered basis :
Let B = {u1 , u2 ,..........., un } and B' = {v1 , v2 ,..........., vm } be ordered basis for the finite
dimensional vector spaces U and V respectively and let T : U  V be a linear transformation.
Since T(u1 ) , T(u2 ) ,..........., T(un )  V and {v1 , v2 ,..........., vm } is a basis of V, each T(ui ) can be

expressed uniquely as a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,..........., vm .

Let T(u1 )  a11v1  a12v2  ............  a1mvm

T(u2 )  a21v1  a22 v2  ............  a2 mvm

……………………………………..
T(un )  an1v1  an 2v2  ............  anm vm where aij  F.

 a11 a12 ... a1m 

a a22 ... a2 m 
The coefficient matrix of the above system is a n  m matrix given by  21 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 an1 an 2 ... anm 
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The transpose of this matrix is a m  n matrix called the matrix of T w.r.t. ordered basis B and B' ,

 a11 a21 ... an1 

a a22 ... an 2 
denoted by [T : B , B'] and is given by [T : B , B'] =  12 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 a1m a2 m ... amn 

Remarks : (1) It should be noted that the order of matrix of a linear transformation
T : U  V is m  n i.e. dimV  dimU.
(2) Whenever basis B and B' are not mentioned in any problem , they are understood to be taken as
standard basis.
(3) If U = V and B is the basis used on both sides , then the matrix of T is denoted by [T : B]
instead of [T : B , B] .
(4) Sometimes matrix of T is denoted by [T ] or m(T ) , when the bases are understood.
(5) The matrix [T : B , B'] depends very sensitively on the ordered basis B and B' of U and V. The
order (arrangement) of the vectors of B determines the order (arrangement) of the columns of
matrix [T : B , B] . Similarly , order of the vectors of B determines the order of the rows of
matrix [T : B , B] .

Short cut method : To find the matrix of a linear transformation T :  m   n in standard basis on
both sides , there is a simple technique : Pick up the first coordinate in the defining formula of T. The
coefficients of x , y , z etc. in this coordinate are written in the first row of the matrix. Similarly ,
pick up the second coordinate in the defining formula of T. The coefficients of x , y , z etc. in this
coordinate are written in the second row of the matrix, and so on.
Warning : This method is only applicable when the basis used on both sides are standard.
METHOD : To find T when matrix is given
Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation where dim U = n and dim V = m.
Two ordered basis B = {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } and B = {v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } of U and V respectively are

given and the matrix [T : B , B] is given.

Output : The defining formula of T.
Working Steps :
(i) T(u1 ) is equal to linear combination of v1 , v2 ,..., vm by using scalars of first column of [T : B , B] .

Similarly , T(u2 ) is equal to linear combination of v1 , v2 ,.........., vm by using scalars of second

 12

column of [T : B , B] and so on

(ii) We are ready with T – images of a basis of U. Now find T by using Method 7.2.1.
Shortcut method : If we are given the matrix [T : B , B] and we are required to find defining
formula for T , then follow these steps :
Multiply the scalars in the first row by x, y , z etc. and add. This gives the first coordinate of
defining formula. Similarly , the second , third and other co-ordinates can be found.
Example 1 : Find the matrix [T : B , B] of the linear transformation T : R 3  R 2 defined by
T( x, y , z )  ( x  y , y  z ) in the following cases B = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1, 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0)}
and B = {(1 , 2) , (0 , 1)}
Solution : To find the matrix [T : B , B] we shall find the images of vectors in B and express them as
linear combinations of vectors of B . We have
T(1 ,1 , 1) = (2 , 2) 
T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 0)  ......(1)

T(1 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 1) 

Let ( x , y )  R 2 be any vector and let

( x , y )  a(1, 2)  b(0 , 1)
 a  x , 2a  b  y i.e. a  x , b  y  2x
Thus , ( x, y )  x(1, 2)  ( y  2 x)(0,1)
Using this for vectors in (1) , we get
T(1 , 1 , 1) = (2 , 2) = 2(1 , 2)+(  2)(0 , 1) 
T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 0) = 1(1 , 2)+(  2)(0 , 1)  ......(2)

T(1 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 1) = 2(1 , 2)+(  3)(0 , 1) 

Matrix of T relative to B and B is transpose of matrix of coefficients in above system (2) , so

2 1 2
[T : B , B] =  .
 2 2 3
Example 2 : Find the linear transformation T : R 3  R 2 whose matrix [T : B , B] is

1 1 2 
3 1 0  where B = {(1,1,1),(1, 2,3),(1, 0,0)} and B = {(1,1),(1, 1)} .
 
Solution : T(1,1,1) = linear combination of vectors of B using scalars of first column of [T : B , B]
i.e., T(1,1,1) = 1(1,1) + 3(1,  1) = (4, 2 )
Similarly ,
T(1, 2,3)  1(1.1)  1(1, 1)  (0, 2)
T(1,0,0)  2(1,1)  0(1, 1)  (2, 2)
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Now , let ( x, y, z )  R 3 be any vector and

( x, y, z) = a(1,1,1)  b(1, 2,3)  c(1,0, 0) ......(1)
 abc  x ….(i)
a  2b  y ….(ii)
a  3b  z ….(iii)
Solving these equations
(iii)  (ii) gives bzy
By (iii) , we get a  z  3b  3 y  2 z
By (i) , we get c  x  a  b  x  2 y  z
Using these values in (1) and then applying T on both sides
T( x, y , z )  (3 y  2 z )T(1,1,1)  ( z  y )T(1, 2,3)  ( x  2 y  z )T(1,0,0)
= (3 y  2 z )(4, 2)  ( z  y )(0, 2)  ( x  2 y  z )(2, 2)
= (12 y  8 z  2 x  4 y  2 z, 6 y  4 z  2 z  2 y  2 x  4 y  2 z )
So , T( x, y , z )  (2 x  8 y  6 z, 2 x  8 y  4 z) which is the required linear transformation.

Exercise 7.3
1. Find the matrix [T : B , B] for the linear transformation T :  2   2 defined by
T(x, y ) = ( x,  y ) where
(i) B = (e1 , e2 ) , B = {(1,1),(1, 1)}

(ii) B = {(1,1),(1,0)} , B = {(2,3),(4,5)}

2. Find the matrix representing the linear transformation T :  3   4 defined by

T(x, y, z) = ( x  y  z, 2 x  z, 2 y  z,6 y ) relative to the standard basis of  3 and  4 .
3. Let ( ) denotes the vector space of complex numbers over real numbers and T be a linear
operator on ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x  iy for all x, y   . Determine the matrix of T
relative to the basis B = {1  i,1  2i}
4. Write the matrix of linear transformation T : P3 ( )  P2 () defined by

T(a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3 ) = a3  (a2  a3 ) x  (a0  a1 ) x 2 relative to the bases

B = {1, x  1,( x  1) 2 ,( x  1)3} and B = {1 , x , x 2 } respectively.

 14

5. Let V be a vector space of some particular real functions and B = {1, t , et , tet } is a basis for V.
df
Let D : V  V be the differential operator on V i.e. D(f ) = . Find the matrix [D : B].
dt
a b 
6. Let M 2 ( ) be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and M =   be a fixed matrix.
c d 
Find the matrix [T] of each of the following linear operators T relative to the standard basis B of
 1 0   0 1  0 0   0 0  
M 2 ( ) given by B    , , ,   .Also find trace and determinant of [T].
  0 0   0 0  1 0   0 1  
(i) T(A) = MA (ii) T(A) = AM (iii) T(A) = MA + AM
(iv) T(A)=MA – AM (v) T(A)=AM – MA
7. Find the matrix in standard basis of the linear transformations :
(i) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .
(ii) Identity operator on  3 .
(iii) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)

(iv) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(v) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

1 2 3 4 
(vi) Matrix mapping T :    defined by T (u )  A(u ) where A   0 1 2 1
4 3

 2 5 8 7 

(vii) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(viii) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   2
   a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d 

8. For each linear transformation L on  2 , find the matrix A representing L (relative to the usual basis
of  2 ) :
(i) L is the rotation in  2 counterclockwise by 45 .
(ii) L is reflection in  2 about the line y  x .

(iii) L is defined by L 1,0    3,5  and L  0,1   7, 2  .

(iv) L is defined by L 1,1   3,7  and L 1, 2    5, 4  .

9. Let  denote the differential operator ; that is,   f  t    df / dt . Each of the following sets is a

basis of a vector space V of functions. Find the matrix representing  in each basis :
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(i) e , e
t 2t
, te2t  . (ii) 1, t ,sin 3t , cos3t (iii) e 5t
, te5t , t 2e5t  .

 1 2
10. Find the linear transformation T :    whose matrix is  0 1  relative to ordered basis :
2 3

 1 3 

B = {(1 , 1) , ( 1 , 1)} and B = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 0 , 1)}.

1 
 1
11. Describe the linear operator T on  2 determined by the matrix  2  , relative to the ordered
2 4
 3 
basis B = {(1 , 0) , (1 , 1)}.

 1 1
12. Describe the linear map T :    determined by the matrix A =  2 3  , relative to the
2 3

 0 1 

ordered basis B = {(1 , 1) , (0 , 2)} and B = {(0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0)} .

13. If the matrix of a linear transformation T on  3 relative to the ordered basis

 0 1 1

B = {(1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} is  1 0 1 ;

 1 1 0 

Find the matrix relative to the basis B = {(0 , 1 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 1)}.

Answers

1 1  9 5 1 1 1
     
 2 (ii)  2 2 2.  2 0 1  3 4
1. (i)  2    3. [T : B] =  
1 1   5 3  0 2 1  2 3
 2  
2   2 2  0 6 0

0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 0 
4.  0 0 1 2 5. [D : B] =  .
0 0 1 1
 1 0 1 2   
0 0 0 1

a 0 b 0
0 a 0 b 
6. (i) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 2(a  d )  2 trace(M) , det[T]  (ad  bc)2  (det M) 2
c 0 d 0
 
0 c 0 d
 16

a c 0 0
b d 0 0 
(ii) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 2(a  d )  2 trace(M) , det[T]  (ad  bc)2  (det M) 2
0 0 a c
 
0 0 b d

 2a c b 0
 b ad 0 b  trace of [T] = 4(a  d )  4 trace(M)
(iii) [T ]   ,
c 0 ad c det[T]  4(ad  bc )(a  d )2  4(det M)(trace M)2
 
0 c b 2d 

0 c b 0
 b a  d 0 b 
(iv) [T] =  , trace of [T] = 0, det[T] = 0
c 0 d  a c 
 
0 c b 0

0 c b 0
 b d a 0 b 
(v) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 0, det[T] = 0
 c 0 ad c
 
0 c b 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0  cos   sin  0
7. (i)  0 0 0 0  (ii)  0 1 0  (iii)  0 1 0  (iv)  sin  cos  0

 0 0 0 0   0 0 1   0 0 0   0 0 1 

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 2 3 4  0
 cos 2 sin 2  1 2 0  0 1 1 1 
(v)  (vi)  0 1 2 1 (vii)  (viii) 
 sin 2  cos 2  0 0 2 3 1 0 0 1
 2 5 8 7     
0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0

 2  2 0 1 3 7  1 2 
8. (i)   (ii)   (iii)   (iv)  
 2 2  1 0  5 2  18 11

0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 5 1 0 
0 0 0 
9. (i)  0 2 1  (ii)  (iii)  0 5 2 
0 0 0 3 
 0 0 2    0 0 5 
0 0 3 0

10. T( x, y )  (2 y  x, y ,3 y  3 x)

1 0 0
 7 x  23 y 2 x  10 y 
11. T(x, y )   ,  12. T( x, y )  (2 y  4 x, x, y  2 x ) 13.  0 1 0 
 6 3 
 0 0 0 
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True false exercise 9. If S and T are linear transformation from

1. If T is a linear transformation from  m to  n to  n and if S  T  x    x for all x in

 n , then there is an m  n matrix A such  n , then a valid conclusion is that

that T  x   Ax for all x   m .
2. The linear transformation that maps (1, 0)
to (3, –2) and maps (0, 1) to (–3, 2) is one
to one from  2 to  2 .
3. This mapping is linear : T  x1, x2 , x3  
 x1  x2  3,3 x2  x1,3x3  .
T  S  x    x for all x in  n .
10. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the columns of
A form a linearly independent set, then the
linear transformation x  Ax maps  n
onto  m .
11. The standard matrix for the transformation

4. The mapping f defined by that rotates every vector in  2 clockwise

f  x   x1  2, 4,7 x1   x2  3, x2 , 4  is linear. 
through an angle of (or 90 ) is
2
(Here x   x1, x2  and f  x  is in 3 .)
 1 0 
 0 1
5. If A is a p  q matrix, then the mapping T  
defined by T  x   Ax is a linear map from 12. A linear transformation L from 3 to 3
is completely defined by the three formulas
 q to  p .
L 1,3, 2    7,5,5  , L  2, 4,1   6, 4, 4  and
6. Every linear mapping T from  q to  p is
of the form T  x   Ax for some matrix A. L  3,1,2   1,1,1 .

7. Let the transformation T be defined by 13. Let T be a transformation from  n to  m .

T  x   Ax , where A is a 5  3 matrix. The If T  0   0 , then T is linear.

domain of T is then 5 . 14. Let T  x   (2 x1  x3 , x2  x1, x3  3x2 ) .

5 The matrix for this linear transformation is

1
8. If a linear transformation maps   to  0 
 2 0 1
3 1  1 1 0
 
6  11  0 3 1 
3  4
and   to  2  then it maps   to  2 
 
15. When two linear transformation are
1  2   4  3 
performed one after the other, the
 2
combined effect may fail to be a linear is the same as the mapping T  x   Ax ,
transformation.
 7 2 
where A   2 5 
2 3
16. A linear transformation L from  to 
is completely defined by the formulas  1 4 

L  3,5    2, 2,3 , L  2,7   1, 1, 4  and 24. If the rows of an m  n matrix A span  n ,
L  4,3   3,0, 2  . then the map x  Ax is one to one.

17. There exists a linear transformation from 25. Let A be an m  n matrix whose rows form
a linearly dependent set. Then the linear
3 to  4 such that L 1,3, 2   1,0,0, 0  ,
transformation x  Ax is onto  m .
L  2,1,3   0,1, 0,0  and
26. Let T be a linear mapping from  n to  m .
L  1,12,1   0,0,1,0  .
Let A be an m  n matrix such that
18. Let A be an n  n matrix. If the map
T  x   Ax . If T is surjective, then n  m .
n n
x  Ax is surjective from  to  , then
27. If  x1, x2 ,...., xn  is linearly dependent and
it is one to one.
T is a linear transformation, then
 1 2 7 
19. Let A   3 4 29  T  x1  , T  x2  ,...., T  xn  is also linearly
 2 1 11  dependent.
The mapping x  Ax is one to one. 28. If  x1, x2 ,...., xn  is linearly independent
3 1 5  and T is a linear transformation, then
20. Let A   2 5 1
 1 2 0 
T  x1  , T  x2  ,...., T  xn  is also linearly
independent.
The mapping x  Ax is one to one.
29. A linear transformation T from an n–
21. There exists a linear transformation from
dimensional vector space V to another
3 to  4 such that
space is completely and uniquely
L  1,12,1   0,0,1,0  determined by the images
L 1,3, 2   1,0,0,0  T (u1), T (u2 ),...., T (un ) , where

L  2, 4,6    0,0, 0,1 u1, u2 ,...., un  is any basis for V.

L  2,1,3   0,1, 0,0  30. There is one and only one linear
transformation that maps (1,3,2) to (3,7,7),
22. Let A be a square matrix. If the mapping
(0,2, 9) to (4,2,–5) and (0,0,6) to (17, 1,3).
x  Ax is one to one, then it is surjective.
23. The linear mapping defined by the equation
f  x1, x2    7 x1  2 x2 , 2 x1  5 x2 , x1  4 x2 
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Assignment 4. The two transformation T : R 3  R 2 and

-------------------- S C Q --------------------- S : R3  R 2 defined as
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  z )
1. Let V and W be vector spaces over and S ( x, y, z )  ( x , 0), then
R. T : V  W be a map. Then T is a linear
1. T and S both are linear
transformation if and only if
2. T and S both are not linear
1. T ( x  y )  T ( x)  T ( y ), x, y  V
3. T is linear but S is not linear
2. T ( x)  T ( x ), x  V ,  R 4. T is not linear and S is linear
3. T ( x  y )   T ( x )  T ( y ), x, y  V ,   R 5. Consider the vector space R 3 and the maps
4. T ( x  y )  T ( x )  T ( y ), x, y V f , g : R3  R3 defined by
2. Consider the mapping
f ( x, y , z )  ( x, y , z ) and
3 2
(I) T : R  R , T ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  z )
g ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  1, z).
3
(II) T : R  R, T ( x, y )  xy
Then,
(III) T : R 3  R 2 , T ( x, y , z )  ( x , 0) 1. Both f and g are linear
Which of the above are linear 2. Neither f nor g is linear
transformation? 3. g is linear but not f
1. (I),(II) and (III) 4. f is linear but not g
2. (I) and (II) only
(GATE 2005)
3. (II) and (III) only
6. Let C be the vector space of all complex
4. None of these
numbers over complex field C and
3. Which among the following is not linear?
T : C  C be defined by T ( z )  z . Then,
2 2
1. F : R  R such that
1. T is a linear mapping
F ( x, y )  (2 x  y, x )
2. T is not linear mapping but a well
3 2
2. F : R  R such that defined map
F ( x, y, z )  ( z , x  y ) 3. T is not well defined
2
3. F : R  R such that F ( x )  (2 x,3x ) 4. None of the above

4. F : R3  R 2 such that
F ( x, y, z )  ( x  1, y  z )
 4

7. D : Pn ( R)  Pn1 ( R) and 11. Consider the basis S  {v1 , v2 , v3 } for

T : Pn1 ( R)  Pn ( R) defined by R 3 where v1  (1,1,1), v2  (1,1,0) ,

differentiation and integration v3  (1, 0,0) and let T : R 3  R 2 be a linear
x
D  f ( x)   f '( x), T  f ( x)    f (t )dt , transformation such that
0

then T (v1 )  (1,0),T (v2 )  (2, 1), T (v3 )  (4,3) .

1. D is linear where T is not linear Then, T (2, 3,5) is

transformation 1. (1, 5) 2. (3, 4)
2. D is not linear while T is linear 3. (0, 0) 4. (9, 23)
transformation 12. Consider the following T : R 2  R 2 such
3. D and T both are not linear that T (2, 2)  (8, 6), T (5,5)  (3, 2), then
transformation
1. T is linear map and is unique
4. D and T both are linear transformation
2. T is a linear map and they are infinite in
2 3
8. If T : R  R is a linear transformation number
T (1,0)  (2,3,1) and T (1,1)  (3, 0, 2), then 3. T is a linear map and they are finitely
which one of the following statement is many in number
correct? 4. T cannot be linear
1. T ( x, y )  ( x  y , 2 x  y ,3 x  3 y ) 13. Let F be any field and let T be a linear
2. T ( x, y )  (2 x  y,3x  3 y, x  y ) operation on F 2 defined by
3. T ( x, y )  (2 x  y ,3 x  3 y, x  y ) T (a, b)  (a  b, a ), then T 1 (a, b) is equal
4. T ( x, y )  ( x  y , 2 x  y,3x  3 y ) to
9. The unique linear transformation 1. (b, a  b) 2. (a  b, b)

T : R 2  R 2 such that T (1, 2)  (2,3) and 3. (a, a  b) 4. None of these

T (0,1)  (1, 4). Then, the rule for T is 14. Let T : R 2  R 2 be a linear transformation
1. T ( x, y )  ( y, 5 x  4 y ) 1 1 0  2
such that T      and T     
2. T ( x, y )  (5 x  4 y, y ) 0  2 1 1

3. T ( x, y )  ( x, 5 x  4 y ) 1 
What is the value of T   ?
1 
4. T ( x, y )  (4 x  5 y , y )
1  2
10. A linear transformation T : R 2  R 2 such 1.   2.  
 2 1
that T (3,1)  (2, 4) and T (1,1)  (0, 2).
 3  2
Then, the T (7,8) is 3.   4.  
 3  2
1. (1,3) 2. (–1,19)
15. Let T be linear transformation on R 2 into
3. (2,3) 4. (3,2)
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itself such that T (1,0)  (1, 2) and 19. Which of the following is a linear
T (1,1)  (0, 2). Then, T (a, b) is equal to transformation from  3 to  2 ?

1. (a, 2b) 2. (2a, b)  x

 4 
a. f  y    
3. (a  b, 2a) 4. (a  b, 2b)
 z  x y
 
16. If T : R 3  R3 is given by
 x
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y, y  3 z, x  2 y ), then  xy 
b. g  y    
T 1 is  z  x  y
 
1 x z
1.  2 x  z,  x  z,  y    x
3 3 3  z x
c. h  y    
1 1 1   z   x y
2.  2 x  y,  x  y , x   z  
3 3 3y 
1. only f
1 1 1 
3.  x  2 y, x  y,  x  y  z  2. only g
3 3 3 
3. only h
1 x y 
4.  x  2 y , x  y,   z  4. all the transformations f, g and h.
3 3 3 
(CSIR NET June 2015)
17. Which of the following mapping
20. Let T : R 3  R 2 be the linear transformation
   is not a linear mapping?
2 2

given by T ( x, y , z )  ( x, y ) with respect to

1. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x2 , x1 )
standard basis of R 3 and the basis
2. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x2 )
{(1,0),(1,1)} of R 2 . What is the matrix
3. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  1, x2 )
representation of T ?
4. ( x1 , x2 )  (0,0)
 1 0
 0 1 1
18. R is set of real number. In R 2 , let f1 and 1.  1 1  2.  
 0 0   0 0 1
f 2 be the two transformations defined by

f1 ( x, y )  (0, y ) , f 2 ( x, y )  ( y , x ) . Then, 0 0
 1 1 0 
3.   4.  1 0 
the product of the mapping 0 1 0  1 1 
( f 2 of1 )( x, y ) gives the projection of the
21. Let T : R 2  R 2 be defined by
x  y plane on the
T ( x, y )  ( x  y, x  y ) . Which one of the
1. y  axis 2. x  axis following is the matrix of T for (0,1) and
3. line y = x 4. line y = x
 6
(1,0) as a basis for both domain and range 0 1  0 1
3.   4.  
of T ? 1 0  1 0 
1 1   1 1 25. Consider the two linear maps T1 and T2 on
1.   2.  
 1 1  1 1 V3 defined as T1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0, x2 , x3 ) and
 1 1  1 1
3.   4.   T2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1 ,0, 0),
1 1   1 1
1. T is idempotent but T2 is not idempotent
22. Define T on R 2 into itself by
2. T2 is idempotent but T1 is not idempotent
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x1  x2 ). Then, matrix
3. Both T1 and T2 are idempotent
of T 1 relative to the standard basis for
R 2 is 4. Neither T1 nor T2 are idempotent

1 1   1 1 26. If the complex field C is the given vector

1.   2.  
1 1  1 1  space over the real field R and operator
T on C is defined on T ( z )  z , then the
1 1  1 1
 2  2  
3.  2 2 matrix of T w.r.t. the basis 1  i,1  2i is
 4.  
1 1   1 1 
 2 2   2 2  3 4  3 2 
1.   2.  
 2 3 4 3 
23. Let P2  x  be the vector space of all
 3 4
polynomials over R of degree less than or 3.   4. None of these
 2 3
equal to 2. Let D be the differential
27. The matrix of the linear transformation
operator on P2  x  . Then, matrix of
T on R 3 ( R) defined as
D relative to the basis  x 2 ,1, x is equal to
T ( x, y , z )  (2 y  z, x  4 y,3x ) w.r.t the
0 0 0 0 0 0 basis B  {(1,1,1), (1,1,0),(1,0,0)} is
1.  0 0 1  2.  2 0 0 
3 3 3  3 6 6 
 2 0 0   0 0 1 
1.  6 6 2 
 2. 3 6 5 
0 0 2 0 0 0   6 5 1 3 2 1
3.  0 0 0  4.  0 0 2 
 3 6 6 
 0 1 0   0 1 0 
3.  6 5 2  4. None of these
24. Let T : V2 ( R)  V2 ( R ) where T be the  1 3 3 
reflection of the points through the line 28. Let T be a linear transformation on the
y   x, then the matrix of T with respect to vector space V2 ( F ) defined by
standard basis is T (a, b)  (a, 0), the matrix of T relative to
1 0   1 0  the ordered basis {(1,0), (0,1)} of V2 ( F ) is
1.   2.  
 0 1  0 1
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1 0 0 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 
1.   2.  
0 0 0 0 3. 1 1 0  4. 1 1 1 
1 1 1  1 1 0 
0 0 0 0
3.   4.  
1 0 0 1 (GATE 2007)
29. Let V be the vector space of 2  2 matrices 32. Let T : P3[0,1]  P2  0,1 be defined by
1 2  T  p( x)   p "( x )  p '  x  . Then the matrix
over R and let M    . Let T be the
3 4 
representation of T with respect to the
linear operator on V defined by
bases
T ( A)  MA, then the trace of T is
1, x, x , x  and 1, x, x  of P [0,1] and
2 3 2
3
1. 5 2. 10
3. 0 4. None of these P2 [0,1] respectively is

30. Let T be a linear transformation from 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 0
0 0
R 3  R 2 defined by 1.  2.  0 0 2 6 
2 2 0
T ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, y  z ) . Then, the matrix    0 0 0 3 
0 6 3
of T with respect to the ordered bases
0 0 0
{(1,1,1),(1, 1, 0),(0,1,0)} and {(1,1),(1,0)} is 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 
3.  6 2 0 0  4. 
 2 0 1   0 1 1  0 2 2
1.   2.    3 0 0 0   
 1 1 1  2 1 0 3 6 0

2 1   0 2 (GATE 2010)
3.  0 1 4.  1 1  33. Let P2 ( R) be the polynomial space with
 1 1   1 0 
basis {1, x, x 2 }, then matrix representation of
(GATE 2003)
p( x)  p (0)
3 3
31. Let T : R  R be a linear transformation T : p ( x)  is
x
defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z , x  y  z , y  z )
1 1 0 0 1 0
then the matrix of the linear transformation 1.  0 0 1  2.  0 0 1 
T with respect to the ordered basis  0 0 0   0 0 0 

B  (0,1,0),(0,0,1),(1,0, 0) of R 3 is 0 1 1 1 1 1
 1 1 1 1 1 0  3.  0 0 0  4.  0 0 0 
1.  1 1 1  2. 1 1 1   0 0 0   0 0 0 

 0 1 1 1 0 1

 8
34. Let W be the vector space of all real  0 1 1 1
 1 2 0 0 
polynomials of degree atmost 3. Defined
1.  
 1 0 2 0 
T : W  W by T  p( x)   p( x ) where  
 1 0 0 2 
p  x  is the derivative of P . The matrix of
 1 0 0 2 
2 3
T in the basis {1, x, x , x } considered as  0 1 1 0 
2.  
column vectors, is given by  0 1 1 0 
 
 2 0 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0  1
1 0 0 0 0  2 0 0 1
1.  2.  0
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 
    3. 
0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 1
 
 1 0 1 0 
0 1 0 0 0 1 2 3
0 0  0
0 2 0 0 0  0 2 2 2 
3.  4.   2 1 0 0 
0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
    4.  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  2 0 1 0 
 
(CSIR NET June 2011)  2 0 0 1

35. For the standard basis (GATE 2012)

37. Let V be vector space of real polynomials
{(1,0, 0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)} of R 3 a linear
of degree atmost 2. Define a linear operator
transformation T from R 3 to R 3 has the
i

 2 1 1 T : V  V by T  xi    x j , i  0,1, 2 .
j0
matrix representation  1 1 1  .
 3 1 2  The matrix of T 1 with respect to the basis

Then the image of (2,1,2) under T is 1, x, x  is

2

1. (11,0,1) 2. (3,3,3) 1 1 1   1 1 0 
3. (7,3,5) 4. (7,3,1) 1. 1 1 0  2.  0 1 1
1 0 0   0 0 1 
36. Let T : P3  P3 be the map given by
x  1 1 1 1 0 0
T  p  x     p  t  dt. If the matrix of T
1 3.  0 1 1 4.  1 1 0 
relative to the standard basis  0 0 1  0 1 1 
B1  B2  1, x, x 2 , x3  is M and M  denotes (GATE 2005)

the transpose of the matrix M, then M+ M  38. A linear transformation T rotates each

is vector in  2 clockwise through 90 . The

matrix T relative to standard ordered basis
 1   0  
      is
 0   1  
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 0 1  0 1 respect to standard bases B3 and B4 , then

1.   2.  
 1 0   1 0  3 7
1. a32  and a33 
0 1  0 1 2 3
3.   4.  
1 0 1 0  2. a32 
3
and a33  0
(CSIR NET June 2013) 2

39. Let N be the vector space of all real 7

3. a32  0 and a33 
3
polynomials of degree at most 3. Define
4. a32  0 and a33  0
S : N  N by ( Sp)( x)  p  x  1 , p  N .
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
Then the matrix of S in the basis

1, x, x , x  , considered
2 3
as column vectors,
--------------------- M C Q -------------------------
is given by
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1. Let a, b, c, d  and let T :  2   2 be
0 2 0 0  0 1 2 3
1.  2. 
0 0 3 0 0 0 1 3 the linear transformation defined by
   
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1   x    ax  by   x 
T     for    2 ,
1 1 2 3 0 0 0 0   y    cx  dy   y 
1 1 2 3 1 0 0 0 
3.  4.  Let S :    be the corresponding map
2 2 2 3 0 1 0 0
    defined by S  x  iy    ax  by   i  cx  dy 
3 3 3 3 0 0 1 0
for x, y  . Then
(CSIR NET June 2012)
1. S is always  linear, that is
40. For a positive integer n, let Pn denote the
S  z1  z2   S  z1   S  z2  for all
space of all polynomials p  x  with
z1 , z2  and S  z    S  z 
coefficients in  such that deg p  x   n ,
for all    and z  .
and let Bn denote the standard basis of Pn
2. S is  linear, if b=c and d=a.
given by Bn  1, x, x ,...., x 2 n
 . If 3. S is  linear, only if b=c and d=a.
T : P3  P4 is the linear transformation 4. S is  linear, if and only if T is the
x
identity transformation.
defined by T  p  x    x p '  x    p  t  dt
2

0 (CSIR NET Dec 2012)

and A   aij  is the 5  4 matrix of T with

 10
2. Consider the linear transformation True false key
T :  7   7 defined by 1. F 2. F 3. F 4. F
T  x1 , x2 ,...., x6 , x7    x7 , x6 ,....., x2 , x1  . 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. F 12. T
Which of the following statements are true?
13. F 14. T 15. F 16. F
1. the determinant of T is 1
17. F 18. T 19. F 20. F
2. there is a basis of  7 with respect to
21. F 22. T 23. T 24. F
which T is a diagonal matrix
25. F 26. T 27. T 28. F
3. T 7  I
29. T 30. T
4. The smallest n such that T n  I is even
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 4 3. 4 4. 2
5. 2 6. 2 7. 4 8. 2
9. 1 10. 2 11. 4 12. 4
13. 1 14. 3 15. 3 16. 1
17. 3 18. 2 19. 3 20. 3
21. 2 22. 3 23. 1 24. 4
25. 3 26. 1 27. 1 28. 1
29. 2 30. 2 31. 3 32. 2
33. 2 34. 3 35. 2 36. 1
37. 2 38. 2 39. 2 40. 2

MCQ
1. 2,3 2. 2,4
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Chapter - 8
Linear transformations (Continued)
8.1 Range space and Null space
Def. Null Space or Kernel of a Linear Transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear
transformation. The null space (kernel) of T is denoted by N(T) or Ker(T) and is defined as
N(T) = ker T = {u  U : T(u )=0} . In words, the null space is the subset of U consisting of all vectors
whose image under T is 0.
Def. Range or image of a Linear Transformation Let T : U  V be a linear transformation ,
then range of T or image of T is denoted by R(T) or T(U) and is defined as R(T)={T(u ) : u  U} .
In words range of T is the set of all those vectors of V which are images of vectors of U under T.
Results :
1. If T : U  V is a linear transformation , then N(T) , the null space of T , is a subspace of U.
2. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation ,then T is one– one if and only if N(T) = {0}.
3. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation , then range of T is a subspace of V.
Def . Rank and Nullity of a Linear Transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation. The
rank of T is denoted by  (T) and is defined as the dimension of R (T) . The nullity of T is denoted
by  (T) and is defined as the dimension of N(T).
4. Sylvester’s law : If T : U  V is a linear transformation , then Rank T+Nullity T = dim U
i.e.,  (T)   (T) = dim U .
5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation where U and V are finite dimensional vector spaces of
same dimension, then T is one - one iff T is onto.
6. If T : V  V is a linear operator on V, then R(T)  N(T) = {0} iff T(T(v)) = 0  T(v) = 0 .
7. Fundamental theorem of vector space homomorphism : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation,
then U Ker T  T(U) .

8. If T : U  V is a onto linear transformation , then U Ker T  V.

W1 +W2 W2
9. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space then  .
W1 W1  W2
Method 8.1 : To find range space of a Linear Transformation
Input : A linear transformation T : U  V is given.
 2

Output : Range space R(T) and rank of T i.e.  (T)

Working Steps :
(i) To find range space R(T) , we need a basis of U and for the sake of simplicity we consider the
standard basis e1 , e2 ,........., en .

(ii) Range space is generated by T-images of vectors of basis i.e., R(T )  T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) ,.....,T(en ) 

(iii) Now we have a generating set of R(T) so find a basis of R (T) by techniques of vector spaces
i.e., either by selecting a maximal L.I. set out of {T(e1 ) ,T(e2 ) ,........., T(en )} or by

row echelon method.

(iv) The number of elements in the basis gives the rank of T i.e.  (T).
Alternative Method 8.1 : Range space of a linear transformation is the column space of its matrix.
Method 8.2 : To find null space of a linear transformation
Input : A linear transformation T : U  V is given.
Output : Null space N(T) and nullity of T i.e.  (T).
Working Steps :
(i) Take any arbitrary vector u  U and substitute T(u) = 0. Here a system of equations is obtained.
(ii) Solve the system of equations obtained in step (i) . There are two possible cases.
Case (a) : If u = 0 is only solution of above system then N(T) = {0} and so  (T) = 0.
Case (b) : If system has non – trivial solutions , then number of free variables , say r , gives the
dimension of N(T) and so  (T) = nullity of T = r. Further , let u1 , u2 ,........., ur be the solutions

by setting one of the free variable equal to 1 (or any non – zero constant) and the remaining free
variables equal to 0 , then { u1 , u2 ,........., ur } is a basis of N(T).

Alternative Method 8.2 : Null space of a linear transformation is the null space of its matrix.
Method 8.3 : To find a linear transformation when a generating set of range space is given.
Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim U = n. A generating set
{v1 , v2 ,..........., vk } where k  n of R(T) is given.

Output : Defining formula of T.

Working Steps :
(i) Take any basis of U , for simplicity , we can take the standard basis {e1 , e2 ,........., en } .

(ii) Two possibilities are there

Case (a) : If k = n then take T(e1 ) = v1 , T(e2 ) = v2 ,……., T(ek ) = vk and find T by Method 7.2.1

Case (b) : If k < n then take T(e1 ) = v1 , T(e2 ) = v2 ,……., T(ek ) = vk and T(ek 1 ) = ..........=T(en ) =

0 and find T by Method 7.2.1.

Remark : In above method , T does not exist if k > n.
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Method 8.4 : To find a L.T. when a generating set of null space is given.
Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim (U) = n.
A generating set {u1 , u2 ,..........., uk } of N(T) is given.

Output : Defining formula of T.

Working Steps :
(i) First check that the set {u1 , u2 ,..., uk } is L.I. or not. If yes , its okay. If no , then reduce it to a

maximal L.I. set .

(ii) Let the L.I. set obtained in step(i) be S = {u1 , u2 ,..., ur } where r  n . Clearly,S is a basis of N(T).

(iii) Now extend the set S to a basis B of U and let B = {u1 , u2 ,...., ur , ur 1 ,...., un } Out of the vectors

of B only u1 , u2 ,..., ur belong to null space and others do not belong to N(T), so we assume

T(u1) = 0
T(u2) = 0
.……….
T(ur) = 0
and T(ur+1) = any non – zero vector, say vr 1

T(ur+2) = any non – zero vector, say vr 2 such that {v r 1 , vr 2 } is a L.I. set.

……………………………...
T(un) = any non – zero vector say vn such that {vr 1 , vr 2 ,...., vn } is a L.I. set.

(iv) Now find T by Method 7.2.1

Example 1 : Find range , rank , null – space and nullity for the linear transformation T : R4  R3
defined by
T(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = ( x1  x2  x3  x4 , x1  2 x3  x4 , x1  x2  3 x3  3 x4 )

Solution : To find R(T)

We know that e1  (1 , 0 , 0 , 0), e2  (0 , 1 , 0 , 0), e3  (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) and e4  (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) is a
basis of R4 and so the range space R(T) is generated by their images i.e.,
R(T) =  T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) , T(e3 ) , T(e4 ) 
Now , by definition of T , we compute
T(e1 ) = (1 , 1 , 1) , T(e2 ) = (  1 , 0 , 1) , T(e3 ) = (1 , 2 , 3) , T(e4 ) = (1 ,  1 ,  3)

Thus , R(T) =  (1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1 ) , (1 , 2 , 3) , (1 , 1 , 3) 

 4
To find a basis of R(T) , we consider the matrix whose rows are these four vectors

 1 1 1  1 1 1 
 1 0 1   0 1 2 
  ~   (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  R 1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 1 2 3  0 1 2 
   
 1 1 3  0 2 4 
1 1 1
0 1 2 
~  (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 , R 4  R 4  2R 3 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
which is row echelon form.
Thus the set of non – zero rows in above matrix {(1 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 2)} is a basis of R(T) and so
dim R(T) =  (T) = 2.
To find N(T) : If any vector u  ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  N(T)

Then T(u) = 0
i.e. T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (0 , 0 , 0)

i.e. ( x1  x2  x3  x4 , x1  2 x3  x4 , x1  x2  3x3  3x4 ) = (0 , 0 , 0)

x1  x2  x3  x4  0 

i.e. x1  2 x3  x4  0 ......(1)
x1  x2  3 x3  3 x4  0 

To solve the system of equations (1) , we consider the coefficient matrix

1 1 1 1   1 1 1 1 
1 0 2 1 ~  0 1 1 2  (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  R 1 )
   
1 1 3 3  0 2 2 4 

 1 1 1 1 
~  0 1 1 2 (Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 )
 0 0 0 0 
which is row echelon form.
Thus the system (1) is reduced to
x1  x2  x3  x4  0 
 ......(2)
x2  x3  2 x4  0 

Here , x3 and x4 are free variables and so dim N(T) = nullity of T = number of free variables = 2

To find a basis of N(T) , we take x3  1 , x4  0 and then x1  2 , x2  1

So one vector of basis of N(T) is (2, 1,1,0) .

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Again taking x3  0 , x4  1 , we obtain x1 = 1 , x2 = 2

So second vector of basis of N(T) is (1 , 2 , 0 , 1).

Hence the set {(2 , 1 , 1 , 0),(1 , 2 , 0 , 1)} is a basis of N(T).
EXAMPLE 2 : Find a linear transformation T : R3  R4 whose range space is generated by
(1 , 2 , 0 ,  4) and (2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3).
Solution : We consider the standard basis e1 , e2 , e3 of R3 , where

e1 = (1 , 0 , 0) , e2 = (0 , 1 , 0) , e3 = (0 , 0 , 1).
Let us take
T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 2 , 0 ,  4) 

T(0 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3)  ......(1)
T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0 , 0 , 0) 

Now , let (x , y , z) R3 be any vector then clearly

( x , y , z)  x(1 , 0 , 0)  y(0 , 1 , 0)  z (0 , 0 ,1)
Applying T on both sides
T ( x , y , z)  xT (1 , 0 , 0)  yT (0 , 1 , 0)  zT (0 , 0 , 1)
= x(1 , 2 , 0 ,  4)  y(2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3)  z (0 , 0 , 0 , 0)
= ( x  2 y , 2 x ,  y ,  4 x  3 y) , which is the required L.T.
Example 3 : Find a linear transformation T : R4  R3 whose null space is generated by
(1 , 2 , 3 , 4) and (0 , 1 , 1 , 1).
Solution : Let u1 = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4) and u2 = (0 , 1 , 1 , 1). We see that u1 is not a scalar multiple of u2 so
{u1 , u2} is a L.I. set.
Now we shall extend this set to form a basis of R4. For this we have to select two vectors of standard
basis
{(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)} of R4.
Let us take u3 = (0 , 0 , 1 , 0)
and u4 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)
1 2 3 4
0 1 1 1 
Then the matrix formed by taking u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 as rows is 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
 6

which is clearly in row echelon form and hence { u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } is a L.I. set and therefore a basis of R4.
As u1 , u2 belongs to null space and u3 , u4 does not belong to null space, so we take
T(u1 )  T(1 , 2 , 3 , 4) = (0 , 0 , 0)

T(u2 )  T(0 , 1 , 1 , 1) = (0 , 0 , 0)

T(u3 )  T (0 , 0 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0 , 0)

T(u4 )  T(0 , 0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 1 , 0)

Here T(u3 ) and T(u4 ) are to be taken equal to any non-zero vector and for our simplicity we have
chosen (1 , 0 , 0) and (0 , 1 , 0).
Now , we are ready to find defining formula of T .
Let ( x, y , z , t )  R 4 be any vector and let
( x , y , z , t )  a(1 , 2 , 3 , 4)  b(0 , 1 , 1 , 1)  c(0 , 0 , 1 , 0)  d (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) ......(1)
 a=x ; 2a + b = y ; 3a + b + c = z ; 4a + b + d = 0
Solving these we obtain
a  x , b  y  2x , c  z  y  x , d  t  x  z
Using these in (1) and applying T on both sides , we get
T ( x , y , z , t )  x T (1, 2, 3, 4)  ( y  2 x) T (0, 1, 1, 1)  ( z  y  x) T (0, 0, 1, 0)
(t  x  z ) T (0, 0, 0, 1)
 x ( 0 , 0 , 0)  ( y  2 x) (0 , 0 , 0)  ( z  y  x) (1 , 0 , 0)  (t  x  z ) (0 , 1 , 0)
= ( z  y  x , t  x  z , 0) which is the defining formula of T.

Exercise 8.1
1. Find R(T) , rank (T) , N(T) and nullity (T) for the following linear transformations and
Verify the Sylvester law.
(i) T : 3   2 defined by T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , y  z)

(ii) T :  2   3 defined by T( x , y )  ( x  y , x  y, y)

2. A linear transformation T :  2   3 is as T(1, 2)=(3 ,  1, 5) and T(0, 1) = (2, 1 ,  1).

Find the defining formula for T and then find range space , rank , null space and nullity.
3. Find range space , rank , null space and nullity for zero operator O : V  V defined by
O(x) = 0 for all x and identity operator I : V  V defined by I(x) = x for all x , where
V is a finite dimensional vector space.
 1 1
4. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and let M =   be a fixed
 2 2 
matrix. Let T : V  V be a function defined by T(A) = MA for all A  V . Then
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(i) Prove that T is a linear transformation.

(ii) Find range space and rank of T.
(iii) Find null space and nullity of T.
(iv) Verify the Sylvester law.
5. Let T :  2   2 be a linear transformation defined by T(x, y)=(y , 0) . Prove that R(T)=N(T).

1 2
6. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and let M =   be a fixed matrix.
 0 3 
Let T : V  V be the linear map defined by T(A) = AM  MA. Find R(T) , rank , N(T) and
nullity. Then verify the Sylvester Law.
7. Find range space, null space, rank and nullity of the following linear transformations :
(i) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .
(ii) Identity operator on  3 .
(iii) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)

(iv) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(v) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

1 2 3 4 
(vi) Matrix mapping T :    defined by T (u )  A(u ) where  0 1 2 1
4 3

 2 5 8 7 

(vii) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(viii) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   2
   a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d 
8. Each of the following matrices determines a linear map from  4 into  3 :

1 2 0 1 1 0 2 1
(i) A   2 1 2 1 , (ii) B   2 3 1 1  .
 
 1 3 2 2   2 0 5 3 

Find a basis as well as the dimension of the kernel and the image of each linear map.
9. Let V  10 ( ) , the vector space of polynomials of degree  10 . Consider the linear map

 4 :V  V , where  4 denotes the fourth derivative d 4  f  / dt 4 . Find a basis and the dimension of

(i) the image of  4 (ii) the kernel of  4

 8

10. (i) Find a linear transformation T : 3   3 whose range space is generated by (1,0,  1)
and (1 , 2 , 2).
(ii) Find a linear transformation T : 3   3 whose range space is generated by (1, 2 , 3)
and (4 , 5 , 6).

11. (i) Find a linear transformation T :  4   3 whose null space is spanned by (2, 3 , 4 , 1)
and (1 , 0 , 1 , 1).
(ii) Find a linear transformation T : 3   4 whose null space is generated by (0, 1,  3)
and (0 ,  3 , 4).
12. Let T : V  V be a linear map such that R(T) = N(T) , where V is finite dimensional.
Prove that dim V is even.
13. Let T : 5  3 is a linear transformation such that  (T) = 2 , then find dim R(T).

14. Is there a linear transformation T :  4   2 such that  (T) = 3 and  (T) = 2.

Answers
1. (i) R(T) = R2 ,  (T) = 2 and N(T) = < (1 ,  1 , 1) > and  (T) = 1
Basis of N(T) is not unique , it can be multiple of (1 ,  1 , 1) as well.
(ii) R(T) = < (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 ,  1 , 1) > ,  (T) = 2 and N(T) = {0} ,  (T) = 0.
Basis of R(T) is not unique.
2. T( x , y )  (2 y  x , y  3 x , 7 x  y) , R(T) = < (1 , 3 ,  7) , (2 , 1 ,  1) > ,
 (T) = 2 and N(T) = {0} ,  (T) = 0.
3. R(O) = {0} ,  (O) = 0 and N(O) = V,  (O) = dim V; R(I) = V,  (I) =dim V and
N(I) = {0} ,  (I) = 0

 1 0  0 1  1 0  0 1
4. (ii) R(T) =    ,   > and  (T) = 2 (iii) N(T) =   ,  > and  (T) = 2.
 2 0   0 2  1 0  0 1
1 2  0 0   1 1  1 0 
6. R(T) =    ,  > and  (T) = 2 , N(T) =   ,  > and  (T) = 2.
0 0  1 2   0 0  0 1 
7. (i) R(T) = {0} and  (T)  0, N(T) =  4 and  (T)  4

(ii) R(T) = 3 and  (T)  3, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(iii) R(T) = (1,0,0),(0,1,0) and  (T)  2, N(T)= (0,0,1) and  (T)  1

(iv) R(T) = 3 and  (T)  3, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(v) R(T) =  2 and  (T)  2, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

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(vi) R(T) = (1,0, 2),(2,1,5) and  (T)  2, N(T)= (1, 2,1,0),(6,1,0,1) and  (T)  2

(vii) R(T) =  4 and  (T)  4, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(viii) R(T) = (1,0,1,0),(0,1,0, 0),(0,1, 0,1),(0,1, 1,0) and  (T)  4, N(T)={0} and  (T)  0

8. (i) dim(Ker A) = 2, {(4, –2, –5, 0), (1, –3, 0, 5)}; dim(Im A) = 2, {(1, 2, 1), (0, 1, 1)}
2
(ii) dim(Ker B) = 1, {(–1, , 1, 1)}; Im B =  3 .
3
9. (i) 1, t , t 2 ,..., t 6  , (ii) 1, t , t 2 , t 3

10. (i) T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , 2 y,  x  2 y) (ii) T( x , y , z )  ( x  4 y , 2 x  5 y , 3 x  6 y )

11. (i) Answer is not unique. It depends upon the vectors used to extend the basis and their
images. However , if we take T(0 ,0 , 1 , 0) = (1,0, 0) and T(0 , 0 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0), then
2y y
answer is T( x , y , z)  ( z  x  , t  x  ,0)
3 3
(ii) Answer is not unique. However, with T 1, 0, 0   1, 0, 0, 0  the answer is T( x, y , z )  ( x, 0,0,0)

13. 3 14. No.

 10

8.2 Singular and non-singular transformation

Def. Singular Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be singular if

there exists a vector u  0 in U such that T(u) = 0.
In words , image of at least one non – zero vector of U under T is the zero vector.
Def. Non Singular Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non –
singular if it is not singular. OR
A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non – singular if T(u) = 0  u = 0.
OR
A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non – singular if 0  U is the only vector whose
image under T is 0.
Results :
1. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff T is one – one.
2. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff N(T) = {0}.
3. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff T carries linearly independent vectors of U
into linearly independent vectors of V.
4. Let U(F) is a finite dimensional vector space and let T : U  V be a linear transformation. Then
U and R(T) have the same dimensions iff T is non-singular.
5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation , then the following conditions are equivalent :
(i) T is non-singular.
(ii) T is one-one.
(iii) N(T) = {0}
(iv) T carries linearly independent vectors to linearly independent vectors.
(v) dim U = dim R(T).
Remark : If dim U = dim V = finite then , we can add condition (vi) to above theorem, namely,
(vi) T is onto
Def. Full rank matrix : A matrix is said to be of full rank if its rank is as large as possible. In other
words a m  n matrix A is said to be of full rank if rank (A)  min{m, n} .
Results :
1. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.
Then T cannot be onto and T is one-one if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.
2. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.
Then T cannot be one-one and T is onto if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.
3. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.
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Then T is either both one-one and onto or neither one-one nor onto. Further T is one-one
and onto if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.
Remark : In above results U and V are finite dimensional.
4. Let T : R n  R m be a linear transformation and A be the matrix of T, then

(i) T is one-one iff columns of A are L.I. (ii) T is onto iff columns of A span R m
Example 1 : Show that linear transformation T : R3  R2 defined by
T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , y  z) is singular.
Solution : Suppose T( x , y , z )  (0 , 0)
 ( x  y , y  z )  (0 , 0)
 x  y  0 and y  z  0
We obtain x=y=z
Let us take x = y = z = 1 , then clearly T(1 , 1 , 1) = (0 , 0). Thus we have obtained a non – zero
vector (1 , 1 , 1) whose image is (0 , 0). So , by definition , T is singular.
Example 2 : Show that the linear transformation T : R3  R3 defined by
T( x , y , z ) = (x , 2y , z) is non – singular.
Solution : Suppose T( x , y , z)  (0 , 0 , 0)
 ( x , 2 y , z )  (0 , 0 , 0)
 x 0 , y 0, z 0

Thus , (0, 0, 0) is the only vector whose image is (0 , 0 , 0). Thus , by definition , T is non – singular.

Exercise 8.2
1. Which of the following linear transformations are singular or non-singular. In case of a singular
linear transformation, find a non zero vector u such that T (u )  0 . Also check which of them are onto.

(i) T : 3   3 defined by T( x , y , z ) = (x  z , x  z , y )

(ii) T :  2   3 defined by T( x , y ) = (x  y , x  y , y )

(iii) T :  4   4 defined by T( x , y , z , t ) = (2x , y , z  t , 0)

(iv) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .

(v) Identity operator on  3 .
(vi) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)
 12

(vii) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(viii) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

1 2 3 4 
(ix) Matrix mapping T :    defined by T (u )  A(u ) where  0 1 2 1
4 3

 2 5 8 7 

(x) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(xi) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   2
   a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d 

 1 1 0
2. Given the linear transformation Y =  2 3 1  X , show that
 2 3 5 

(i) it is singular
(ii) the images of linearly independent vectors X1=(1, 1, 1), X2=(2, 1, 2) and X3=(1, 2, 3)
are linearly dependent.
3. Set up linear transformation 3   3 which carries e1 into (1, 2, 3), e2 into (3, 1, 2) , e3

into (2,  1,  1) . Show that the linear transformation is singular.

4. Let T :  2   2 be a linear transformation defined by
T( x , y ) = (ax  by , cx  dy) , where a , b , c , d  R . Prove that T is non – singular iff
a b
0.
c d

Answers
1. (i) Non-singular (ii) Non-singular (iii) Singular ; u   0,0,1, 1

(iv) Singular ; u   x, y , z , t  (v) Non-singular (vi) Singular ; u   0,0, z 

(vii) Non-singular (viii) Non-singular (ix) Singular ; u  1, 2,1,0 

(x) Non-singular (xi) Non-singular

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8.3 Algebra of linear transformations

Def. Sum of Linear Transformations : Let U and V be two vector spaces over the field F. Let T1 :
U  V and T2 : U  V be two linear transformations We define the sum of T1 and T2 by T1 + T2 :
U  V by setting (T1 + T2) u = T1(u) + T2 (u) for all u  U .
Def. Scalar multiplication of linear transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and
a  F be any scalar then scalar multiplication of T with a is denoted by aT : U  V and is defined as
(a T) u = a (T (u)) for all u  U .
Results :
1. Sum of two linear transformations from a vector space U(F) to a vector V(F) is also a linear
transformation.
2. Scalar multiplication of a linear transformation from a vector space U(F) to a vector V(F) is also a
linear transformation.
Def. Composition (Product) of two Linear Transformations : Let U , V , W be three vector spaces
over a field F. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. We define
T2 T1 : U  W, called product (composition) of T2 and T1 by setting (T2T1 )(u )  T2 (T1 (u )) for all u  U.

3. Composition of two linear transformations is again a linear transformation.

Remark : (1) T1 and T2 be two linear transformations , then T2T1 is defined under the condition that
range of T1  domain of T2.
Similarly , T1T2 is defined under the condition that range of T2  domain of T1.These two conditions
can be remembered by the technique that composition of two linear transformations is defined when
range of post factor transformation  domain of pre-factor transformation.
Def. Invertible Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is called invertible if T
is one – one and onto and inverse of T is written as T 1 : V  U such that T(u) = v iff u = T 1 (v).
4. Suppose a linear transformation T : U  V is one-one and onto. Then the inverse mapping
T 1 : V  U is also a linear transformation.
5. Let T : U  V be a invertible linear transformation. Then
1
(i) T 1 is also invertible and  T 1  = T

(ii) aT is also invertible for any scalar a  0 and (aT) 1 = a 1 T 1 .

6. If T1 and T2 are two invertible linear operators on a vector space V(F) , then T1 T2 is also
 14

invertible and (T1 T2 ) 1 = T21 T11 .

7. Let U and V be two vector spaces over the field F. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : U  V be two linear
transformations then  (T1 +T2 )   (T1 )   (T2 ).

8. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. Then

(i) if T2T1 is one – one , then T1 is one – one
(ii) if T2T1 is onto , then T2 is onto.
9. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. Then
(i)  (T2 T1 )   (T2 )

(ii)  (T2 T1 )   (T2 ), if T1 is invertible (non- singular).

10. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on a vector space V(F) and [T1] and [T2] denote the matrices
of T1 and T2 relative to a ordered basis B = {v1 , v2 ,..........., vn } . Then the matrices of the

operator T1 + T2 , kT1 and T1T2 with respect to the basis B are given by
(i) [T1 + T2] = [T1] + [T2] (ii) [kT1] = k[T1] (iii) [T1T2] = [T1][T2].
Remark : Some times, the matrix of a linear operator T is denoted by m(T). In view of this notation
the above theorem can be given as :
(i) mT1  T2   m T1   m T2  (ii) m kT1   km T1  (iii) mT1 T2   m T1  m T2 

11. Let T : V  V be a linear operator and A be any matrix of T w.r.t. some ordered basis
and f(x) be any polynomial. Then f(A) is the matrix of f (T) w.r.t. the same ordered basis.
Example 1 : Let T1 and T2 be two linear transformations from R 3  R 2 defined by
T1 ( x , y , z ) = (2x  3y , 7 y  2 z ) and T2 ( x , y , z ) = (x  z , y ) . Find the defining formula for

linear transformations 3T1  5T2 and 2T1  3T2 .

Solution : (i) (3T1 +5T2 )( x , y , z ) = 3T1 ( x , y , z )  5T2 ( x , y , z )

= 3(2 x  3 y , 7 y  2 z )  5( x  z , y )
= (6 x  9 y , 21y  6 z )  (5 x  5 z , 5 y )
= (11x  9 y  5 z , 26 y  6 z)
(ii) (2T1  3T2 )( x , y , z ) = 2T1 ( x , y , z )  3T2 (x , y , z )

= 2(2 x  3 y , 7 y  2 z )  3( x  z , y )
= (4 x  6 y , 14 y  4 z )  (3x  3z , 3 y )
= ( x  6 y  3 z , 11 y  4 z )
Example 2 : Let T be a linear operator on R3 defined by
T( x , y , z ) = (2 x , 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y  z ) . Show that T is invertible and find T 1 .
Solution : We know that T is invertible iff T is one – one and onto.
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Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two vectors in R3 s.t.

T(u) = T(v)
 T( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

 (2 x1 , 4 x1  y1 , 2 x1  3 y1  z1 ) = (2 x2 , 4 x2  y2 , 2 x2  3 y2  z 2 )

 2 x1  2 x2 , 4 x1  y1 = 4 x2  y2 , 2 x1  3 y1  z1  2 x2  3 y2  z 2

 x1  x2 , y1 = y2 , z1  z 2

 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

 u  v . So T is one – one.
Let ( x, y, z )  R 3 be any vector and let (a , b , c) be an vector s.t.
T(a , b , c) = (x , y , z )
 (2a , 4a  b , 2a  3b  c) = (x , y , z )
 2a  x , 4a  b  y , 2a  3b  c  z
x
 a , b  2x  y , c  7 x  3 y  z
2
Since x , y , z  R , so a , b , c  R and so (a , b , c)  R 3 .
Thus T is onto.
Hence T is invertible. Now T(a , b , c) = ( x , y , z )

x 
 T 1 ( x , y , z ) = (a , b , c ) =  , 2x  y , 7 x  3 y  z  .
2 

Exercise 8.3
1. T1 : 3   2 , T2 :  3   2 and T3 :  2   2 be the linear transformations defined

by T1 ( x , y , z ) = (y , x  z ) , T2 ( x , y , z ) = (2 z , x  y ) and T3 ( x, y ) = ( y, 2x ) .
Find the defining formulae, if exist , for the following linear transformations.
(i) T1 T3 (ii) T2 T3 (iii) T3 T1 (iv) T3 T2 (v) T3 T1 + T3 T2.
2. Let T1 : 3   2 be defined as T1 ( x , y , z ) = (3x , 4 y  2 z ) and T2 :  2   2 be

defined as T2 ( x , y ) = (  x , y ) . Compute T1 T2 and T2 T1.

3. Let T1 and T2 be linear operators on  2 defined by T1 ( x , y ) = (0 , x) and

 16

T2 ( x , y ) = (y , x ) . Compute T1 + T2 , 2T2  3T1 , T2 T1 , T1 T2 , T22 , T12 .

4. Let T and S be linear operators on  3 defined by T( x , y , z ) = (x  3 y , 2 z , y  4 z ) ,

S ( x , y , z ) = (2x , 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y) . Show that ST  TS.

5. Let T : 3   3 is defined by T(x , y , z) = (0 , x , y). Show that T  O , T 2  O but T3 = O .

6. Show that each of the following operators T on  3 is invertible and find T 1

(i) T( x , y , z) = (3x , x  y , 2 x  y  z )
(ii) T( x , y , z) = ( x  3 y  2 z , y  4 z , z )
(iii) T( x , y , z) = ( x  z , x  z , y)

7. Let T : 3   3 is linear operator defined by T( x, y, z )  (0,0, x) . Show that T  O but T2 = O.

8. Give an example of two linear transformations T1 and T2 such that T1 T2 = O but T2 T1  O.
9. Let P( ) be the vector space of all real polynomials. Consider the derivative mapping D and
x
integral mapping T defined as D  f ( x)   f '( x ) and T  f ( x)    f ( x) dx . Show that TD  I but DT  I
1

10. Let T : V  V be a linear operator, then prove that

(i) N(T)  N(T 2 ) (ii) R(T 2 )  R(T)

11. Let T : V  V be a linear operator such that rank (T2) = rank (T) , where V is finite
dimensional. Prove that

(i) N(T)  N(T 2 ) (ii) R(T)  R(T 2 )

(iii) R(T)  N(T) = {0} (iv) R(T2)  N(T2) = {0}

Answers
1. (i) not defined (ii) not defined (iii) T3 T1 ( x , y , z )  ( x  z , 2 y )

(iv) T3 T2 ( x , y , z ) = (x  y , 4 z ) (v) (T3T1  T3T2 ) (x, y , z )=(2 x  y  z , 2 y  4 z )

2. (T2 T1 ) ( x , y , z ) = (  3 x , 4 y  2 z ) and T1 T2 is not defined.

3. (T1 + T2) (x , y) = (y , 2x) (2T2  3T1 ) (x , y ) = (2y ,  x ) ; T2 T1 ( x , y ) = (x , 0)

T1 T2 ( x , y )  (0 , y ) ; T22 ( x , y )  ( x , y ) T12 ( x , y )  (0 , 0) .

x x 
6. (i) T 1 ( x , y , z ) =  ,  y , z  x  y 
3 3 
(ii) T 1 ( x , y , z ) = ( x  3 y  14 z , y  4 z , z )

x y x y 
(iii) T 1 ( x , y , z ) =   ,z,  
2 2 2 2 
8. T1 ( x, y )  (0, y ), T2 ( x, y )  ( y ,0)
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8.4 Coordinate vectors

Def . Coordinate Vector : If B = {u1 , u2 ,......, un } is a basis for a vector space V(F) , then a vector

u  U can be expressed as u  a1u1  a2u2  ..........  anun . The coordinate vector (a1 , a2 ,..........., an ) is

 a1 
a 
expressed as a column vector  2  is denoted by [u , B] and is called coordinate vector of u relative

 
 an 
to the basis B .
Results :
1. Let U and V be finite dimensional vector spaces and let B = {u1 , u2 ,....., un } and B = {v1 , v2 ,...., vm }

be ordered basis for U and V respectively. If T : U  V be a linear transformation , then for any
u  U , [T(u ) , B]  [T : B , B] [u , B]
Remark : If U = V and B = B , then above theorem takes the form [T(u ) , B]  [T : B][u , B] .

Example 1 : Let T : R 3  R 2 be a linear transformation defined by T( x, y , z )  (2 x  y , 2 y  x) .

Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered basis B1  {(1,1,0), (1,0,1),(0,1,1)} and B2  {(1,1),(1, 1)}

of R3 and R2 respectively. Also verify that [T : B1 ,B 2 ][u, B1 ]  [T(u ), B2 ] .

Solution : To find the matrix [T : B1,B2] , we need to find the images of vectors in B1 and express
them as a linear combination of vectors of B2. We have
T(1,1, 0)  (3,1) 
T(1,0,1)  (2, 1)  ......(1)

T(0,1,1)  (1, 2) 

Now let ( x, y )  R 2 be any vector and let

( x, y )  a (1,1)  b(1, 1)
 ab  x and ab  y
x y x y
Solving a , b
2 2
x y xy
Thus , ( x, y )  (1,1)  (1, 1)
2 2
Using this for vectors in (1) , we get
 18
T(1,1, 0)  (3,1)  2(1,1)  1(1, 1)
1 3
T(1,0,1)  (2, 1)  (1,1)  (1, 1)
2 2
3 1
T(0,1,1)  (1, 2)  (1, 1)  (1, 1)
2 2
The matrix [T : B1 , B2] is transpose of matrix of coefficients in above system , so
 1 3 
2 2 2 
[T : B1, B2] =   ......(2)
1 3 1

 2 2 
Verification : Let u  ( x, y , z )  R 3 be any vector and let
u  ( x, y , z )  a (1,1,0)  b(1,0,1)  c (0,1,1)
 ab  x
ac  y
bc  z
On solving we get
1 1 1
a  ( x  y  z ), b  ( x  y  z ) , c  ( y  z  x )
2 2 2
[u , B1] is column matrix of these coefficients a, b, c so

 x  y  z
1
[u , B1 ]  x  y  z  ......(3)
2 
 y  z  x 

Now , T(u )  T( x, y, z)  (2 x  y, 2 y  x)
Let T(u )  (2 x  y, 2 y  x)   (1,1)   (1, 1)
     2x  y
    2y  x
1 1
Solving ,   ( x  3 y ) ,   (3x  y )
2 2
[T(u ), B2 ] is the column matrix of these coefficients  and 

1 x  3y
So , [T(u ), B2 ] = ......(4)
2 3x  y 
Now ,
 1 3  x  y  z
2 2 2 . 1 x  y  z
[T : B1 , B2 ][u , B1 ] =   [By (2) and (3)]
1 3 1 2  
  y  z  x 
 2 2 
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 1 3 
2( x  y  z )  ( x  y  z )  ( y  z  x) 
1 2 2
=  
2 3 1
( x  y  z )  ( x  y  z )  ( y  z  x) 
 2 2 

1 x  3y
=  [T(u ), B2 ] [By(4)]
2 3x  y 

Thus , [T : B1 , B2 ] [u , B1 ]  [T(u ), B2 ] is verified.

Example 2 : Let T : R 3  R 2 be a linear transformation whose matrix relative to the ordered bases
1 1 2 
B = {(1,1,1),(1, 2,3),(1,0, 0)} and B = {(1,1),(1, 1)} is  .
3 1 0 
Without determining the defining formula for T , find the image of the vector (1,0, 4) under T.
Solution : We are given
1 1 2 
[T : B , B]   
3 1 0 
Let u  (1,0, 4) and let
u  (1, 0, 4)  a (1,1,1)  b(1, 2,3)  c(1,0,0)
 a  b  c  1 ; a  2b  0 ; a  3b  4
Solving , b  4 , a  8 , c =  3
[u , B] is column matrix of these coefficients , so
a   8 
[u , B]   b    4 
   
 c   3

Now , we know the formula

8
1 1 2    6 
[T(u ), B]  [T : B , B][u , B] =    4  =  
3 1 0     20 
 3
Tu   61 1  201  1   26 14 
 20

Exercise 8.4
1. Let T : 3   3 be a linear operator defined as T( x1 , x2 , x3 )=(2 x2  x3 , x1  4x2 , 3x1 ) .

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)} and then verify that
[T , B] [u , B] = [T(u) , B] for all u   3 .
2. Let T : 3   2 be a linear transformation defined by T( x, y , z )=(2 x  y  z, 3x  2 y  4 z ) .
Find the matrix of T relative to ordered basis B1 = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)} of R3 and
B2 = {(1 , 3) , (1 , 4)} of  2 . Also verify that : [T : B1 , B2] [u , B1] = [T(u) , B2]
3. Let T be a linear operator on R2 whose matrix relative to the basis B={(1,1) , ( 1 , 0)} is
 3 2 
1 2  .Without finding the defining formula for T,find the image of the vector (0, 2) under T.
 

Answers
3 3 3
 3 11 5 
1.  6 6 2 
 2.   3. (4 , 2)
 6 5 1  1 8 3
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8.5 Change - of - basis

Def . Change - of - basis or Transition matrix : Let V be a vector space of dimension n and
B1  {u1 , u2 ,..........., un } and B2  {v1 , v2 ,..........., vn } be its two bases. Then each vectors in B2

can be written uniquely as a linear combination of the vectors in B1 , so let

v1  a11u1  a12u2  .........  a1nun
v2  a21u1  a22u2  .........  a2 nun

vn  an1u1  an 2u2  .........  annun
Let P denotes the transpose of the matrix of coefficients in above system
 a11 a21  an1 
a a22  an2 
P= 
12
i.e.
     
 
 a1n a2 n  ann 

This matrix P is called the change -of - basis matrix or transition matrix from the basis B1 to B2. Since
the vectors v1 , v2 ,..........., vn are linearly independent , the matrix P is invertible and its inverse P 1

is called change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.

Results :
1. Let V be a vector space of dimension n and B1  {u1 , u2 ,...., un } and B2  {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } be its two

bases. Let P be the change-of-basis matrix from B1 to B2. Then for any vector v V , we have
P[v, B2 ]  [v, B1 ] and [v, B2 ]  P 1[v, B1 ] .

Remark : The above theorem can be easily remembered, if written in words, as follows.
 Co - ordinate vector   Transition matrix  Co - ordinate vector 
   
 of u in B1   from B1 to B2  of u in B2 
and
 Co - ordinate vector   Inverse of transition  Co - ordinate vector 
   
 of v in B2   matrix from B1 to B2  of u in B1 
2. Let P be the transition matrix from the basis B1 = {ui } to the basis B2 = vi  in a vector space V.

Then for any linear operator T on V , [T , B2] = P 1 [T , B1] P.

 22
OR
Let T : V  V be a linear operator. Then matrices of T relative to any two ordered basis of V are
always similar.
Def. Determinant of a linear operator : Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and T : V  V
be a linear operator. Then det [T] is defined to be determinant of matrix of T relative to any ordered
basis of V.
Def. Similar linear operators : Two linear operators T1 and T2 on a vector space V(F) are said to
be similar if there exists a invertible linear operator P s.t. T2 = P 1 T1 P
3. If T1 , T2 are similar linear operators on a finite dimensional vector space V(F) , then
det [T1] = det [T2].
Example 1 : Let B1 denotes the standard basis of R3 and B2 = {(1, 1, 2) ,(2, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}
be another basis of R3. Then
(i) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B1 to B2.
(ii) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.
(iii) Find the co – ordinates vector of (1 , 1 , 1) relative to the basis B2 , using change – of
– basis matrix .
Solution : (i) We have B1  {(1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} and B2 = {(1, 1,2) , (2,2,1) , (1,2, 2)}.

We express the vector of B2 as the linear combination of vectors of B1. Clearly

(1 , 1 , 2)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  1(0 , 1 , 0)  2(0 , 0 , 1)
(2 , 2 , 1)  2(1 , 0 , 0)  2(0 , 1 , 0)  1(0 , 0 , 1)
(1 , 2 , 2)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  2(0 , 1 , 0)  2(0 , 0 , 1)

Change – of – basis matrix P from B1 to B2 is the transpose of the matrix of coefficients in above

1 2 1
system i.e. P =  1 2 2 
 2 1 2 

(ii) Change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1 is just P 1 so let us find it.

P  243 3

 2 2 3  2 3 2 
adj P =  3 0 3    2 0 1
   
 2 1 0   3 3 0 

 2 3 2 
adj P 1 
So , 1
P   2 0 1
P 3  
 3 3 0 
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Page 23

which is the required change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.

(iii) Let u  (1 , 1 , 1) then clearly
u  (1 , 1 , 1)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  1(0 , 1 , 0)  1(0 , 0 , 1)

1
i.e. coordinate vector of u in the basis B1 is [u , B1] = 1
1

To find [u , B2] we know that

 2 3 2  1 1  1 3
1    1 
1
[u , B2 ]  P [u , B1 ] = 2 0 1 1 = 1 = 1 3
3   3 
 3 3 0  1 0   0 

Exercise 8.5
1. Let B1 denotes the standard basis of R3 and B2 = {(1 , 0 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 2) , (1 , 2 , 2)}
be another basis of  3 . Then
(i) Find the change-of-basis matrix from B1 to B2
(ii) Find the change-of-basis matrix from B2 to B1
(iii)Find the coordinate vector of (1, 0, 3) relative to the basis B2 , using change of basis matrix.
2. Let B1 = {(1 ,  2) , (3 ,  4)} and B2 = {(1 , 3) , (3 , 8)} be two bases of R2. Then
(i) Find the change-of-basis matrix P from B1 to B2.
(ii) Find the change-of-basis matrix Q from B2 to B1
(iii) Find the coordinate vector [v , B1] of v  ( x , y ) relative to B1
(iv) Find the coordinate vector [v , B2] of v  ( x , y ) by using change-of-basis matrix.
(v) Directly find the coordinate vector [v , B2] of v  ( x , y ) .
(vi) Compare the answers of (iv) and (v). Are they equal ?
3. Let T :  2   2 be a linear operator defined by T(x, y )=(5 x  y,3x  2 y ) and let B1 = {(1,2),(2,3)}
and B2 = {(1 , 3) , (1 , 4)} be two ordered basis of T
(i) Find the matrix of T relative to basis B1.
(ii) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B1 to B2.
(iii) Find the matrix of T relative to basis B2 , using part (i) and (ii).
(iv) Directly find the matrix of T relative to the basis B2.
 24
(v) Compare the answers of part (iii) and part (iv). Are they same ?
1 1  1 2 
4. Let A    and P   .
 2 3 3 5 
(i) Find B  P 1 AP (ii) Verify that tr  B   tr  A  (iii) Verify that det  B   det  A  .

5. Find the trace and determinant of each of the following linear maps on  3 :
(i) F  x, y , z    x  3 y, 3 x  2 z , x  4 y  3 z 

(ii) G  x, y, z    y  3z , 2 x  4 z , 5 x  7 y 

6. Suppose S  u1 , u2  is a basis of V and T : V  V is defined by T  u1   3u1  2u2 and

T  u2   u1  4u2 . Suppose S '  w1 , w2  is a basis of V for which w1  u1  u2 and

w2  2u1  3u2 .
(i) Find the matrices A and B representing T relative to the bases S and S ' respectively.
(ii) Find the matrix P such that B  P 1 AP .

Answers
1 2 1  2 2 3  7
1. (i)  0 1 2 (ii)  2 1 2  (iii)  4 
 1 2 2  1 0 1   2 

 13   3 
  2 18  14 36   2 x  2 y 
2. (i) P =   (ii) Q =  (iii)  
 5  5 13   x y 
7 
 2   2 

 8 x  3 y   8 x  3 y 
(iv)   (v)   (vi) yes.
 3x  y   3x  y 
 23 39  3 5  35 41 
3. (i)  (ii)  (iii) 
 15 26  
 1 2 

 27 32 
 35 41 
(iv)   (v) yes.
 27 32 
4. (i) [–34, 57; –19, 32] (ii) tr(B)=tr(A)= –2 (iii) det  B   det  A   5

5. (i) tr  F   2, det  F   13 (ii) tr(G) = 0, det  G   22

6. (i) A  [3, 1; –2, 4], B  [8, 11; –2, –1] (ii) P  [1, 2; 1,3]
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True false exercise
1. The kernel of the linear map
T  x   2 x1  3x2 consists of all scalar
multiples of the vector (3,2). (T maps  2
into  .)
2. A linear transformation is one to one (or
injective) if and only if its kernel is
different from {0}.
3. Let T be the transformation defined by
 1 3
T  x   Ax, where A   2 2 
 
 1 4 
1
The image of the vector w    under the
3
10 
transformation T is  8 
11
1 3 7 
4. Let T  x   Ax , where A  0 5 9 
0 0 23
The 0-vector in 3 is the image of one and
only one vector in 3 .
5. If a linear transformation x  Ax is
injective, then the kernel of A (null space of
A) contains some nonzero vectors.
6. The kernel of a linear map is never the
empty set.
7. Define a transformation T by the equation
Page 1
2 1 
x 
T  x    3 2   1 
  x
 1 4   2 
 3
The image of the vector   by the
 2
8
transformation T is  
5
8. Define a linear transformation L from  2
1 2 
x 
to  by L  x    1 1  1 
3
x
 2 0   2 
The range of L can be described as the set
 a  2b 
of vectors having the form  a  b 
 2a 
(Here a and b are free parameters.)
9. If L is a linear transformation from  n into
 m , then the range of L is  m .
10. A linear transformation is onto (or
surjective)if and only if its kernel is 0 .
11. If the rows of a matrix form a linearly
independent set, then the kernel (or null
space) of that matrix consists of 0 only.
12. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly
independent set, then the kernel (or null
space) of that matrix consists of 0 only.
13. If L :U  V is a linear transformation
defined on a vector space U and taking
values in a vector space V, then the set of
all images L  x  : x  U  is a subspace of V.
 2
14. If T is a linear transformation from one 24. If the kernel of an m  n matrix A contains
vector space V into another vector space W, only the vector 0, then the rank of A is m.
then the range of T is a subspace of V.  x1 
1 3 0  
15. Every subspace in  n is the kernel of 25. Define T  x      x2 
2 1 4  
some matrix.  x3 
T
16. The vector 1, 3, 2, 1 is in the null 10 
Then   is in the range of T.
13
1 2 1 9 
space of the matrix  .
 4 3 1 16 
Assignment
2
------------------------ S C Q ------------------------
17. The point  3  is in the null space of the
 1
1. Let T : R 3  R3 be defined by
1 2 8 
matrix  3 4 18 . T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0) and S : R 2  R 2 be
 0 1 3  defined by S ( x, y )  (2 x,3 y ) be linear

18. The rank of a matrix A is the dimension of
the null space of A.
19. If a matrix A has m rows, then the rank of A
is m minus the dimension of the null space
of A.
20. The null space of a matrix A is the range of
the linear transformation x  Ax .
21. The vector (3, 7, –2) is in the null space of
the matrix  3,  1,1 .
transformations on the real vector spaces
R 3 and R 2 respectively. Then, which of the
following is correct?
1. T and S are both singular.
2. T and S are both non-singular.
3. T is singular and S is non-singular.
4. S is singular and T is non-singular.
2. Consider the vector space C over R and let
T : C  C be a linear transformation given

1 3 5 3 by T ( z )  z . Then which one of the

22. Let A    . A basis for the
 2 1 3 1  following is correct?
null space of A is this set of vectors : 1. T is one-one, but not onto.

  2   0  2. T is onto, but not one-one.

     3. T is one-one as well as onto.
  1  1  
 , 
 1  0  4. T is neither one-one nor onto.
 0  1   3. Let T be a linear transformation from a 3
23. There exists a linear transformation whose dimensional vector space V into a
kernel (null space) has dimension seven, 2-dimensional vector space W . Then, T
whose range has dimension nine, and 1. can be both injective and surjective
whose domain has dimension sixteen. 2. can neither injective nor surjective
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3. can be surjective but cannot be injective 7. Let T : R n  R m be a linear transformation

4. can be injective but cannot be surjective and Amn be its matrix representation. Then,
4. The transformation
choose the incorrect statement
3 2
( x, y , z )  ( x  y, y  z ) : R  R is 1. columns of A are LI  T is onto
1. linear and has zero kernel 2. columns of A span R m  T is onto
2. linear and has proper subspace as kernel 3. columns of A are LI  T is one-one
3. neither linear nor one-one 4. T is one-one  columns of A are LI
4. neither linear nor onto 8. If T is a linear transformation from a vector
n m
5. Let T : R  R be a linear transformation space V into a vector space W , then the
and let A be the standard matrix for T ,
condition for T 1 to be a linear
then select the correct statement transformation from W to V is
n m
(I) T maps R onto R if and only if the 1. T should be one-one
m
columns of A span R . 2. T should not onto
(II) T is one-one iff the columns of A are 3. T should be one-one and onto
linearly dependent. 4. None of the above
(III) T is one-one iff the equation 9. Let T : V  V be the linear transformation
T ( x)  0 has only the trivial solution. and V is the vector space of all
1. Only(I) and (II) polynomials such as T [ f (t )]  tf (t ), where
2. Only (I) and (III) f (t ) is a polynomial. Then,
3. Only (II) and (III) 1. T is singular
4. (I), (II) and (III) 2. T is non-singular
6. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on 3. T is onto
R 3 defined by 4. None of these
T1 ( x, y, z )  ( x, x  y , x  y  z ), 10. Let T : V  V be the linear transformation
and V is the vector space of all
T2 ( x, y , z )  ( x  2 z , y  z , x  y  z ) . Then,
dn f
1. T1 is invertible but not T2 polynomials such as T [ f (t )]  (where
dt n
2. T2 is invertible but not T1
n  0 ), then
3. both T1 and T2 are invertible
4. neither T1 nor T2 is invertible 1. T is singular 2. T is non-singular
(GATE 2005) 3. T is one-one 4. None of these
 4
11. Let T : V  V be a non-singular linear 1. T is one-one
transformation, then 2. T is isomorphism and rank of T =2
1. dimV  dim(Im T ) 3. T is not one-one and rank of T is 1
2. dimV  dim(Im T ) 4. Not a linear transformation

3. dimV  dim(Im T ) 16. Let T and S be two linear transformation

such that
4. None of these
12. Let T : V  U be the linear transformation
such that maps independent sets into 1 0 0 .... 0 
0 2 0 .... 0 
independent sets, then 
  0
T  0 3 .... 0  and
1. T is singular 2. T is non-singular  
    
3. det T  0 4. None of these 0 0 0  n  nn
13. Let V ,W and X be three finite dimensional
0 0 0 .... 0 
vector spaces such that dim V  dim X . 0 1 0 .... 0 

Suppose, S : V  W and T : W  X are  S   0 0 2 .... 0 
 
two linear maps such that T  S : V  X is      
0 0 0 .... n  1 nn
injective, then
Then
1. S and T are surjective
1. T and S both are invertible
2. S is surjective and T is injective
2. T and S both are not invertible
3. S and T are injective
3. T is invertible but S is not invertible
4. S is injective and T is surjective
4. S is invertible but T is not invertible
(GATE 2005)
14. Let the linear transformations S and 17. Let T : R n  R n and T (v)  0 for some

T : R 3  R3 be defined by v  0, v  R n , then there exist a matrix A of

S ( x, y, z )  (2 x, 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y  z ) order n such that
T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z ) 1. Tx  Ax and A is non-singular
 2. Tx  Ax and A is singular
where 0    , then
2
3. ker (T )  {0}
1. S is one to one but not T .
4. None of the above
2. T is one to one but not S .
18. Let A : R6  R5 and B : R5  R7 be two
3. both S and T are one to one.
linear transformations. Then, which of the
4. neither S nor T is one to one.
following can be true?
(GATE 2006)
1. A and B are one-one
15. Let T be a linear transformation such that
2. A is one-one and B is not one-one
T (1,1)  (1,0) and T (5,5)  (0,1). Then,
3. A is onto and B is one-one
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4. A and B both are onto 23. Let T : R 3  R3 be a linear transformation

19. Consider the linear given by T ( x, y , z )  ( x, y, 0). Then the
map D : C (  ) (a, b), where null space is generated by which one of the
C ( ) (a, b), is the set of all real-valued following?
continuously differential functions, defined 1. (0,0,1) 2. (0,1,0)
by D ( f )  f , then 3. (1,0,0) 4. None of these
1. D is one-one and onto 24. Let T : R 3  R3 be a linear transformation
2. D is one-one but not onto x y 
given by T ( x, y, z )   , ,0  . What is
3. D is onto but not one-one 2 2 
4. D is neither one-one nor onto the rank of T ?
20. Consider, the linear transformation 1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
T : R 4  R 4 is given by 25. Let T : R 2  R 2 be a map defined by
T ( x, y, z, u )  ( x, y,0,0) . Then, which one of T ( x, y )  ( x  y, x  y ) .Which of the
the following is correct? following statement is correct?
1. Rankof T  Nullity of T 1. T is linear an its kernel has infinite
2. Nullity of T  Rank of T number of element of R 2 .
3. Rank of T  Nullity of T  3 2. T is not linear.
4. Rank of T  Nullity of T  2 3. The kernel of T consists of only two
21. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 matrix element of R 2 .
over the field R of real numbers 4. Nullity of T is zero.
1 2  26. Define T on  4 into  3 by
and B    . If T : V  V is a linear
0 3  T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  ( x1  x2  x3 ,
transformation defined by
x2  x3  x4 , x3  x4  x2 )
T ( A)  AB  BA, then what is the
Then, rank of T is equal to
dimension of the kernel of T ?
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
27. Consider the following linear
22. What is the rank of the linear
transformation from the vector space
transformation T : R 3  R3 defined by
 2 into the vector space  3
T ( x, y, z )  ( y ,0, z) ?
T ( x, y )  ( x  y,3x  8 y,9 x  11 y )
1. 3 2. 2 3. 1 4. 0
 6
Then, the rank and nullity of T are 3.  5 4.  6
respectively 34. Let a matrix Amn represents a linear
1. 2 and 0 2. 1 and 0 mapping T : Vn  Vm . Then range of T is
3. 1 and 1 4. None of these
generated by
28. Let V be a vector space of 2  2 matrices
1. Rows of A
over R . Let T be the linear mapping
2. Columns of A
T : V  V , such that
3. Both 1 and 2
 2 1 4. None of these
T ( A)  AB  BA, B    , then the
 0 3 35. For a linear transformation
nullity of T is
T : R12  R 6 , the kernel is having
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
dimension 7. Then the dimension of the
29. For a linear transformation T : R10  R 6 ,
range of T is
the kernel is having dimension 5. Then, the 1. 5 2. 6 3. 4 4. 2
dimension of the range of T is 36. Let T be a linear transformation from a
1. 5 2. 6 3. 4 4. 2 vector space U(F) into a vector space
30. If T : V2 ( R)  V3 ( R) defined as V ( F ) with U as finite dimensional. The
T (a, b)  (a  b, a  b, b) is a linear rank of T is the dimension of the
transformation, then nullity of T is 1. range of T
1. 0 2. 1 2. null space of T
3. 2 4. None of these 3. vector space U
1 2  4. vector space V
31. Let M    and T : V  V be the
0 0 37. Let T : R 3  R3 be the linear transformation
linear map defined by T ( A)  AM where which rotates a vector space about the z-
V be the vector space of all 2  2 real axis through an angle  ,
matrices. Then, rank and nullity of T T ( x, y , z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin 
respectively  y cos , z ). Then, the kernel of T is
1. 1,3 2. 3,1 1. {0} 2. {( x,0, 0) : x  R}
3. 2,2 4. 4,0
3. {(0, y ,0) : y  R} 4. {(0, 0, z ) : z  R}
32. T is non-singular iff
38. Let T : R 3  R3 be the linear transformation
1. nullity T  0 2. nullity (T )  0
defined by T ( x, y, z)  ( x  2 y  z, y  z, x  2 z ).
3. nullity T = rank T 4. rank T = 0
Then, the dimension of the image U of
33. Let T : R 7  R 7 be a linear transformation
T is
2
such that T  0. Then, the rank of T is
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
1.  3 2.  3
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39. Let T : R 3  R3 be the linear transformation 42. Let T : R 3  R3 be the linear transformation
defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y  z , y  z , x  2 z ) . defined by T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1  3 x2  2 x3 ,
Then, the dimension of the kernel of T is 3 x1  4 x2  x3 , 2 x1  x2  x3 ) .The dimension
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
of the null space of T 2 is
40. Choose the correct matching from a, b, c
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
and d for the transformation T1 ,T2 and
(GATE 2009)
2 3
T3 (mappings from R to R ) as defined in 43. Let V be the space of all n  n matrices
group I with the statements given in group and T : V  V be a linear operator defined
II. A  AT
by T ( A)  , then nullity of T is
2
Group I Group II n2
1. 2n 2.
P. T1 ( x, y )  ( x, x, 0) 1. L.T. of 2

rank 2 n(n  1) n(n  1)

Q. T2 ( x, y )  ( x, x  y , y ) 3. 4.
2 2
2. Not a L.T.
R. T3 ( x, y )  ( x, x  1, y ) 44. Let V be the space of all n  n matrices and
3. L.T. rank
T : V  V be a linear operator defined by
1
A  AT
T ( A)  , then nullity of T is
2
1. P  3, Q  1, R  2
n2
2. P  1, Q  2, R3 1. 2n 2.
2
3. P  3, Q  2, R1
n(n  1) n(n  1)
3. 4.
4. P  1, Q  3, R2 2 2
(GATE 2003) 45. Let T be an arbitrary linear transformation
41. Let V be the real vector space of all 2  2 from R n to R n which is not one-one.
 1 2  Then,
real matrices. For Q    , define a
 2 4  1. rank T  0 2. rank T  n
linear transformation T on V as 3. rank T  n 4. rank
T ( P)  QP . Then the rank of T is T  n 1
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 (GATE 2003)
(GATE 2004)
 8

46. If T : R 4  R3 be the linear transformation 50. Let T :  4   4 be the linear map

defined by T ( x, y , z, w)  satisfying T  e1   e2 , T  e2   e3 , T  e3   0,
( x  y  z  w, x  2 z  w, x  y  3 z  3w) T  e4   e3 , where e1 , e2 , e3 , e4  is the
then, the dimension of its range is
standard basis of  4 . Then,
1. 3 2. 2 3. 1 4. 0
1. T is idempotent 2. T is invertible
47. Let V be the l2 space of infinite sequences
3. Rank T = 3 4. T is nilpotent
v  (a1 , a2 ,...) of real number ai such that (GATE 2008)

a 2
i is convergent, if T be a map defined 51. For any n  , let n  , Pn denotes the

as T (a1 , a2 ,...)  (0, a1 , a2 ,...). Then, select vector space of all polynomials with real

the correct statement/statements. coefficients and of degree atmost n. Define

I. T is linear T : Pn  Pn1 by
x
II. T is one-one
T  p  x   p  x    p (t ) dt . Then, the
III. T is onto 0

1. (I) and (II) only dimension of the null space of T is

2. (I) and (III) only 1. 0 2. 1
3. Only (I) 3. n 4. n+1
4. (I), (II) and (III) (GATE 2008)
48. Let the linear transformation T : F 2  F 3 52. Let n be a positive integer and let M n   
be defined by T  x1 , x2    x1 , x1  x2 , x2  . denote the space of all n  n real matrices.
Then, the nullity of T is If T : M n     M n    is a linear
1. 0 2. 1
transformation such that T  A   0
3. 2 4. 3
whenever A  M n    is symmetric or
(GATE 2012)
49. Let T : 3   3 be the linear skewsymmetric, then the rank of T is

transformation defined by n  n  1 n  n  1
1. 2.
2 2
T  x1 , x2 , x3   ( x1  3 x2  2 x3 ,
3. n 4. 0
3 x1  4 x2  x3 , 2 x1  x2  x3 ) .
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
3
The dimension of the null space of T is 53. Let S :  3   4 and T :  4   3 be linear
1. 0 2. 1
transformations such that T  S is the
3. 2 4. 3
identity map of  3 . Then
(GATE 2009)
1. S  T is the identity map of  4
2. S  T is oneone, but not onto
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3. S  T is onto, but not oneone 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 
4. S  T is neither oneone nor onto 4. A  
0 0 * *
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)  
0 0 * *
54. Let T :  n   n be a linear transformation.
(CSIR NET June 2015)
Which of the following statements implies
56. Let T be a 4  4 real matrix such that
that T is bijective ?
T 4  0 . Let ki :  dim KerT i for 1  i  4 .
1. Nullity (T)=n
Which of the following is NOT a
2. Rank(T)=Nullity (T)=n
possibility for the sequence
3. Rank(T)+Nullity(T)=n
4. Rank(T)–Nullity(T)=n k1  k2  k3  k4 ?

(CSIR NET June 2013) 1. 3  4  4  4

55. Given a 4  4 real matrix A, let T :  4   4 2. 1  3  4  4

be the linear transformation defined by 3. 2  4  4  4

4. 2  3  4  4
Tv  Av , where we think of  4 as the set
(CSIR NET June 2015)
of real 4  1 matrices. For which choices of
57. Let V be the space of twice differentiable
A given below, do Image(T) and
functions on  satisfying
Image(T 2 ) have respective dimensions 2
f   2 f   f  0 . Define T :V   2 by
and 1 ? (* denotes a nonzero entry)
T  f   ( f (0), f (0)) .
0 0 * *
0 0 * * Then T is
1. A  
0 0 0 * 1. one to one and onto.
 
0 0 0 0 2. one to one but not onto.
0 0 * 0 3. onto but not one to one.
0 0 * 0 4. neither one to one nor onto.
2. A  
0 0 0 *
  (CSIR NET June 2015)
0 0 0 *
58. For a positive integer n, let Pn denote the
0 0 0 0
0 vector space of polynomials in one variable
0 0 0 
3. A   x with real coefficients and with degree
0 0 0 *
   n . Consider the map T : P2  P4 defined
0 0 * 0
by T  p  x    p  x 2  . Then
 10
1. T is a linear transformation and dim Tp  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ....   1
n
an x n .
range(T)=5
Then which of the following are correct ?
2. T is a linear transformation and dim
1. T is one to one 2. T is onto
range  T   3 3. T is invertible 4. det T  0
3. T is a linear transformation and dim (CSIR NET June 2014)
range  T   2 4. Let M n  K  denote the space of all n  n
4. T is not a linear transformation matrices with entries in a field K. Fix a non
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) singular matrix A   Aij   M n  K  , and

consider the linear map

----------------------- M C Q ---------------------
T : M n  K   M n  K  given by T(X)=AX.
1. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on R 2
Then
s.t T1 ( x, y )  (0, x) and T2 ( x, y )  ( y,0),
n
1. trace(T)= n i 1 Aii
then
n n
1. T22  T12  0 2
1 2 )  T1T2
2. (TT 2. trace(T)=  i1  j 1 Aij

3. T1  T2 is invertible 1 2)  0
4. (TT 3. rank of T is n2
2. Let n be a positive integer and V be an 4. T is non singular

(n+1)  dimensional vector space over . (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

5. Consider non-zero vector spaces
If e1 , e2 ,...., en1 is a basis of V and V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,V4 and linear transformations
T : V  V is the linear transformation 1 :V1  V2 , 2 :V2  V3 , 3 :V3  V4 such
satisfying T  ei   ei 1 for i 1, 2,...., n and
that Ker 1   0 , Range 1   Ker 2  ,
T  en1   0 . Then
Range 2   Ker 3  , Range 3   V4 .
1. trace of T is nonzero
Then
2. rank of T is n 4
i
3. nullity of T is 1 1.   1 dimV  0
i 1
i

4. T n  T  T   T (n times) is the zero 4

i

map
2.   1 dimV  0
i2
i

(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 4

i

3. Let V be the vector space of polynomials

3.   1 dimV  0
i 1
i

over  of degree less than or equal to n. 4

i
4.   1 dimV  0
i 1
i

For p  x   a0  a1 x  ....  an x n in V, define

(CSIR NET June 2015)
a linear transformation T : V  V by
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6. Let V be the vector space of polynomials 9. Let V be the vector space over  of all
over  of degree less than or equal to n. polynomials in a variable X of degree at
For p  x   a0  a1 x  ....  an x n in V, define most 3. Let D : V  V be the linear

a linear transformation T :V  V by operator given by differentiation with

respect to X. Let A be the matrix of D with
Tp  x   an  an1x  ....  a0 x n . Then
respect to some basis for V. Which of the
1. T is one to one 2. T is onto
following are true ?
3. T is invertible 4. det T  1
1. A is a nilpotent matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
2. A is a diagonalizable matrix
7. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space
3. the rank of A is 2
over  . Let T :V  V be a linear
4. the Jordan canonical form of A is
transformation such that
0 1 0 0
rank  T 0 0 
2
  rank T  . Then  0 1
0 0 0 1
1. Kernel T 2   Kernel(T)  
0 0 0 0
2. Range T 2   Range(T) (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
3. Kernel (T)  Range(T)={0}
4. Kernel T 2   Range T 2   0

(CSIR NET Dec 2015)

8. Let V be the vector space of all complex
polynomials p with deg p  n . Let
T :V  V be the map

Tp  x   p ' 1 , x   . Which of the

following are correct ?
1. dim Ker T  n
2. dim range T  1
3. dim KerT  1
4. dim range T  n  1
(CSIR NET June 2016)
 12

True false key

1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. F 8. T
9. F 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. T 14. F 15. T 16. F
17. T 18. F 19. F 20. F
21. T 22. T 23. T 24. F
25. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 2
5. 2 6. 1 7. 1 8. 3
9. 2 10. 1 11. 1 12. 2
13. 4 14. 3 15. 4 16. 3
17. 2 18. 3 19. 3 20. 4
21. 2 22. 2 23. 1 24. 3
25. 4 26. 2 27. 1 28. 2
29. 1 30. 1 31. 3 32. 2
33. 1 34. 2 35. 1 36. 1
37. 1 38. 4 39. 1 40. 1
41. 2 42. 2 43. 3 44. 4
45. 3 46. 2 47. 1 48. 1
49. 2 50. 4 51. 1 52. 4
53. 4 54. 4 55. 1,2 56. 2
57. 1 58. 2

MCQ
1. 1,2,3,4 2. 2,3 3. 1,2,3
4. 1,3,4 5. 1,2 6. 1,2,3,4
7. 1,2,3,4 8. 1,2 9. 1,4
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Chapter - 9
Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
9.1 Definition and examples
Def. Eigen values and eigen vectors of a linear operator : Let T be a linear operator on a vector
space V(F). If there exists a non zero vector v  V such that T  v    v for some   F , then v is called

an eigen vector of T corresponding to  and  is called an eigen value of T corresponding to v .

Remark : Eigen vector is also called characteristic vector and eigen value is also called characteristic
value (root).
Def. Eigen values and eigen vectors of a matrix : Let A be a square matrix of order n over a field F.
If there exists a non – zero column vector X  F n such that AX =  X for some   F , then X is
called an eigen vector of A corresponding to  and  is called an eigen value of A corresponding
to X .
 1 3 3 
Example 1 : Let A   3 5 3  , which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A.
 6 6 4 

1 1  2
(i) v1   1  (ii) v2  1  (iii) v3  1 
 0   2  1 

 1 3 3  1   2  1 
Solution : (i) Av1   3 5 3  1    2   2 1   2v1
 6 6 4   0   0   0

 v1 is an eigen vector of A with eigen value –2.

1 3 3   1   4  1
(ii) Av2   3 5 3   1    4   4  1   4v2
6 6 4   2  8   2

 v2 is an eigen vector of A with eigen value 4.

1 3 3   2   2 
(iii) Av3   3 5 3  1    4    v3 for any    .
6 6 4  1  10 
 2

 v3 is not an eigen vector of A.

Exercise 9.1
 2 1 2 
1. Let A   2 3 4  , which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A.
 1 1 1

1 2 1 
(i) v1   1 (ii) v2   0  (iii) v3   2  (iv) v1  v2 (v) v2  v3
    (vi) v1  v3
 0  1  1 

2. True or false : Sum of two eigen vectors of a matrix is again an eigen vector.
3. Let T :  3  3 be a linear operator defined by T ( x, y , z )  (3x  y  z, 7 x  5 y  z, 6 x  6 y  2 z )
then which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of T ?
(i) v1  (1,1, 0) (ii) v2  (0, 4, 4) (iii) v3  (1, 0, 2)

(iv) v1  v2 (v) v2  v3 (vi) v1  v3

 1 1
4. Let A    , then which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A
 2 1
 1   1  1  0  1
(i) v1    (ii) v2    (iii) v3    (iv) v4    (v) v5   
1  i  1  i  0  1  1
1   i  1 1 0 
5. Show that  0  and  1  i  are eigen vectors of the matrix
   0 1 1  but their sum is
 
 0   2   0 2 1

not an eigen vector.

6. If A and B are similar matrices such that B = P 1AP and if X is an eigen vector of A
corresponding to eigen value  , then prove that P 1 X is an eigen vector of B
corresponding to eigen value  .
 a 1 0   0
 1 a 1   0
 
7. If A is a n  n matrix given by A =  0 1 a   0  i.e. A is a matrix in
 
    a 1 
 0 0 0  1 a 

which diagonal elements are a and entries above and below the diagonal are 1 and zero ; elsewhere
 ij 
then show that the column matrices Xi (i  1 , 2 ,........., n) with j th entry sin  
 n 1
are eigen vectors of A. Also find the corresponding eigen values of A.
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C D C D
[Hint : Use the formulae sin 2 A  2sin A cos A and sin C  sin D  2sin   cos  ]
 2   2 

Answers
1. (i) , (ii), (iii), (iv) 2. False 3. (i), (ii) 4. (i), (ii)
 i 
7. a  2cos   are the eigen values.
 n 1 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.2 Evaluation of eigen values and eigen vectors

Part I
Result 1 : Let T : V(F)  V(F) be a linear transformation, then   F is an eigen value of T iff
T   I is singular.
Result 2 : Let A be a n  n matrix over a field F. Then   F is eigen value of A iff A   I is
singular i.e A   I  0 .

Def. Characteristic polynomial : Let A be a n  n matrix over a field F. The function f ( ) = A   I

is a polynomial in  of degree n. This polynomial is called characteristic polynomial of A.

Def. Characteristic equation : Characteristic equation of a matrix A is given by A   I  0 or

I  A 0 .
Result 3 : Roots of characteristic equation of a matrix are the eigen values of that matrix.
Result 4 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If A is the matrix of
T with respect to any ordered basis B , then a scalar   F is an eigen value of T iff  is an eigen
value of A .
Result 5 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If A is the matrix of
T with respect to some ordered basis B of V , then a vector v  V is an eigen vector of T
corresponding to the eigen value  iff its coordinate vector X relative to the basis B is an eigen
vector of A corresponding to its eigen value  .
Result 6 : We know that the coordinate vector of a vector in the standard basis is equal to itself . So
by above result we can say that if we are working in the standard basis then a vector is eigen vector
of T if and only if it is eigen vector of A , where A is the matrix of T relative to the standard basis .
 4
Result 7 : It is clear that, to find the eigen values and eigen vectors of a linear operator T we just have
to find out the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix of T relative to standard basis .

Part II
Result 1 : Corresponding to a characteristic vector of a linear operator , there exists one and only one
characteristic value.
Result 2 : Corresponding to a characteristic root of a linear operator there exists more than one
characteristic vectors. In fact every non zero scalar multiple of a characteristic vector is also a
characteristic vector.
Remark : All eigen vectors together with zero vector form a subspace of V called eigen space. Let us
define it formally.
Def. Eigen Space : Let  be an eigen value of a linear operator T then the eigen space with respect to
 is denoted by E and is given by E  v : T(v)   v .
Result 3 : Let T be a linear operator on V(F). If  is an eigen value of T, then the eigen space of 
i.e. E  is a subspace of V(F).
Def. Algebraic multiplicity of an eigen value is the number of times it appears as the root of the
characteristic equation.
Def. Geometric multiplicity of an eigen value is defined to be the dimension of its eigen space.
Result 4 : 1  G.M.  A.M. for each eigen value.
Remark : (i) If A.M. of an eigen value is 1, then clearly its G.M. is also 1.
(ii) If A.M. is 2, then G.M. is 1 or 2
(iii) If A.M. is 3, then G.M. = 1 or 2 or 3
Result 5 :
(i) For a 2  2 matrix A, the characteristic equation is  2   trA    det A  0 .

(ii) For a 3  3 matrix A, characteristic equation is  3   tr A   2   A11  A22  A33    det A  0 ,

where Aii denotes the co-factor of aii .

(iii) For a n  n matrix A, characteristic equation is  n  S1 n1  S 2 n2  ......  (1)n S n  0 ,

where S k is the sum of the principal minors of order k.

Result 6 : Let A be any square matrix of order n such that   A   r , then at least n  r eigen values

are zero.
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Result 7 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). Let
1 , 2 ,......., n be distinct eigen values of T and v1 , v2 ,......., vn be their corresponding eigen

vectors, then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are linearly independent.

OR
On a finite dimensional vector space , the characteristic vectors corresponding to distinct characteristic
values are always linearly independent.
Result 8 : If  is an eigenvalue of A corresponding to the eigenvector v then k  is eigenvalue of kA.
Corresponding to the same eigen vector v.
Av   v   kA  v   k   v
Result 9 : Every non-zero vector of  n is an eigen vector of a n  n matrix A iff matrix is scalar i.e.,
A  kI for some k   .
Example 1 : Find all the eigen values and a basis of each eigen space of the linear operator
T : R 2  R 2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x  2 y , 3x  2 y ) .
Solution : First of all , let us find matrix representation of T relative to the standard basis
B = {(1 , 0 ) , (0 , 1) } of R2. We know that the matrix of T in the standard basis can be obtained by
just writing in order the coefficients of x , y on the R.H.S. of T (x , y) in the rows . So the matrix A
of T in the standard basis is
1 2 
A =  
3 2 
The characteristic equation of A is given by
1  2
A  I  =0
3 2

 (1   )(2   )  6  0

  2  3  4  0
 (  1)(  4)  0
  =  1 , 4.
Thus  1 and 4 are eigen values of T.
Let us now find the eigen vectors corresponding to these eigen values .
If X is the eigen vector corresponding to eigen value  , then by definition , we have
AX =  X
 6

 (A   I) X = O

1   2   x  0
  3  ......(1)
 2     y   0 
When  =  1 , then by (1) , we get
 2 2  x  0 
 3 3  y   0 
     
 2 x  2 y  0 , 3x  3 y  0
 x  y  0 , where one variable out of x and y is free.

 1
Taking y =  1 , we get x = 1 and so X1 =   is a eigen vector corresponding to  =  1.
 1
When  = 4 , then by (1) , we get
 3 2   x  0 
 3 2   y    0 
     
 3x  2 y  0 , 3x  2 y  0
 3 x  2 y , where one variable out of x and y is free.

 2
Taking y = 3 , we get x = 2 and so X2 =   is a eigen vector corresponding  = 4.
3 

Exercise 9.2
1. For each of the following matrices find all eigen values (real or complex), construct their
A.M.- G.M. table and find a basis for each eigen space.
1 2   2 4 3 13
(i) 3 2  (ii)  1 6  (iii) 1 3 
     

 8 6 2   1 3 3 
 1 1  6 7 4   3 5 3 
(iv)   (v) (vi)
   
 1 1  2 4 3   6 6 4 

0 0 0 1
1 1 0  1
0 1 1  0 0 0 
(vii) (viii) 
  0 1 0 2 
 0 2 1  
0 0 1 0
2. For each of the following linear operators , find all eigen values(real or complex),
construct their A.M.-G.M. table and a basis for each eigen space.
(i) T( x , y )  (3x  3 y , x  5 y ) (ii) T( x , y )  ( y ,  x)
(iii) T( x , y , z)  (3 x  y  z , 7 x  5 y  z , 6 x  6 y  2 z )
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(iv) T( x , y , z)  (4 x  y  z , 2 x  5 y  2 z , x  y  2 z )
3. Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). Then 0 is the
characteristic value of T iff T is singular.
4. Let A be a real matrix of type n  n and  be its real eigen value. Show that there exists
an eigen vector X of A corresponding to eigen value  such that X is also real.
Answers
 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1 {(1,1)}
1. (i) 1 1 1 ;
basis of E4  {(2,3)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
(ii) ; basis of E4 {(2,1)}
4 1 2

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2 i  {(3  2i,1)}
(iii) 2i 1 1 ;
basis of E2i  {(3  2i,1)}
2i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1i  {(1, i)}
(iv) 1  i 1 1 ;
basis of E1i  {(i,1)}
1 i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E 0  {(1, 2, 2)}
0 1 1
(v) ; basis of E3 {(2, 1,  2)}
3 1 1
basis of E15  {(2,  2, 1)}
15 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E 2  {(1, 1, 0),(1, 0, 1)}
(vi) 2 2 2 ;
basis of E4  {(1 , 1 , 2)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1  {(1, 0, 0)}
1 1 1
(vii) ; basis of Ei  {(i,  1  i, 2)}
i 1 1
basis of Ei  {(i, 1  i,  2)}
i 1 1
 8

 G.M. A.M.
basis of Ei  {(1, i,  1, i)}
(viii) i 1 2 ;
basis of E i  {(i, 1,  i, 1)}
i 1 2

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2  {(3 ,  1)}
2. (i) 2 1 1 ;
basis of E6  {(1,1)}
6 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of Ei  {(i , 1)}
(ii) i 1 1 ;
basis of Ei  {(i , 1)}
i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2  {(1, 1, 0)}
(iii) 2 1 2 ;
basis of E4  {(0, 1, 1)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E3  {(1, 0, 1),(1,  1, 0)}
(iv) 3 2 2 ;
basis of E5  {(1, 2, 1)}
5 1 1

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.3 Diagonalization

Def . Diagonalizable operator : A linear operator T on a finite dimensional vector space is said to be
diagonalizable if there exist an ordered basis B of V such that matrix of T with respect to B is a
diagonal matrix.
Def. Diagonalizable matrix : A n  n matrix ‘A’ is said to be diagonalizable if there exist a non –
singular matrix P such that P 1 AP = D , where D is a diagonal matrix.
OR
A square matrix is said to be diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix.
Result 1 : A matrix (or linear operator) is diagonalizable if and only if A.M. = G.M. for each eigen
value.
Result 2 : A matrix whose all eigen values are distinct is always diagonalizable.
Result 3 : A n  n matrix (or linear operator) is diagonalizable if and only if it has n linearly
independent eigen vectors.
Result 4 : A linear operator T on a finite dimensional vector space V(F) is diagonalizable iff
there exist a basis of V in which all vectors are eigen vectors of T.
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Result 5 : Let A be a n  n diagonalizable matrix and let X1 , X 2 ,......., X n be n linearly independent

eigen vectors of A. If P = [ X1 X 2 ....... X n ] is a n  n matrix formed by taking X1 ,X 2 ,.......,X n as

columns, then P 1 AP is a diagonal matrix in which elements on the diagonal are the eigen values of A.
Result 6 : If A is diagonalizable matrix, then A1 ( if exists) is also diagonalizable.
Result 7 : If A2 is diagonalizable then A need not be diagonalizable.
0 1 2
Example : Let A  
0 0  is not diagonalizable, but A  O is diagonalizable.
 
Result 8 : If A and B are diagonalizable matrices of same order, then A  B need not be diagonalizable.
1 1  0 1 1 2 
Example : Let A    and B    are diagonalizable matrices but A  B    is not
0 0 0 1 0 1 
diagonalizable.
Result 9 : If A and B are diagonalizable matrices of same order, then AB need not be diagonalizable.
1 0  1 1  1 1
Example : Let A    ,B  are diagonalizable matrices but AB    is not a
 0 1 0 1  0 1
diagonalizable matrix.
Result 10 : All invertible matrices are not diagonalizable.
 1 1
Example :  
 0 1

 3  2 2
Example 1 : Prove that the matrix A =  4  4 6  is not diagonalizable.
 2  3 5 
Solution : The characteristic equation of A is given by
3 2 2
|   I |  4 4 6
2 3 5 

 3      4     5     18   2   4 5    12  2  12  2 4      0

 3     2    2   16  8    4  8   0

   3  4 2    6  8  4  0

  3  4 2  5  2  0
 10

    1  2  3  2   0

    12   2   0

  = 1, 1, 2.
Hence eigen values are 1, 1, 2.
Let us now find the eigen vectors corresponding to these eigen values.
If X is the eigen vector corresponding to eigen value , then by definition, we have
 A  I X  O

3   2 2   x 0
  4 4  6   y  0 ......(1)
     
 2 3 5     z   0 

When  = 1, then by (1), we get

 2  2 2  x  0
 4  5 6  y  0
     
 2  3 4   z   0 

 2 x  2 y  2 z  0 , 4 x  5 y  6 z  0 2 x  3 y  4 z  0

 x  z and y  2 z where z is free variable.

1
Taking z =1, we get x= 1, y = 2 and so X1   2  is an eigen vector corresponding  = 1.
 1 

When  = 2, then by (1), we get

1  2 2  x  0
 4  6 6  y  0
     
 2  3 3   z   0 
Operating R 2  R 2  4R 1 and R 3  R 3  2R 1

1  2 2   x   0 
0 2  2  y    0 
    
 0 0 0   z   0 

 x  2 y  2z  0 2 y  2 z  0
 x = 0 and y = z where z is free variable

0
Taking z = 1, we get y = 1 and so X2 =  1  is an eigen vector corresponding  = 2.
 1 
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Since A has only two linearly independent eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 1 and 2,
therefore A is not diagonalizable.

Exercise 9.3
1. Which of the following matrices A are diagonalizable (a) over  (b)  . In case A is
diagonalizable find a matrix P and a matrix D such that P 1 AP  D .
1 2   2 4 3 13
(i)   (ii)  1 6  (iii) 1 3 
3 2     
 8 6 2   1 3 3 
 1 1  6 7 4   3 5 3 
(iv)   (v) (vi)
   
 1 1  2 4 3   6 6 4 

0 0 0 1
1 1 0  1
0 1 1  0 0 0 
(vii) (viii) 
  0 1 0 2 
 0 2 1  
0 0 1 0
2. Which of the following operators T are diagonalizable (a) over  (b)  .In case T is
diagonalizable find a matrix P and a matrix D such that P 1 AP  D .
(i) T( x , y )  (3 x  3 y , x  5 y)
(ii) T( x , y )  ( y,  x) .
(iii) T( x , y , z)  (3 x  y  z , 7 x  5 y  z , 6 x  6 y  2 z )
(iv) T( x , y , z)  (4 x  y  z , 2 x  5 y  2 z , x  y  2 z )

 2 1
3. Let A   .
 2 3 
(i) Find eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors.
(ii) Find a nonsingular matrix P such that D  P 1 AP is diagonal.
(iii) Find A8 and f  A  where f  t   t 4  5t 3  7t 2  2t  5 .

(iv) Find a matrix B such that B 2  A .

 12

Answers
1. (i) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(ii) neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
(iii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(iv)not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(v) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(vi) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(vii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(viii)neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
2. (i) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(ii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(iii) neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
(iv) diagonalizable over  and  both.
1 1 
3. (i)   1, u  1,1 ;   4, v  1, 2  (ii) P   
1 2 
 19 13 8  21846 21845 0 1 
(iii) f  A     , A   43690 43691  (iv) B   
 26 32     2 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.4 Properties of eigen values
Results :
1. Eigen values of a lower triangular, upper triangular and diagonal matrices are just the
diagonal elements.
2. Sum of all eigen values of a matrix is equal to its trace.
3. Product of all eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
4. All eigen values of a non singular matrix are non zero.
5. Atleast one eigen value of singular matrix is 0.
6. If sum of elements of each row of a matrix is k, then k is an eigen value of that matrix.
7. If sum of elements of each column of a matrix is k, then k is an eigen value of that matrix.
8. The number of eigen values (counting multiplicities) of a n  n matrix is always n.
9. The eigen values of A and A are same.
10. If  is an eigen value of A, then  k is an eigen value of Ak , where k is a positive integer.
11. If  is an eigen value of matrix A corresponding to the eigen vector v then  n is an
eigen value of An corresponding to the eigen vector v, where n is a positive integer.
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1
12. If  is an eigen value of a non singular matrix A, then is an eigen value of A1 .

det A
13. If  is an eigen value of a non singular matrix A, then is an eigen value of adjoint of A

i.e. adj A.
14. If  is an eigenvalue of A and  is an eigenvalue of B, then    need not be an eigenvalue of
A B .
15. If  is an eigen value of A, then  is an eigen value of A and A .
2
 
16. If  is an eigen value of A, then  need not be an eigen value of A A or AA* , however

 
eigenvalue of A A or AA* are non negative real number.

17. Let  be an eigenvalue of A and f ( x ) be a polynomial, then f ( ) is an eigenvalue of f ( A) .

18. Let  be an eigenvalue of a n  n matrix A then G.M . of   dim E  dim v : Av   I 

 dim v :  A   I  v  0
 dim  N  A   I 
 n  rank  A   I 

19. Invertible matrix theorem : The following conditions on an n  n matrix A are logically
equivalent. In other words, if the matrix has any one of the given properties, then it has all of them.
Coefficient matrix :
1. A is invertible.
2. AT is invertible.
Linear System :
3. The system Ax  b has at least one solution for every b in  n .
4. For every b in  n , the equations Ax  b has a unique solution.
5. The homogeneous system Ax  0 has only the trivial solution x  0 .
Pivots :
6. A has n pivot positions.
7. Every column of A has a pivot position.
8. Every row of A has a pivot position.
Rank and Row equivalence :
 14

9. A is row equivalence to I n .

10. Rank  A   n .

Linear transformations :
11. The transformations x  Ax is one-to one (injective).
12. The transformation x  Ax maps  n onto  n (surjective).
Left inverse and right inverse :
13. There is an n  n matrix B such that BA  I n .

14. There is an n  n matrix C such that AC  I n .

Column vectors :
15. The columns of A form a linearly independent set.
16. The set of columns in A spans  n .
17. The columns of A form a basis for  n .
18. The column space of A is  n : Col  A    n .

19. Dim(Col(A)  n
Row vectors :
20. The rows of A form a linearly independent set.
21. The set of rows in A spans  n .
22. The row space of A is  n : Row(A)   n .
23. The rows of A form a basis for  n .
24. Dim(Row(A))  n .
Eigenvalues, singular values and determinant :
25. 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
26. 0 is not a singular value of A.
27. A has n nonzero singular values.
28. Det  A   0 .

Kernel or null space :

29. The kernel of A contains only the zero vector 0.
30. Null(A)  0 .
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Exercise 9.4
 4 1 1
1. If A   2 5 2  , then find the eigen values A, A1 , A2 , A3 , A and adjA .
 1 1 2 

2. Find the eigen values of the following matrices :

1 2 2 4 1 3 
(i) A   0 6 1 (ii) B   2 3 7 
 8 2 11   2 4 2 

4 * *
3. If eigen values of a 3  3 matrix are 7, 8, 9 then find the value of x in the matrix  * 5 *  .
 * * x 

4. Find the eigen values of the following matrices :

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 1 1 (ii)  (iii) A   aij  such that aij  1 for all i, j.
1 1 1 1 nn
1 1 1  
1 1 1 1

1 1
5. Consider the matrix A    , find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A and A ' .
 0 1
What do you notice.

Answers
1 1 1
1. A : 3,3,5 ; A1 : , , ; A2 : 9,9, 25 ; A3 : 27, 27,125 ; A ' : 3,3,5 ; adj A :15,15,9
3 3 5

3  65
2. (i) 4,5,9 (ii) 8, 3. 1 4. (i) 0,0,3 (ii) 0,0,0,4 (iii) 0  A.M. n  1 , n
2
5. Eigen values of A and A ' are always same but eigen vectors may be different.
 16

9.5 Characteristic and minimal polynomial

Def. Annihilating polynomial of a matrix : A polynomial f  x  is said to be an annihilating

polynomial of a matrix A if f  A   0.

Remark : Let f  x  be an annihilating polynomial of A and g  x  be any other polynomial, then

f  x   g  x  is also an annihilating polynomial of A.

Proof : f  A   0 (given), Consider f  A   g  A   0  g  A   0  f  x  g  x  is also an

annihilating polynomial of A.
Remark : By above remark, it is clear that we can construct infinitely many annihilating polynomials
by using one annihilating polynomial.
Def. Minimal polynomial of a linear operator(matrix) : The minimal polynomial m(x) of a linear
operator T is defined to be monic polynomial of lowest degree of which T is a root.
We know that if A is a matrix of T and f(x) be any polynomial, then f (A) is the matrix of f (T). In
particular, f (T) = 0 if and only if f (A) = 0. Therefore, we can say that T and A has same minimal
polynomials.
Result 1 : Cayley Hamilton Theorem : Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic polynomial.
OR
If c  x  is the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A, then c  A   0. OR

Characteristic polynomial is an annihilating polynomial.

Result 2 : If A is a n  n matrix and k  n is a positive integer then Ak can be expressed as the linear
combination of I , A, A2 ,....., An1 .

Result 3 : Let A be a n  n matrix and W  An : n  0 then dimW  n .

Result 4 : If A is a n  n non-singular matrix then A m can be expressed as the linear combination of

I , A, A2 ,....., An1 for all positive integers m.

Result 5 : Let A be a n  n non-singular matrix and W  An : n   then dimW  n .

Result 6 : The minimal polynomial of a matrix is unique.

Result 7 : If m  x  is the minimal polynomial of a matrix A and f  x  be an annihilating polynomial

then m  x  divides f  x  .

OR
If f (x) is a polynomial such that f (A) = O, and if m(x) is the minimal polynomial of A, then there
exists a polynomial q(x) such that f(x) = m(x) q(x).
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Result 8 : The minimal polynomial of a matrix divides its characteristic polynomial.

Result 9 : Let m  x  and c  x  denotes the minimal and characteristic polynomial of a matrix

respectively. Then, m  x  and c  x  have the same distinct linear factors.

OR
1 2  1 2 k
If c  x    x  a1   x  a2  ...... x  ak  k , then m  x  is of the form  x  a1   x  a2  ...... x  ak 

where 1   i   i

Result 10 : Let m  x  and c  x  denotes the minimal and characteristic polynomial of a n  n matrix
n
respectively then c( x) divides  m( x)  .

Result 11 : A scalar  is an eigen value of a matrix A if and only if  is a root of the minimal
polynomial of A.
Result 12 : A matrix is non singular iff constant term in the minimal polynomial is non zero.
Result 13 : Minimal polynomial of a matrix is of degree 1 iff the matrix is a scalar matrix.
Remark : The degree of minimal polynomial of a non-scalar matrix is  2 .
Result 14 : A matrix is diagonalizable if and only if its minimal polynomial has no repeated linear
factors (i.e. all factors must be with single power in m  x  ).

Result 15 : If a square matrix A satisfies any of the relation

(i) Ak  I (ii) Ak   I (iii) Ak  A (iv) Ak   A
Where, k is some positive integer greater than 1, then the matrix A is always diagonalizable over  .
Remark : Whenever, A matrix relation is given e.g. A2  A , A3  A , A3  I etc. then such type of the
question will be solved by using m( x) .

Result 16 : If the fixed matrix M is diagonalizable then the linear operator T : M n     M n   

defined by T  A   MA and T  A   AM are both diagonalizable.

Example 1 : Find the characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial of

 6 2 2
A   2 3 1
 
 2 1 3
 18

6 2 2
Solution : | A  I |  2 3 1
2 1 3 

Operating C3  C3  C2

6 2 0
= 2 3  2
2 1 2

6 2 0
= (2   ) 2 3   1 [Taking (2  ) common from C3]
2 1 1

6 2 0
Operating R2  R2  R3 = (2   ) 4 4 0
2 1 1

= (2   )[(6   )(4   )  8]

= (2   )( 2  10  16)  (2   )(  2)(  8)

=   3  12 2  36  32 [on multiplication]

 Characteristic polynomial is   3  12 2  36  32

Characteristic roots are 2, 2, 8
Since distinct characteristic roots of A are also roots of the minimal equation of A so 2, 8 are roots of
the minimal equation of A.
 The minimal polynomial of A is either (  2)(  8) or (  2)2 (  8)

i.e.  2  10  16 or  3  12 2  36  32 [with leading coefficient 1]

First let us check whether  2  10  16 is a minimal polynomial of A or not.

2
 6 2 2  6 2 2 1 0 0 
Now A  10A  16I    2
2
3 1  10   2
 3  1  16  0 1 0 

 2 1 3  2 1 3  0 0 1 

 44  20 20   60  20 20  16 0 0  0 0 0 
=   20 14 10     20 30 10    0 16 0 =  0 0 0   O
      
 20 10 14   20 10 30   0 0 16  0 0 0 

 Minimal polynomial of A is  2  10  16

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Exercise 9.5
 4 1 1
1. Let A   2 5 2  , then find
 1 1 2 

(i) c  x  (ii) m  x  (iii) Is A diagonalizable

(iv) Find five different annihilating polynomials of A.

2. Find c( x) and m( x) of each of the following matrices and then find which of them are
diagonalizable :
 4  2 2  3  2 2
5 6
(i)   (ii)  6  3 4  (iii)  4  4 6 
  2  2  3  2 3   2  3 5 

1 2 3  6 2 2
(iv) A   2 3 1  (v) A    2 3 1

 3 1 2   2 1 3

3. Find c( x) and m( x) of each of the following linear transformations and then find which of
them are diagonalizable :
(i) T x y    2 x 4 x  5 y  (ii) T x y z    x  y 2 x  3 y  z  2 x  3 y  5 z 
(iii) T x y z    x  y  z 2 y  z 2 y  3 z 

4. Find the possible candidates for m  x  if

2 3 2
(i) c  x    x  1  x  2  (ii) c  x    x  2   x  7   x  4 

5. Find the eigen values of n  n idempotent, involutory and nilpotent matrices. Also find c( x) and
m( x) .
6. Let A be a 100  100 idempotent matrix such that 0 is an eigen value of A with algebraic
multiplicity (A.M.) is 40, then find the other eigen values of A.

Answers
2
1. (i) c( x)   x  3  x  5  (ii) m( x)   x  3 x  5  (iii) yes
2 2 2 2
(iv)  x  3 x  5 ,  x  3  x  5 ,  x  3  x  5  ,  x  3 x  4  x  5 ,  x  3 x  5
2. (i) c( x)  x 2  3x  2 ,
 20

(ii) c ( x )  x 3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , m( x)  x 2  3 x  2

(iii) c( x)  x3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , m( x)  x3  4 x 2  5 x  2

(iv) c( x)  x3  6 x 2  3x  18 , m( x)  x3  6 x 2  3 x  18

(v) c( x)  x3  12 x 2  36 x  32 , m( x)  x 2  10 x  16

3. (i) c( x)  x 2  3x  10 , m( x)  x 2  3 x  10

(ii) c( x)  x3  9 x 2  18 x , m( x)  x3  9 x 2  18 x

(iii) c( x)  x3  6 x 2  9 x  4 , m( x)  x 2  5 x  4
2
4. (i)  x  1 x  2  ,  x  1  x  2 
2 2 2 3
(ii)  x  2  x  7  x  4  ,  x  2   x  7  x  4  ,  x  2   x  7   x  4  ,  x  2   x  7  x  4  ,
3 2 2
 x  2   x  7   x  4  ,  x  2  x  7   x  4 
5. Idempotent matrix :
Case I : If A  0 , then c  x   x n and m  x   x
n
Case II : If A  I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
n 
Case III : If A  0, I , then c  x   x  x  1 and m  x   x  x  1

Involutory matrix :
n
Case I : If A  I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
n
Case II : If A   I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
 n
Case III : If A  I ,  I , then c  x    x  1  x  1 and m  x    x  1 x  1

Nilpotent matrix : c  x   x n and m  x   x k , where k is the index of nilpotency.

6. 1 with A.M. 60
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.6 Diagonalizibility of some special matrices

Result 1 : Let A be a real symmetric matrix. If u and v are eigen vectors corresponding to distinct
eigen values then u and v are orthogonal. ie. (u , v)  0 .

Result 2 : Let A be a real symmetric matrix, then there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that P 1 AP
is diagonal.
Result 3 : If two matrices are similar, then their D C T E R M are same, where D–determinant ;
C–characteristic polynomial ; T–trace ; E–eigen values ; R–rank ; M–minimal polynomial
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Result 4 : If two matrices are equivalent, then they have same rank but need not have same eigen
values, characteristic and minimal polynomial.
Result 5: If two matrices are congruent , then they have same number of positive eigen values but
need not have same eigen values, characteristic and minimal polynomial.
Result 6: If A and B are two n  n matrices such that anyone (or both) of them is non singular then
AB and BA are similar and therefore their D C T E R M are same.
Result 7 : Let A and B are any two n  n matrices then D C T E of AB and BA are necessarily same
but R M may or may not be same.
Result 8 : If A and B are 3  3 matrices, then upto 3  3 if D C T E R M same then they are similar.
Result 9 : (i) Eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix is just the diagonal elements.
0 , i  j
(ii) Eigenvalues of a n  n scalar matrix aij   is k , k ,...., k (n times)
k , i  j
(iii) Eigenvalues of a lower triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements.
(iv) Eigenvalues of a upper triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements.
(v) Eigenvalues of a super lower triangular matrix are 0,0,....,0  n times 

(vi) Eigenvalues of a super upper triangular matrix are 0,0,....,0  n times 

0 0 ... ... 0 d1 
0 0 ... ... d 2 0
 
(vii) Eigenvalues of a backward diagonal matrix are       
 
     
 d n 0 ... ... 0 0 

Case (i) : If n is even then eigenvalues are  d1 d n ,  d 2 d n1 ,  d3 d n 2 ,...,  d n d n

1
2 2

Case (ii) : If n is odd then eigenvalues are d n 1 ,  d1 d n ,  d 2 d n 1 ,...,  d n 1 d n3

2 2 2

0 0 0 2
0 0 3 0 
e.g., A , eigenvalues of A are  4,  3 3
0 9 0 0
 
8 0 0 0

0 0 9
B   0 5 0  , eigenvalues of B are 5, 6
 
 4 0 0 
 22

0 0 ... ... 0 k 
0 0 ... ... k 0 

(viii) Eigenvalues of a backward scalar matrix A        
 
     
 k 0 ... ... 0 0 

n n
Case (i) : If n is even, then eigenvalues are k and eigenvalues are –k
2 2
n 1 n 1
Case (ii) : If n is odd, then eigenvalues are k and eigenvalues are  k
2 2
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
e.g., A , eigenvalues of A are 1,1, 1, 1
0 1 0 0
 
1 0 0 0

0 0 4
B   0 4 0  , eigenvalues of B are 4, 4, 4
 
 4 0 0 

Def. SBS Matrix : A matrix is said to be SBS matrix if it is sum of a scalar and a backward scalar
2 0 0 5
3 0 4 0 2 5 0 
matrix. e.g., A   0 7 0  , B  
0 5 2 0
 4 0 3   
5 0 0 2
(ix) Eigenvalues of a SBS matrix are :
a 0 0 ... ... ... 0 0 b 
0 a 0 ... ... ... 0 b 0 

0 0 a ... ... ... b 0 0 
    n 1 
         a  b, a  b,..., a  b  2 times  
  
Case (i) : If n is odd      a  b      , eigenvalues are  
  a  b, a  b,..., a  b  n  1 times  
          
 2


0 0 b ... ... ... a 0 0 
 
0 b 0 ... ... ... 0 a 0 
b 0 0 ... ... ... 0 0 a 


3 0 4
e.g., A   0 7 0  , eigenvalues of A are 7, 7  1
 4 0 3 
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a 0 ... ... 0 b
0 a ... ... b 0 
  n 
      a  b, a  b,...., a  b  2 times  
  
Case (ii) : If n is even   , eigenvalues are  
      a  b, a  b,...., a  b  n times  
0 2 
b ... ... a 0   
 
b 0 ... ... 0 a

2 0 0 5
0 2 5 0 
e.g., B   , eigenvalues of B are 7,7, 3, 3
0 5 2 0
 
5 0 0 2

Result 10 : Spectrum of eigen values :

Skew symmetric and skew hermitian

i
Orthogonal and unitary
–1 O 1

Symmetric and hermitian

Involutary
–i
Nilpotent Idempotent

Result 11 : Table of eigen values and diagonalizibility :

S.No. Matrix Eigen values Diagonalizable

1. Real symmetric Real over 
2. Hermitian Real over 
3. Real skew-symmetric 0or purely imaginary over 
4. Skew-Hermitian 0or purely imaginary over 
5. Orthogonal of modulus unity over 
6. Unitary of modulus unity over 
7. Idempotent 0 or 1 over 
8. Involutary 1 or 1 over 
9. Nilpotent 0 not diagonalizable
 24
Result 12 : A non zero nilpotent matrix is never diagonalizable. In other words, if a nilpotent matrix A
is diagonalizable then A 0 .
OR
Zero matrix is the only nilpotent matrix which is diagonalizable.

Exercise 9.6
1. For each of the following symmetric matrices A, find its eigenvalues, a maximal
orthogonal set S of eigenvectors, and an orthogonal matrix P such that D  P 1 AP is
diagonal :
0 1 1  2 2 4 
(i) A  1 0 1  (ii) A   2 5 8 
1 1 0   4 8 17 

1 1 0 2 0 0
2. Let A   0 2 0 and B   0 2 2  . Show that A and B have different characteristic
 
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

polynomials (and so are not similar), but have the same minimal polynomial. Thus
nonsimilar matrices may have the same minimal polynomial.
3. Determine the eigenvalues of the following matrices :
0 0 0 7
 0 0 14  0 5 0 0 
0 7 0 
(i) A   0 14 0  (ii) B   (iii) C  0 5 0 
0 7 0 0
14 0 0    0 0 5 
7 0 0 0

0 0 0 2
0  0 0 14  7 0 5
0 3 0 
(iv) D   (v) E   0 2 0  (vi) F   0 12 0 
0 7 0 0
   2 0 0   5 0 7 
9 0 0 0

2 0 0 3
0 2 3 0 
(vii) G  
0 3 2 0
 
3 0 0 2
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Answers
 1 1   2 1 1 
 0  
 2 2  6 6 6 

 1 1 2   2 3 1 
1. (i)   1, 2 ; P   (ii)   1, 22 ; P  
6 6 6 14 14 14 
   
 1 1 1   1 2 4 
 3 3 3   21 21 21 

3. (i) 14,14, 14 (ii) 7,7, 7, 7 (iii) 5,5,5 (iv)  18,  27

(v) 2,  28 (vi) 12,12, 2 (vii) 5,5, 1, 1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.7 Block Matrices and companion matrices

Using a system of horizontal and vertical (dashed) lines, we can partition a matrix A into submatrices
called blocks (or cells) of A. Clearly, a given matrix may be divided into blocks in different ways.
Def. Block square matrix : A square matrix is said to be block square matrix if there are same
number of horizontal and vertical lines and they are placed symmetrically.
Def. Block diagonal matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block diagonal matrix if all the non-
diagonal blocks are zero matrices.
Def. Block upper triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block upper triangular
matrix if all the blocks below the diagonal are zero matrices.
Def. Block lower triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block lower triangular
matrix if all the blocks above the diagonal are zero matrices.
Def. Block triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block triangular matrix if either it
is block upper triangular or block lower triangular matrix.
The matrices A, B and C (given below) are block lower triangular, block upper triangular and block
diagonal matrices respectively.
 1 2 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 3 2 5 0 0 0
2 3 0 0 0 0 3 4 8 6  0 2 0 0 0 
  
A  5 1 2 7 0 B  0 0 2 7 0 C  0 0 4 2 0
     
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4 5 0 0 3 5 0
8 6 5 4 3 0 0 0 0 3  0 0 0 0 7 
  
 26
Remark : Clearly, every block diagonal matrix (B.D.M.) is block triangular matrix (B.T.M.)

CPT Result : Let A is a block triangular matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr and let ci ( x) be

the characteristic polynomial of Aii and c( x) be the characteristic polynomial of A then

c( x)  c1 ( x )c2 ( x )......cr ( x) .
In words characteristic polynomial of a block triangular matrix is the product of the characteristic
polynomials of the diagonal blocks.

MLD Result : Let A is a block diagonal matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr and let mi ( x) be

the minimal polynomial of Aii and m( x) be the minimal polynomial of A then

m( x)  l.c.m. m1 ( x), m2 ( x ),......, mr ( x )  .

In words minimal polynomial of a block diagonal matrix is the l.c.m. of the minimal polynomials of
the diagonal blocks.

DPT Result : Let A is a block triangular matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr then

det( A)  det( A11 )det( A22 ).......det( Arr ) .

Def. Companion matrix : Let f ( x ) be a monic polynomial of degree n i.e.

f ( x)  x n  an1 x n1  .....  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 then the following four matrices are known as companion

matrix of f ( x ) .

0 0 0 ... 0  a0    an 1 1 0 ... 0 0 
1 0 0 ... 0  a1   a 0 1 ... 0 0 
   n 2 
0 1 0 ... 0  a2        
   
... ... ... ... ... ...    a2 0 0 ... 1 0 
0 0 0 ... 0  an 2    a1 0 0 ... 0 1 
   
 0 0 0 ... 1  an 1    a0 0 0 ... 0 0 

 0 1 0 ... 0 0    an1  an 2 ...  a2  a1  a0 

 0 0 1 ... 0 0   1 0 ... 0 0 0 
  
 0 0 0 ... 0 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 
   
         ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... 0 1   0 0 ... 0 1 0 
   
  a0  a1  a2 ...  an2  an1   0 0 ... 0 0 0 
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CMCM Result : Let A be companion matrix of a monic polynomial f ( x ) then characteristic and
minimal polynomials of A are f ( x ) itself.

Exercise 9.7
1. Find the characteristic polynomial, minimal polynomial and determinant of the following
2 5 0 0 0  4 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0  1 2 0 0 0  1 4 0 0 0 
  
matrices (i) A   0 0 4 2 0 (ii) B   0 0 3 1 0  (iii) C   0 0 3 1 0
     
0 0 3 5 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 3 0
 0 0 0 0 7   0 0 0 0 3   0 0 0 0 4 

2 1 3 4
2 2 1 0   A B 
2. If M    then show that M  A D  B C .
6 6 1 2  C D 
 
0 0 0 1
3. Find a matrix A whose minimal polynomial is :
(i) x 3  5 x 2  6 x  8 (ii) x 4  5 x 3  2 x 2  7 x  4

Answers
1. (i) c( x)  ( x  2)3 ( x  7)2 , m( x)  ( x  2)2 ( x  7)

(ii) c( x)  ( x  3)5 , m( x )  ( x  3)3

(iii) c( x)  ( x  2)2 ( x  4)2 ( x  5), m( x )  ( x  2)( x  4)( x  5)

0 0 0 4 
 0 0 8  1 0 0 7 
3. (i)  1 0 6  (ii) 
0 1 0 2
 0 1 5   
0 0 1 5
 28

9.8 Jordan Canonical Forms

 1 
  1 
 
Def. Basic Jordan Block : Bn ( )   . . 
 
 . 1
   
i.e  (eigen value) on diagonal entries, 1’s on super-diagonal and 0’s elsewhere.
 Bn1     
 
 Bn2    
Def. Jordan Block : J n ( )   . .  , where n  n  n  ......  n .
1 2 k
 
 . 
 
  Bnk    

i.e. basic Jordan blocks on diagonal entries and 0’s elsewhere.

 J n1     
 
 J n2    
Def. Jordan Canonical form : J n   . .  , where n  n  n  ......  n .
1 2 k
 
 . 
 
  J nk    

i.e Jordan blocks on diagonal entries and 0 elsewhere.

 II III
Remark : Matrix   c  x  , m  x  ,   Blocks and their sizes   J.C.F.

Some results :
1. Diagonal matrices are the most beautiful matrices of this world.
2. Jordan canonical form of a matrix is always an upper triangular matrix.
3. Jordan canonical forms are not the diagonal matrices but they are very close to the diagonal
matrices. In a Jordan Canonical Form, all non diagonal elements are 0 except some or all 1’s on
the super diagonal.
4. If a matrix is diagonalizable, then its Jordan canonical form is a diagonal matrix.
5. Every matrix is not diagonalizable over  but every matrix has a Jordan canonical form over  .
In other words, we can say that every matrix is triangularizable over  .
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Jordan Canonical forms of nilpotent Matrices :

Result 1 : 0 is the only eigen value of a nilpotent matrix.
Result 2 :Let A be a n  n nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency k, then
c( x )  x n and m( x)  x k .
Result 3 : Let A be a nilpotent matrix, then the number of basic Jordan blocks is equal to the nullity
of A.
OR
For a n  n nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency ‘k’ and rank ‘r’ we have,
(i) c( x )  x n (ii) m( x)  x k
(iii) Decomposition for the basic Jordan blocks is
n  k  k1  k 2  ......  k m where k  k1  k2  ......  k m  1 and m  1  n  r
Result 4 : Let A and B are any two n  n matrices. If AB is nilpotent then BA is also nilpotent.
Result 5 : Let A and B are any two n  n nilpotent matrices such that AB=BA then A+B and AB are
also nilpotent.

Exercise 9.8
1. Construct the following basic Jordan blocks :
(i) B4  1 (ii) B4 1 (iii) B4  0  (iv) B3  1

(v) B3 1 (vi) B3  0  (vii) B2  1 (viii) B2 1

(ix) B2  0  (x) B1  1 (xi) B1 1 (xii) B1  0 

2. Determine all the possible Jordan canonical forms with the following data :
3 2 2 4 2 3 2
(i) c  x    x  7   x  1 ; m  x    x  7   x  1 (ii) c  x    x  1  x  1 ; m  x    x  1  x  1
4 3 3 2 5 4 3 2
(iii) c  x    x  2   x  3 ; m  x    x  2   x  3 (iv) c  x    x  1  x  2  ; m  x    x  1  x  2 

3. Find the Jordan canonical forms for the following matrices :

 1 2 3 0 1 2
 1 2  3i 
(i) A   2 4 0  (ii) B   1 0 3 (iii) C  
 2  3i 2 
 3 0 3  2 3 0 

 2i 1  2i  0 1 1   1  2i  4  2i 
(iv) D    (v) E    (vi) F  
 1  2i 3i  1 0  5  2  4i 2  i 
 30

0 2 0 0
0  5 4
1 0 0    0 1 
(vii) G   (viii) H  21 (ix) J   
0 3 0 0  5  1 0 
   4 
0 4 0 0
4. Find the Jordan canonical forms for the following nilpotent matrices :
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1  0
 0 1 1  0 0 0 1 
(i) A   0 0 0 1 1 (ii) B   (iii) C  
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 1 0 0 2  1 1 1
(iv) D   0 0 1  (v) E  0 0 0  (vi) F   1 1 1
 0 0 0  0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 1 1 1 2 3 
(vii) G   1 1 1 (viii) H   5 10 15

 1 1 0   3 6 9 

Answers

 1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
 0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0  0 0 1 0 
1. (i)   (ii)  (iii) 
 0 0 1 1  0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
     
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

 1 1 0  1 1 0 0 1 0
(iv)  0 1 1  (v)  0 1 1  (vi)  0 0 1 
 0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 0 

 1 1   1 1 0 1
(vii)   (viii)   (ix)  
 0 1  0 1 0 0
(x)  1 (xi) 1 (xii)  0

 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0  0 2 1 0
7 1 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 
1 1 0 0 0 
0 7 0 0 0    0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 0 0 1 0 0 0  
2. (i)  0 0 7 0 0 (ii)   (iii)  0 0 0 2 0 0 0
 
0 1 0  0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1  
3 1

 0 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 0 0 3 
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1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
(iv)  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
 
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
 

6 0 0  0 0 0   3  53 
 0 
   
3. (i)  0 1  7 0  (ii)  0 i 14 0  (iii)  2 
0  3  53 
 0 1  7  0
 0 i 14   0 
 2 



 3 5 1 i  0


 2  i 0 
(iv)   (v)  

0
 
 3 5 1 i   0 i 
 2 

 0 
(vi)  1 , where 1 
 i  3  398  294i and    i  3  398  294i
 2
 0 2  10 10

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0  2 0  1 0 
(vii)  (viii)   (ix)  
0 0 0 0  0 2   0 1
 
0 0 0 1
 32

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0  0
 0 1 0  0 0 0 0 
4. (i)  0 0 0 1 0 (ii)  (iii) 
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
(iv)  0 0 1  (v)  0 0 0  (vi)  0 0 0 
 0 0 0   0 0 0   0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 1 0
(vii)  0 0 1  (viii)  0 0 0 
 0 0 0   0 0 0 
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True false exercise 11. When we say that a matrix is

diagonalizable, we mean that it is row

1. Two n  n matrices A and B are similar if equivalent to a diagonal matrix.

there is an invertible matrix Q such that  7 0 0

BQ  QA . 12. The matrix  8 3 0  is diagonalizable.
 0 0 0 
2. For any n  n matrices A and B, if A is

similar to B, then A2 is similar to B 2 . 13. If A  PBP 1 and if x is an eigenvector of

3. If A and B are row-equivalent matrices, B corresponding to an eigenvalue  , then

then their eigenvalues are the same. Px is an eigenvector of A corresponding to

4. For every matrix A, 0 is an eigenvalue eigenvalue  .

because the equation A0  00 is always 1 2 

14. The eigenvalues of the matrix   are
true. 3 0 

5. Real matrices have only real eigenvalues –3 and 2.

and complex matrices have only complex 15. If  is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then

eigenvalues.  2 is an eigenvalue of A2 .
6. The characteristic polynomial of an n  n 16. If A is an 11 11 matrix whose entries are

matrix has a nonzero term of the form  t n . all real numbers, then at least one

7. If an n  n matrix A has n real eigenvalues eigenvalue of A is real.

ordered 0  1  2  ....  n , then the 17. A square matrix is invertible if and only if
all of its eigenvalues are nonzero.
corresponding (nonzero) eigenvectors form
18. The number 7 is an eigenvalue of the
a linearly independent set.
 3 2
8. If an n  n matrix A has a factorization matrix  
 2 6
A  PDP 1 , in which D is a diagonal
19. If A is an n  n matrix and if
matrix and P is an invertible matrix, then

Ak  P k D k P  k . v  , v  ,...., v  is a linearly independent

1 2 k

9. If the entries in a matrix are integers, then set of k eigenvectors of A, then n  k .

its eigenvalues are rational numbers. T
20. The vector  6, 5 is an eigenvector of the
10. If the n  n matrix A has n distinct
1 6 
eigenvalues, then A is diagonalizable. matrix  .
5 2 
 2
21. Let a and b be real numbers and let A be a 34. If the n  n matrix A has the property that
real matrix. If a  ib is an eigenvalue of A, n

then b  ia is also an eigenvalue of A.

 aij  2 for i  1, 2,...., n , then 2 is an
j 1

(Here i  1 .) eigenvalue of A. (The term aij are the

 a b 
22. One eigenvector of the matrix   is entries in A, in the usual way.)
b a 
35. If the column sums of a square matrix are
1 all equal to  , then  is an eigenvalue of
 i  . Here a and b are real.
 
the matrix.
23. For a real matrix A, if  is an eigenvalue
36. Every invertible matrix is diagonalizable.
of A, then so is  . 37. Every lower triangular matrix is
24. For every invertible matrix A, if Av   v , diagonalizable.
then A1v   1v . n

25. There exists a real 3  3 matrix A such that

38. If  aij  c for 1  j  n, then c is an
i 1
2  3i and 3  2i are eigenvalues of A. eigenvalue of A.
1
26. Let B   A   I  , where  is a number  5 12 
39. The only eigenvalue of   is 1.
that is not an eigenvalue of A. Then A and  2 5
B have the same eigenvectors.  3 2
40. The matrix   cannot be diagonalized.
27. If the matrix A is invertible, then A is  0 3

similar to AT .  4 1 1
28. If A is an invertible n  n matrix and B is 41. For the matrix A   1 4 1 the
 0 1 3 
any n  n matrix, then AB is similar to BA.
29. If the matrix A is similar to the matrix B, characteristic equation has a double root

then the two matrices have the same eigen- but the corresponding eigenspace is one

vectors. dimensional.

30. The eigenvalues of A and AT are the same. 6 5 3

42. The eigenvalues of  4 1 0  are 7, 3
31. If  is an eigenvalue of A, then the kernel
 7 0 0 
of A   I contains only zero vectors.
and 1.
32. If the determinant of A equals  , then  is
2 2 7 1
an eigenvalue of A. 0 5 6 2 
33. If one of the eigenvalues of A is zero, then 43. The matrix  is
0 0 8 3
A is not row equivalent to the identity  
0 0 0 7
matrix.
diagonalizable.
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44. For an n  n matrix A, the leading term in 53. The eigenvalues of any (real) symmetric

the characteristic polynomial is   n . matrix are nonnegative.

45. For n  n matrix A, the constant term in the 54. If a real matrix has only real eigenvalues,

n then it is symmetric.
characteristic polynomial is  i , where 55. Theorems that are true for real Hermitian
i 1
and unitary matrices are automatically true
i are the eigenvalues.
for symmetric and orthogonal matrices.
46. If the characteristic polynomial of a matrix 56. If the eigenvalues of a matrix are all
A is p, and if p(0)  0 , then A is non complex, then the matrix is Hermitian.
invertible. 57. If A is a Hermitian matrix, then the
47. If A is a 10  10 matrix whose entries are all eigenvalues of A are real.
real numbers, then at least one eigenvalue
58. If xT Ax  xT Bx for all x, then A  B .
of A is real.
59. A diagonalizable n  n matrix must have n
48. If the equation Ax   x has a solution,
distinct eigenvalues.
then nothing more is required in concluding
60. There exists a 4  4 matrix A such that the
that  is an eigenvalue of A.
49. Every square matrix A can be factored as
 
set of matrices A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 , A7 is

A  PDP 1 , where D is a diagonal matrix linearly independent.

and P is invertible.  
61. The set I n , A, A2 ,..., An is linearly
a b  dependent if A is an n  n matrix.
50. If   has one eigenvalue, then it is
c d 

(a  d ) . Assignment
2
---------------------- S C Q ------------------------
51. The exact condition on a, b, c, d in order

a b 
that   has only one eigenvalue is 1. Let T be a linear operator on a finite
c d 
dimensional space V and c is any scalar,
1
(a  d )2  bc  0 . then c is characteristic value of T if
4
1. the operator (T  cI ) is singular
52. The eigenvalues of a matrix that is real and
2. the operator (T  cI ) is non-singular
symmetric are always real.
3. the operator (T  cI ) is identity
4. the operator (T  cI ) is zero
 4
2. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. 2.  1 is an eigen value of T 2
The minimal polynomial for the zero 3. f ( ) is an eigen value of f (T 1 ) for any
operator is
polynomial f (t )
1.  x 2. x
4. None of the above
3. x  1 4. None of these
7. Let T be a linear operator on a finite
3. If V is an n -dimensional vector space over
dimensional vector space V .
the field F, then the characteristic
If m( )   r  ar 1 r 1  ...  a1  a0
polynomial of the identity operator on V is
(a0  0) be a minimal polynomial of T ,
1. x n 2. (1  x )n
then
3. (1  x )2 n 4. None of these
1. T is invertible
n n
4. Let T : C  C be an linear operator
2. 0 is an eigen value of T
having n distinct eigen values. Then, 3. T is singular
1. T is invertible 4. 0 is root of m( )
2. T is invertible as well as diagonalizable
8. Let T be a linear operator on a finite
3. T is not diagonalizable
dimensional vector space V . If
4. T is diagonalizable
m( )   r  ar 1 r 1  ...  a0 be a minimal
(GATE 2001)
polynomial of T , then
5. Let {v1 , v2 ,..., v16 } be an ordered basis for
1. T is singular
16
V  C . If T is a linear transformation on
2. T is non-singular
V defined by T (vi )  vi 1 for 1  i  15 and
3. T is invertible
T (v16 )  (v1  v2  ...  v16 ), then 4. 0 is not root of m( )
1. T is singular with rational eigen values 9. Let T : V2 ( R)  V2 ( R), where T be the
2. T is singular but has no rational eigen reflection of the points through the line
values y   x, then (with respect to standard
3. T is regular (invertible) with rational
basis)
eigen values
1. T must be diagonalizable
4. T is regular but has no rational eigen
2. T is invertible
values
3. minimal polynomial and characteristic
(GATE 2006)
polynomial are equal
6. If  is a non-zero eigen value of a linear
4. All of the above
operator T . Then, the following statement
10. Let T : P1 ( R )  R 2 be the linear
is correct
transformation T (a  bx )  (a, a  b), then
1.  n is an eigen value of T n for n  1
which is false?
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1. T is invertible 3. T is nilpotent
 1 0 4. Either diagonalizable or nilpotent
2. T 1    with respect to standard
 1 1  15. Suppose T : V  V has characteristics
basis polynomial c(t )  (t  8) 4 (t  1)3 and
3. there exist a trivial subspace of P1 ( R) minimum polynomial m(t )  (t  8)3 (t  1)2 .
which is equal to eigen space of T . Then,
4. y -axis in two dimensional plane will be 1. the geometrical multiplicity of 1 is less
eigen space. than that of 8
11. If T : V  V is a linear operator for 2. the geometrical mulplicity of 1 is
dim V  n and T has n distinct eigen greater than that of 8
values, then 3. the geometrical multiplicity of 1 is
1. T must be invertible equal to that of 8
2. T must be diagonalizable 4. T has 7 LI eigen vectors
3. T must be invertible as well as 16. If T be a linear operator on a vector space
diagonalizable
V such that T 2  T  I  0, then
4. T is not diagonalizable
1. T is one-one but may not be onto
2
12. Let V be the vector space R and let T be
2. T is onto but may not be one-one
the linear transformation on V defined by 3. T is invertible
T ( x, y )  ( x  y , y ). Then, the characteristic 4. no such T exists
polynomial of T is 17. If 3  3 real skew symmetric matrix has an
2
1. 1  3x  x 2. 2  2x eigen value 2i, then one of the remaining
3. 1  2x  x 2 4. 1  x 2 eigen values is
13. Suppose that the minimal polynomial of a 1 1
1. 2. 
2i 2i
linear map T : R 5  R 5 is x 2 ( x 3  1) . Then,
3. 0 4. 1
1. T  0 2. det(T )  0
18. Let T : R 4  R 4 be defined by
3. det(T )  0 4. T is onto
T  x, y , z , w  
14. Let T : R n  R n s.t.
 x  y  5w, x  2 y  w,  z  2w,5 x  y  2 z  .
T ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )  (0, x1 , x2 ,...., xn 1 ), then
The maximum number of L.I. eigen vectors
1. T is diagonalizable
of T is
2. T is invertible
1. 1 2. 2
 6
3. 3 4. 4 23. Let A be an n  n matrix from the set of
(GATE 2011) numbers and A3  3 A2  4 A  6 I  0, where
19. Let T : 3  3 be defined by I is n  n unit matrix. If A1 exist, then
T  x, y , z    x  y  z ,  x  y,  x  z  and 1. A1  A  I
M be its matrix with respect to the standard 2. A1  A  6 I
ordered basis. The eigen values of M are 3. A1  3 A  6 I
1. 1, i, i 2. 1, i, i 1
4. A1  ( A2  3 A  4 I )
3. 1, i, i 4. 1, i, i 6
(GATE 2006) 24. All the eigen value of the matrix

20. Let T : 3  3 be defined by 1 2 0 

 2 1 0  lie in the disc
T  x, y , z    x  y  z ,  x  y,  x  z  and  
 0 0 1
M be its matrix with respect to the standard
1.  1  1 2.  1  1
ordered basis. The matrix M is similar to a
matrix which is 3.  1  0 4.  1  2
1. unitary 25. A matrix M has eigen value 1 and 4 with
2. hermitian corresponding eigen vectors (1, 1)T and
3. skew hermitian
(2,1)T , respectively. Then, M is
4. having trace 0
 4 8   9 8 
(GATE 2006) 1.   2.  
5 9  5 4 
21. Let V be vector space of real polynomials
of degree atmost 2. Define a linear operator  2 2 3 2
3.   4.  
i 1 3 1 2
T : V  V by T  xi    x j , i  0,1, 2 . The 26. Let A and B be n  n matrices with the same
j0

minimal polynomial. Then,

dimension of the eigen space of T 1
1. A is similar to B
corresponding to the eigen value 1 is
2. A is diagonalizable, if B is diagonalizable
1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
3. A  B is singular
(GATE 2005)
4. A and B is commute
 3 2 
22. If A    satisfies the matrix 27. Let A be an n  n matrix which is both
 4 2 
Hermitian and unitary. Then,
equation A2  kA  2 I  0, then what is the
1. A2  I
value of k ?
2. A is real
1. 0 2. 1
3. the eigen value of A are 0,1,1
3. 3 4. 4
4. the characteristic and minimal
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polynomials of A are the same the conjugate transpose of A. If  is an

28. Which of the following statement is eigen value of B, then
correct: 1.  is real and <0
1. The matrix A and its transpose 2.  is real and   0
AT have the same characteristic 3.  is real and   0
polynomials. 4.  is real and >0
2. Similar matrices have not the same (GATE 2001)
characteristic polynomials. 32. The number of vectors of maximum set of
3. The trace of two similar matrices are linearly independent eigen vectors of
not same.
 4 1 1
4. The determinant of two similar A   2 5 2  is
 
matrices are not same.  1 1 2 
1 1 1. 1 2. 2
29. If A    , then the modal matrix P is
 2 1 3. 3 4. None of these
 1 1   1 1  33. The characteristic polynomial of the 3  3
1.   2.  
1  i 1  i  1  i 1  i 
 0 0 c 
 1 1   1 1  real matrix A  1 0 b  is
3.   4.  
1  i 1  i  1  i 1  i   0 1  a 

1 3 3  1.  3  a 2  b  c
30. Let A   3 5 3  , if P is modal matrix
2. (  a )(  b)(  c )
6 6 4 
1
3. (  1)(  abc)2
for A then P AP is
2

 2 0 0   4 0 0 
4.    1 (  abc)

1.  0 2 0  2.  0 4 0   3 7
34. If the characteristic roots of   are 1
 0 0 4   0 0 2   2 5

 4 0 0   2 0 6 and 2 , the characteristic roots of

3.  0 2 0  4.  0 2 0 
 5 7 
 0 0 2  0 0 4  2 3  are
 
31. Let A be an n  n non singular complex 1. 1  2 , 1  2
t t
matrix and let B   A  A, where  A  is 1 1
2. and
1 2
 8

3. 21 and 22 39. A is any n  n matrix with all entries equal

4. 1  2 and 1  2 to 1, then 0 is an eigen value of A and

1. multiplicity of 0 is n  1
2 1  1 0 
35. If A    and I    . Which of 2. multiplicity of 0 is 1
 3 1 0 1 
3. multiplicity of 0 is n
the following is the zero matrix?
4. multiplicity of 0 is 0
1. A2  A  5I 2. A2  A  5 I
40. Let A is any matrix which satisfy
2 2
3. A  A  I 4. A  3 A  5 I
A3  A2  A  I  0 then A4 is
36. Let the characteristic equation of a matrix
1. A  0
2
M be     1  0, then
2. A4  I
1. M 1 does not exists 3. there is no such matrix
1
2. M exists but cannot be determined 4. A3  A2  A  I
from the data 41. The eigen values of the matrix
1
3. M = M  I  4 2 
 2 1  are
4. M 1  M  I  
 a 2 ab ac  1. 1,4
 
37. Consider the matrix M   ab b 2 bc  , 2. 1,2
 ac bc c 2 
  3. 0,5
where a,b and c are non-zero real numbers. 4. cannot be determined
Then, the matrix has 42. Which one of the following is an eigen
1. three non-zero real eigen values 5 0 0 0
0 5 5 0 
2. complex eigen values
vector of the matrix 
3. two non-zero eigen values 0 0 2 1
 
4. only one non-zero eigen value 0 0 3 1

 1 1  i 2i 9  1 0 1 1

1  i  2  0 0  1
3 4 7  i  1.   2.   3.   4.  
38. Let M   , then 0 1  0 2
 2i 4 5 i 
         
 9 7  i i 7  0 0  2  1

1. M has purely imaginary eigen values 1 2

43. The eigen vectors of the matrix   are
2. M has only real eigen values  0 2
3. M is not diagonalizable 1 1 
written in the form   and   . What is
4. M has eigen values which are neither a b 
real nor purely imaginary a  b?
1
1. 0 2. 3. 1 4. 2
2
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1 1 0  2 3
48. Consider the following matrix A   .
44. An eigen vector of A   0 2 2  is x y
 0 0 3  If the eigen values of A are 4 and 8, then
1. [1 1 1]T 2. [1 2 1]T 1. x = 4, y = 10 2. x = 5, y = 8
T T 3. x = 3, y = 9 4. x = 4,y =10
3. 1 1 2 4.  2 1 1
49. The eigen values of the matrix
45. How many of the following have an eigen
 1 3 5 
1 0 0 1   1 0   3 1 6  are
value 1?     and    
0 0 0 0  1 1  0 0 3 
1. one 2. two 3. three 4. four
1. 3,3  5i,6  i
 2 2 3
2. 6  5i,3  i,3  i
46. For the matrix A   2 1 6  one of
 
 1 2 0  3. 3  i,3  i,5  i

the eigen value is 3 .The other two eigen 4. 3, 1  3i, 1  3i

values are 50. The eigen values of a skew-symmetric

1. 2,5 2. 3,5 matrix are

3. 2,5 4. 3,5 1. always zero

47. Suppose ( , X ) be an eigen pair consisting 2. always pure imaginary

of an eigen value and its corresponding 3. either zero or pure imaginary

4. always real
eigen vector for a real matrix
51. The characteristic equation of a 3  3 matrix
 I  A   3  3 2  4  3 . Let I be a
A is defined as C ( )    AI
(n  n) unit matrix, which one of the
following statement is not correct?   3   2  2  1  0. If I denotes identity
matrix, then the inverse of matrix A will be
1. rank of ( A   I ) is less than n.
1. A2  A  2 I 2. A2  A  I
2. For matrix Am , m being a positive
m
3. ( A2  A  I ) 4. ( A2  A  2 I )
integer ( , X ) is the not an eigen pair.
 3 2  9
3. If AT  A1 , then   1 . 52. If A  
 1 0  , then calculate A .
 
4. If AT  A, then  is real. 1. 511A  510 I 2. 309 A  104 I
3. 154 A  155 I 4. exp (9A)
 10
53. If A is a 3  3 matrix over  and 57. The constant term of the characteristic
 ,  ,   are the only characteristic roots polynomial of the matrix
(eigen values) of A in  , then the 1 2 6 5
 2 4 12 10 
characteristic polynomial of A is   is
 1 3 2 5 
1. ( x   )( x   )  
 3 2 1 4 
3 3
2.  x     x    1. 0 2. 1 3. trace A 4. 2
3. ( x   )( x   )( x   ) for some    ,  58. The minimal polynomial of the 3  3 real
4. ( x   )2 ( x   ) or ( x   )( x   )2  a 0 0
54. The characteristic polynomial of 3  3 matrix  0 a 0 is
 0 0 b 
matrix A is  I  A   3  3 2  4  3 .Let
1. ( x  a )( x  b)
x  trace( A) and y  A , the determinant
2. ( x  a )2 ( x  b)
of A. Then,
3. ( x  a )2 ( x  b)2
x 3
1. 
y 4 4. ( x  a )( x  b) 2
x 4 0 1 1
2. 
y 3 59. Let A  1 0 1  , then the eigen value of
3. x  y  3 1 1 0 
4. x  3 and y  3 A are
55. Let A be a real 4  4 matrix with 1. 2,1 and 0
characteristic polynomial c( x)  ( x 2  1)2 . 2. 2,(1  i) and (1  i)

Which of the following is true? 3. 2,1 and 1

1. A is diagonalizable over complex 4. 1,1 and 0
number but not over real numbers.  cos   sin  
60. Let A   be such that A has
2. A is nilpotent.  sin  cos  
3. A is invertible. real eigen values, then
4. there is no such matrix A . 1.   n for some integer n
56. The characteristic vector of the matrix 
2.   2n  for some integer n
 2 3 2
 1 4  corresponding to characteristic 3. there is no restriction on 
 
root 1 is 
4.   2n  for some integer n
4
1. (1,1) 2. (3,1)
3. (3,1) 4. (1,3)
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61. Let A  [aij ] be an n  n matrix with real 65. The minimal polynomial m( ) of

entries such that the sum of all the entries 2 8 0 0 0 0 0

0 2 0 0 0 0 0 
in each row is zero. Consider the following 
0 0 2 4 0 0 0
statements.  
M  0 0 0 5 0 0 0  is
I. A is non-singular. 0 0 0 0 0 3 0
II. A is singular.  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
III. 0 is an eigen value of A. 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 

Which of the following is correct?
1.  2 (  2)2 (  5)
1. Only I is true
2.  (  2)2 (  5)
2. I and III are true
3.  (  2)(  5)
3. II and III are true
4. Only III is true 4.  2 (  2)(  5)
62. A square matrix A is said to be idempotent, 66. If the characteristic polynomial of A is
if A2  A. An idempotent matrix is non- given by ( )   3   2  2  28. Then,
singular if and only if trace of A and determinant of A are,
1. all eigen values are real respectively
2. all eigen values are non-negative 1. 1 and 28 2. 1 and 28
3. all eigen values are either 1 or 0 3. 1 and 28 4. 1 and 28
4. all eigen values are 1
1  1 n 
67. If   is an eigen vector  3 2n  , then
63. If A is symmetric matrix 1 , 2 ,..., n be the  1  
eigen values of A and a11 , a22 ,..., ann is the n is
diagonal entries of A . Then, which of the 1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
following is correct? 1 i 
68. If x1    , x2    are given vectors and
1. a  
ii i 2. a  
ii i
i  1
 cos  sin  
3. a  
ii i 4. a  
ii i A and if P  [ x1 , x2 ] ,
  sin  cos  
64. Minimal polynomial m( x) of Ann each of
then P 1 AP
whose element is 1, is
 ei 0   e i 0
1. x  1 2
2. x  x 1.   2.  
0 e  i   0 ei 
3. x 2  nx 4. x 2  nx
 12

1 0  1 0  3. all real eigen values of A are negative

3.   4.  
0 1  0 1 4. A has both positive and negative real

2 3 4 eigen values
69. Let A   0 5 6  , Then, (GATE 2005)
 0 0 7  74. If A and B are two matrices such that AB

1. A is diagonalizable but not A2 and BA both exist, then which is not

2. A2 is diagonalizable but not A correct?

1. Eigen values of AB and BA are
3. Both A and A2 are diagonalizable
same
4. Neither A nor A2 is diagonalizable
2. AB  BA
5 1
70. For the matrix A    which of the
1 3  3. Trace  AB   Trace  BA 
following is not correct? 4. Rank  AB   Rank  BA 
1. A is non-singular
75. If A is 3  3 real matrix that satisfies
2. A is not diagonalizable
A3  A, then
3. (1,1) is an eigen vector
1. A is diagonalizable
4. It has an eigen space of dimension 2
2. A cannot be diagonalized
71. Let A be a 2  2 real matrix of rank 1. If
3. A is invertible
A is not diagonalizable, then
4. the characteristic polynomial of A is
1. A is nilpotent
different from its minimal polynomial
2. A is not nilpotent
76. Let A be a matrix with complex entries. If
3. the minimal polynomial of A is linear
A is hermitian as well as unitary and  is
4. A has a non-zero eigen value
an eigen value of A , then
72. Let A be an n  n matrix and has r
1.  can be any real number
distinct eigen values (r  n), then the
2.  =1 or 1
degree of its minimal polynomial is
3.  can be any complex number of
1. atleast n 2. atleast r
absolute value 1
3. atleast n  r 4. atmost r
4. None of the above
73. Consider the matrix
77. Let P and Q be square matrices such that
0 1 2 0
1 0 1 0  PQ = I, the identity matrix. Then, zero is an
A . Then,
2 1 0 2 eigen value of
 
0 0 2 0 1. P but not Q 2. Q but not P
1. A has no real eigen value 3. Both P and Q 4. Neither P nor Q
2. all real eigen values of A are positive
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a b  with A , then the eigen values of B are

78. Consider 2  2 matrix A    . If
c d  always

a  d  1  ad  bc, then A3 equals 1. equal 2. distinct

3. equal to 0 4. equal to 1
1. 0 2.  I
83. Let A be 3  3 matrix whose characteristic
3. 3I 4. None of these
79. The eigen values of a 3  3 real matrix roots are 3, 2, 1. If B  A2  A, then B is

A are 1,2 and 3. Then, 1. 24 2. 2 3. 12 4. 12

1 84. If A is a real n  n matrix satisfying
1. A1   A2
6 A3  A, then trace of A is always
1
2. A1  (7 I  A2 ) 1. n
6
2. 0
1
1
3. A   (7 I  A2 ) 3. n
6
1 4. an integer in the set
4. A1  (7 I  A2 )
6 {n, (n  1),..., 1,0,1,..., n}
80. The minimal polynomial of  a b  22
85. If A     K , b  0, then A has
1 0 0 0  b a 
1
 1 0 0  eigen values if K is
is
0 0 2 0
  1.  2. 
0 0 0 2
3.  4. All of these
2 2
1. ( x  1) ( x  2) 2. ( x  1)( x  2)
86. If M is a 3  3 real matrix that satisfies
3. ( x  1)( x  2) 4. ( x  1)2 ( x  2)2 M 3  M , then
81. Let A be a 3  3 real matrix such that I. M is invertible
2
A   I 3 , where I 3 is the 3  3 identity II. Eigen values of M are distinct
matrix. Then, a matrix A is III. M is singular
1. diagonalizable 2. orthogonal Select the correct code
3. does not exist 4. symmetric 1. I and II 2. II and III

0 a 3. only I 4. all are wrong.

82. Let A    where 0  a  . If B is
 0 0  87. If a square matrix of order 10 has exactly 4
another 2  2 real matrix which commutes distinct eigen values, then the degree of its
minimal polynomial is
 14
1. atleast 4 2. atmost 4 91. If  is a characteristic root of a non-
3. atleast 6 4. atmost 6 singular matrix, then characteristic root of
(GATE 2005) adj( A) is
88. Let M be a skew-symmetric, orthogonal 1.  A 2. 
real matrix. Then, only possible eigen
A adj( A)
values are 3. 4.
 
1. 1,1 2. i, i
 a1 a2 a3 
3. 0 4. 1,i 92. Let A   b1 b2 b3  be an idempotent

89. For a 3  3 real matrix let C ( A) denote the  c1 c2 c3 

set of the real characteristic roots of A . matrix with rank 2. Then, the rank of
Suppose, C ( B)  C ( B 1 ) for a non singular  a1  1 a2 a3 

B  b1 b2  1 b3  is
matrix B with no repeated eigen values.  
 c1 c2 c3  1
Then,
1. either 1 or 1 must be an eigen value 1. 2 2. 1 3. 3 4.  2

of B . 93. If A and B are square matrices of different

2. I  B 2 order, C x ( A) and C x ( B) are characteristic

3. 1 and 1 are the only possible real polynomials of A and B , respectively and

eigen values of B it is given that C x  B  is minimal

4. 1 must be an eigen values of B polynomial of A as well, then
3 0 0 1. A is invertible implies B is invertible
 3 0 
90. Let M 1  1 3 0  , M 2   , but B may be invertible even, if A is
 1 3
 0 0 3 not so
0 0  2. B is invertible implies A is invertible
M3    . Then, the minimal
1 0  but A may be invertible even, if B is

M1 0 0  not so
polynomial of the matrix  0 M2 0  3. A and B are invertible together or fail

 0 0 M 3  together to be so
is 4. No such relation is necessary

1. x 2 ( x  3)3 ( x  3)2 94. The eigen values of a 3  3 real matrix

P are 1,2,3. Then,
2. x 2 ( x 2  9)
1
3. x 2 ( x 2  9) 2 1. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
6
4. x( x  3)4 ( x  3) 2 1
2. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
6
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1 1
3. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 ) 3.
6 12 ...n
1 4. 12  22  ...  n2
4. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
6
99. Let A be a 3  3 matrix with eigen values
95. Let U be a 3  3 complex hermitian matrix
1,1,0. Then, the determinant of I  A100 is
which is unitary. Then, the distinct eigen
1. 6 2. 4 3. 9 4. 100
values of U are
1. i 2. 1  i 100.Let A   nn be such that the sum of
entries of each row is equal to 0 and the
1
3. 1 4. (1  i )
2 rank of A is non zero. Then,
(GATE 2001) 1. A is diagonalizable
96. A basis for the eigen space of the matrix 2. A is idempotent

1 0 3. A is singular
 0 1  consist of 4. A is involuntary
 
101.The roots of the
1 0 1
1.   2.   and  
1 0 1 ax h g
equation h bx f  0;
0 0 1 
3.   4.   and   g f cx
1  1  0
97. If A and B are square matrices of same where a, b, c, f , g , h are real, are

order, then 1. all real

1. AB is invertible iff BA is invertible 2. only one real

2. AB and BA have same eigen vectors 3. cannot be determined

3. A and B have same eigen vectors, 4. of same sign

if AB  BA 102.Let M be the real 5  5 matrix having all of

4. AB and BA have same eigen values iff its entries equal to 1. Then,

AB  BA 1. M is not diagonalizable

98. If 1 , 2 ,..., n are eigen values of matrix 2. M is idempotent

3. M is nilpotent
A , then trace of A is
4. the minimal polynomial and the charac-
1. 12 ...n
teristic polynomial of M are not equal
2. 1  2  ...  n
 16
103.Let A be a non-zero upper triangular  40 29 11 
matrix all of whose eigen values are 0. 108.Suppose the matrix A   18 30 12 
 26 24 50 
Then, I  A is  
1. invertible 2. singular has a certain complex number   0 as an
3. idempotent 4. nilpotent eigenvalues. Which of the following
104.The eigen values of a skew-symmetric numbers must also be an eigenvalue of A ?
matrix are 1. +20 2. 20
1. negative 3. 20 4. 20
2. real (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. purely imaginary or zero 109.Let A be a 3  3 matrix with real entries
4. None of the above such that det(A)=6 and the trace of A is 0. If
105.The number of linearly independent eigen det(A+I)=0, where I denotes the 3  3
2 2 0 0 identity matrix, then the eigenvalues of A
2 1 0 0 
vectors of the matrix  is are
0 0 3 0
  1. 1, 2, 3 2. 1, 2, 3
0 0 1 4
3. 1, 2, 3 4. 1, 2, 3
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
(GATE 2008)
106.Let A be an n  n complex matrix whose 1 0 0 
110.If A  1 0 1  , then A50 is
characteristic polynomial is given by
 0 1 0 
f  t   t n  cn 1t n1  ...  c1t  c0 . Then,
 1 0 0  1 0 0
1. det A = cn 1 1. 50 1 0  2.  48 1 0 
2. det A = c0 50 0 1   48 0 1 

3. det A = ( I n  A)2  I n  A  1 0 0  1 0 0
n
3.  25 1 0  4.  24 1 0 
4. det A =  1 c0
 25 0 1   24 0 1 
(GATE 2001)
(GATE 2012)
107.Which of the following matrices is not
111.For the matrix
diagonalizable ?
 2 3  2i 4 
1 1  1 0 
M  3  2i 5 6i 
1.   2.    
1 2  3 2  4 6i 3 
 0 1  1 1 which of the following statements are
3.   4.  
1 0   0 1 correct?
(GATE 2009) P : M is skew hermitian and iM is hermitian
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Q : M is hermitian and iM is skew 1. x 3  x 2  2 x  3

hermitian 2. x 3  x 2  2 x  3
R : eigen values of M are real
3. x 3  x 2  3x  3
S : eigen values of iM are real
4. aii
1. P and R only 2. Q and R only
(GATE 2009)
3. P and S only 4. Q and S only
116.Let f(x) be the minimal polynomial of the
(GATE 2012)
0 0 0 1
112.The distinct eigen values of the matrix 1 0 0 0 
4  4 matrix A  
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
 1 1 0  are  
  0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 
Then the rank of the 4  4 matrix f  A  is
1. 0 and 1 2. 1 and 1
1. 0 2. 1
3. 1 and 2 4. 0 and 2
3. 2 4. 4
(GATE 2011)
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
113.The minimal polynomial of the matrix
117.Let P be a 2  2 complex matrix such that
3 3 0
 3 3 0  is P*P is the identity matrix, where P* is the
 
 0 0 6  conjugate transpose of P . Then the
eigenvalues of P are
1. x  x  1 x  6  2. x  x  3
1. real
3.  x  3 x  6  4. x  x  6  2. complex conjugate of each other
(GATE 2011) 3. reciprocals of each other
114.If a 3  3 real skew symmetric matrix has 4. of modulus 1
an eigen value 2i, then one of the remaining 118.Which of the following matrices is not
eigen values is diagonalizable over  ?

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1. 2.  3. 0 4. 1
2i 2i 1.  0 2 0  2.  0 2 1 
(GATE 2010)  0 0 1   0 0 3 

115.The minimal polynomial associated with 1 1 0  1 0 1 

3.  0 1 0  4.  0 2 0 
0 0 3
 0 0 2   0 0 3 
the matrix  1 0 2  is
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
 0 1 1 
 18
119.Let A be an n  n matrix with real entries.
Which of the following is correct?
1. If A2  0, then A is diagonalizable
over complex numbers.
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
123.Let A be a real 3  4 matrix of rank 2.
Then the rank of At A , where At denotes
the transpose A, is :

2. If A2  I , then A is diagonalizable 1. exactly 2

2. exactly 3
over real numbers.
3. exactly 4
3. If A2  A, then A is diagonalizable
4. at most 2 but not necessarily 2
only over complex numbers.
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
4. The only matrix of size n satisfying
124.Let S denote the set of all the prime
the characteristic polynomial of A is A.
numbers p with the property that the matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
 91 31 0 
120.Let A be a 4  4 invertible real matrix.  29 31 0  has an inverse in the field
Which of the following is NOT necessarily  
 79 23 59 
true?
 / p . Then
1. The rows of A form a basis of  4 .
1. S  {31} 2. S  {31,59}
2. Null space of A contains only the 0
3. S  {7,13,59} 4. S is infinite
vector.
3. A has 4 distinct eigenvalues. (CSIR NET Dec 2015)

4. Image of the linear transformation 125.Let A  I n be an n  n matrix such that

x  Ax on  4 is  4 . A2  A , where I n is the identity matrix of

(CSIR NET Dec 2013) order n. Which of the following statements
121.Let A, B be n  n matrices. Which of the is false ?
following equals trace ( A2 B 2 ) ? 1. ( I n  A)2  I n  A .

1. (trace ( AB ))2 2. Trace(A)=Rank(A).

2. trace ( AB 2 A) 3. Rank( A)  Rank( I n  A)  n .

3. trace (( AB ) 2 ) 4. The eigenvalues of A are each equal

to 1
4. trace (BABA)
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
(CSIR NET June 2015)
126.Let V be the vector space of all real
122.If A is a 5  5 real matrix with trace 15 and
polynomials of degree  10 . Let
if 2 and 3 are eigenvalues of A, each with
Tp( x )  p( x ) for p V be a linear
algebraic multiplicity 2, then the
determinant of A is equal to transformation from V to V. Consider the

1. 0 2. 24 3. 120 4. 180
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Page 19

basis {1, x, x 2 ,...., x10 } of V. Let A be the 1 0 2 

matrix of T with respect to this basis. Then 129.Let A  1 2 0  and I be the 3  3
 0 0 3
1. Trace A = 1
2. det A = 0 identity matrix.

3. there is no m   such that Am  0 If 6A1  aA2  bA  cI for a, b, c   then

4. A has a non-zero eigenvalue  a , b, c  equals
(CSIR NET June 2016)
1. 1, 2,1 2. 1, 1, 2 
127.Let J denote the matrix of order n  n with
all entries 1 and let B be a (3n)  (3n)
3.  4,1,1 4. 1, 4,1

(CSIR NET June 2017)

0 0 J
matrix given by B   0  1 1 2
J 0.
J
 0 0  130.Let A   1 2 5  . Then the

 2 5 3
Then the rank of B is
1. 2n 2. 3n  1 eigenvalues of A are

3. 2 4. 3 1. 4,3, 3 2. 4,3,1

(CSIR NET Dec 2016) 3. 4, 4  13 4. 4, 2  2 7

0 0 0 4  (CSIR NET June 2017)
1 0 0 0 
128. Let A   131. Let A be a real symmetric matrix and
0 1 0 5
  B  I  iA, where i 2  1 . Then
0 0 1 0
1. B is invertible if and only if A is
Then a Jordan canonical form of A is
invertible
 1 0 0 0  1 1 0 0
0  0 2. all eigenvalues of B are necessarily real
1 0 0 1 0 0 
1.  2.  3. B  I is necessarily invertible
0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0
    4. B is necessarily invertible
0 0 0 2  0 0 0 2 
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)

1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0 132. If A is a  2  2  matrix over  with

0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
3.  4.  Det  A  I   1  Det  A  then we can
0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0
    conclude that
0 0 0 2  0 0 0 2 
1. Det  A   0
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. A  0
 20

3. Tr  A   0 2. T is not one-one
3. may be in some case trace T  R and in
4. A is nonsingular
some cases may not.
(CSIR NET June 2018)
4. trace T  R always.
133. Let  n , n  2 , be equipped with standard
4. Let  be a complex number such that
inner product. Let v1, v2 ,....., vn  be n
 3  1 but   1. If
column vectors forming an orthonormal
 1  2 
n
basis of  . Let A be the n  n matrix  
A     2 1  , then which of the
formed by the column vectors v1 ,...., vn .  2  1 
 
Then following statement are true?
1 T
1. A  A 2. A  A 1. A is invertible

3. A1  AT 4. Det  A   1 2. rank ( A)  2

3. 0 is an eigen value of A
(CSIR NET June 2018)
4. There exists linearly independent

---------------------- M C Q ------------------------ vectors v,   C 3 such that

Av  A  0

 3 2  (CSIR NET Dec 2011)

1. If A    , then A satisfies the
 1 0  5. Let A be a 4  4 matrix with real entries

relation such that 1,1,2,2 are its eigen values. If

1. A  3I  2 A1  O B  A4  5 A2  5 I , where I denotes the

2. x  y  3 4  4 identity matrix, then which of the
3. ( A  I )( A  2 I )  O following statements are correct?

4. exp ( A)  0 1. det ( A  B)  0
2. det ( B)  1
 cos   sin  
2. For 0     , the matrix 
 sin  cos  3. trace of A  B is 0

1. has no real eigen value 4. trace of A  B is 4

2. is orthogonal (CSIR NET Dec 2011)

3. is symmetric 6. Let N be a 3  3 non zero matrix with the

4. is skew-symmetric property N 3  0. Which of the following

3. Let T be any matrix and its characteristic is/are true ?
polynomial is x 2  x  1  0, then what 1. N is not similar to a diagonal matrix.

about T ? 2. N is similar to a diagonal matrix.

1. T is one-one 3. N has one non zero eigenvector.

4. N has three linearly independent
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Page 21

eigen vector. 2. 2 is an eigenvalue of T

(CSIR NET June 2011) 3. T is invertible
7. Let W = {p(B) : p is a polynomial with real 4. T(B) = B for some 0  B in M 2   
0 1 0 (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
coefficients }, where B   0 0 1 
10. Let A be 2  2 non zero matrix with entries
1 0 0
 
in  such that A2  0 . Which of the
The dimension d of the vector space W
following statements must be true ?
satisfies
1. PAP 1 is diagonal for some invertible
1. 4  d  6 2. 6  d  9
3. 3  d  8 4. 3  d  4 2  2 matrix P with entries in 

(CSIR NET June 2011) 2. A has two distinct eigenvalues in 

8. Let A, B be complex n  n matrices. Which 3. A has only one eigenvalue in  with
of the following statements are true ? multiplicity 2
1. If A, B and A+B are invertible, then
4. Av = v for some v   2 , v  0
A1  B 1 is invertible
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. If A, B and A+B are invertible, then
11. Let ,  be distinct eigenvalues of a 2  2
A1  B 1 is invertible
matrix A. Then which of the following
3. If AB is nilpotent, then BA is
statements must be true ?
nilpotent
1. A2 has distinct eigenvalues
4. Characteristic polynomials of AB
3  3
and BA are equal if A is invertible 2. A3  A        I
 
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. trace of An is  n   n for every
9. Let M 2    denote the set of 2  2 real
positive integer n
matrices. Let A M 2    be of trace 2 and
4. An is not a scalar multiple of
determinant 3. Identifying M 2    with identity for any positive integer n

 4 , consider the linear transformation (CSIR NET Dec 2011)

12. Let C be an n  n real matrix. Let W be the
T : M 2     M 2    defined by T(B) =
vector space spanned by I , C , C 2 ,..., C 2 n .
AB. Then which of the following
statements are true ? The dimension of the vector space W is

1. T is diagonalizable 1. 2n 2. atmost n
 22

3. n2 4. atmost 2n 16. Let A be a 4  4 matrix over  such that

(CSIR NET June 2012) rank(A)=2 and A3  A2  0. Suppose that A
13. Let A  M 10    , the vector space of is not diagonalizable. Then
1. One of the Jordan blocks of the
10  10 matrices with entries in  . Let WA
0 1
be the subspace of M 10    spanned Jordan canonical form of A is  .
0 0
by  An | n  0 . Choose the correct 2. A2  A  0.
statements. 3. There exists a vector v such that
1. For any A, dim WA   10 Av  0 but A2v  0

2. For any A, dim WA   10 4. The characteristic polynomial of A is

x 4  x3 .
3. For some A, 10  dim WA   100
(CSIR NET June 2014)
4. For some A, dim WA  100 17. Which of the following matrices have
(CSIR NET June 2013) Jordan canonical form equal to
14. Let A be a complex 3  3 matrix with 0 1 0
3  
A   I . Which of the following statements 0 0 0?
0 0 0
are correct ?  
1. A has three distinct eigenvalues 0 0 1 0 0 1
2. A is diagonalizable over  1.  0 0 0  2.  0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0
3. A is triangularizable over     
4. A is nonsingular 0 1 1 0 1 1
(CSIR NET June 2013) 3.  0 0 0  4.  0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0
15. For an n  n real matrix A,    and a    

nonzero vector v   n suppose that

(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
k
 A  I  v  0 for some positive integer k.
18. Which of the following are eigenvalues of
Let I be the n  n identity matrix. Then 0 0 0 1 0 0
which of the following is/are always true ? 0 0 0 0 1 0
 
k r 0 0 0 0 0 1
1.  A   I  v  0 for all positive integers r. the matrix   ?
k 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2.  A  I  v0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
3.  A   I  is not injective. 0 0 1 0 0 0

4.  is an eigenvalue of A. 1. +1 2. 1 3. +i 4. i

(CSIR NET Dec 2013) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

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Page 23

 x y a' 0 c'
19. Let A   , where x, y   such that
y x  form  0 a ' 0  .
 0 0 a '
x 2  y 2 1. Then we must have :  
(CSIR NET June 2015)
 cos  sin   21. Let S be the set of 3  3 real matrices A
1. For any n  1, An  
  sin  cos  
1 0 0
with A A   0 0 0  . Then the set S
T

     0 0 0
where x  cos   , y  sin    
n n
contains
2. tr  A   0 1. a nilpotent matrix.
2. a matrix of rank one.
3. At  A1 3. a matrix of rank two.
4. a non-zero skew-symmetric matrix.
4. A is similar to a diagonal matrix over 
(CSIR NET June 2015)
22. An n  n complex matrix A satisfies
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
Ak  I n , the n  n identity matrix, where k is
a b c 
a positive integer  1 . Suppose 1 is not an
20. Let A   0 a d  be a 3  3 matrix
0 0 a  eigenvalue of A. Then which of the
 
following statements are necessarily true ?
where a, b, c, d are integers. Then, we must
1. A is diagonalizable.
have :
2. A  A2  .....  Ak 1  0 , the n  n
1. If a  0 , there is a polynomial
zero matrix.
p  [ x] such that p ( A) is the inverse
3. tr( A)  tr( A2 )  .....  tr( Ak 1 )   n
of A.
2. For each polynomial q  [ x ] , the 4. A1  A2  ....  A ( k 1)   I n

(CSIR NET June 2015)

 q ( a ) q (b ) q (c ) 
matrix q( A)   0  23. Let u be a real n  1 vector satisfying
q( a ) q( d )  .
 0 0 q(a ) 
 u ' u  1 , where u ' is the transpose of u .

3. If An  0 for some positive integer n, Define A  I  2uu ' where I is the nth order
then A3  0 . identity matrix. Which of the following
4. A commutes with every matrix of the statements are true ?
 24
1. A is singular. 4. If  A and mA denote the characteristic
2. A2  A . polynomial and the minimal
3. Trace( A)  n  2 . polynomial respectively, then  A  mA .
4. A2  I . (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
(CSIR NET June 2015) 27. Let S :  n   n be given by v   v for a
24. Let A be an invertible 4  4 real matrix.
fixed   ,  0 . Let T :  n   n be a
Which of the following are NOT true ?
linear transformation such that
1. Rank A  4 .
  v1 ,..., vn  is a set of linearly
2. For every vector b   4 , Ax  b has
independent eigenvectors of T. Then
exactly one solution.
1. The matrix of T with respect to  is
3. dim(nullspace A)  1 .
diagonal.
4. 0 is an eigenvalue of A.
2. The matrix of T–S with respect to  is
(CSIR NET June 2015)
diagonal.
2 2 1 
3. The matrix of T with respect to  is not
25. Consider the matrices A   0 2 1 and
 0 0 3  necessarily diagonal, but upper
triangular.
2 1 0
4. The matrix of T with respect to  is
B   0 2 0  . Then
 
 0 0 3  diagonal but the matrix of  T  S  with

1. A and B are similar over the field of respect to  is not diagonal.

rational numbers  . (CSIR NET Dec 2013)

2. A is diagonalizable over the field of 28. Let A be an n  n real matrix. Pick the

rational numbers  . correct answer(s) from the following

3. B is the Jordan canonical form of A. 1. A has at least one real eigenvalue.

4. The minimal polynomial and the 2. For all nonzero vectors

T
characteristic polynomial of A are the v, w   n ,  Aw   Av   0 .
same. (CSIR NET Dec 2015) 3. Every eigenvalue of AT A is a non-
26. Let A be an n  n matrix over  such that negative real number.
every nonzero vector of  is an
n
4. I  AT A is invertible.
eigenvector of A. Then (CSIR NET June 2016)
1. All eigenvalues of A are equal.
29. Let a1 ,...., an  and b1 ,...., bn  be two bases
2. All eigenvalues of A are distinct.
of  n . Let P be an n  n matrix with real
3. A   I for some    , where I is
entries such that Pai  bi i  1, 2,..., n .
the n  n identity matrix.
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Page 25

Suppose that every eigenvalue of P is 2. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q )  1

either-1 or 1. Let Q  I  2 P . Then which 3. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q)
of the following statements are true ? 4. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q)
1. a  2b i  1, 2,..., n is also a basis of
i i (CSIR NET Dec 2016)

n . 33. Let n be an odd number  7 . Let A   aij 

2. Q is invertible.
be an n  n matrix with ai , i 1  1 for all
3. Every eigenvalue of Q is either 3 or –1.
i  1, 2,..., n  1 and an,1  1. Let aij  0 for
4. det Q  0 if det P  0 .
(CSIR NET June 2016) all the other pairs (i, j ) . Then we can

30. Let T be a n  n matrix with the property conclude that

T n  0 . Which of the following is/are 1. A has 1 as an eigenvalue.

true ? 2. A has –1 as an eigenvalue.

1. T has n distinct eigenvalues. 3. A has at least one eigenvalue with

multiplicity  2 .
2. T has one eigenvalue of multiplicity n.
4. A has no real eigenvalues.
3. 0 is an eigenvalue of T.
4. T is similar to a diagonal matrix. (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
34. Let A be a real symmetric matrix. Then we
(CSIR NET June 2016)
can conclude that
1 1 
31. Let A    and let  n and  n denote 1. A does not have 0 as an eigenvalue
1 0 
2. All eigenvalues of A are real
the two eigenvalues of An such that
3. If A1 exists, then A1 is real and
 n   n . Then
symmetric
1.  n   as n  
4. A has at least one positive eigenvalue
2.  n  0 as n   (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
3.  n is positive if n is even. 35. Consider a matrix A  [aij ]nn with integer

4.  n is negative if n is odd. entries such that aij  0 for i  j and aii =1

(CSIR NET Dec 2016) for i  1,..., n. Which of the following

32. If P and Q are invertible matrices such that property must be true?
PQ  QP , then we can conclude that 1. A1 exists and it has integer entries.
1. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q )  0 2. A1 exists and it has some entries that
 26
not integers.
3. A1 is a polynomial function of A with
rational coefficients.
4. A1 is not a power of A unless A is the
identity matrix.
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
36. Let A be a non zero linear transformation
on a real vector space V of dimension n.
Let the subspace V0  V be the image of V
under A. Let k  dim V0  n and suppose
38. Let A be an n  n real matrix with A2  A .
Then
1. the eigenvalues of A are either 0 or 1
2. A is a diagonal matrix with diagonal
entries 0 or 1
3. rank  A   trace  A 
4. rank  I  A   trace  I  A 
(CSIR NET June 2017)
39. For any n  n matrix B, let

that for some    , A2  A . Then

 
N  B   X   n : BX  0 be the null

space of B. Let A be a 4  4 matrix with

1.   1
n dim  N  A  2 I    2, dim  N  A  4 I    1
2. det A  
and rank  A   3 . Then
3.  is the only eigenvalue of A.
4. There is a nontrivial subspace V1  V 1. 0, 2 and 4 are eigenvalues of A
2. determinant  A   0
such that Ax  0 for all x V1

(CSIR NET June 2012) 3. A is not diagonalizable

37. Let V be the vector space of polynomials of 4. trace  A   8

degree at most 3 in a variable x with (CSIR NET June 2017)

coefficients in  . Let T  d / dx be the 40. Which of the following 3  3 matrices are
linear transformation of V to itself given by diagonalizable over  ?
differentiation. Which of the following are 1 2 3  0 1 0
correct ? 1.  0 4 5  2.  1 0 0 
1. T is invertible  0 0 6   0 0 1 
2. 0 is an eigenvalue of T 1 2 3 0 1 2
3. There is a basis with respect to which 3.  2 1 4  4.  0 0 1 
the matrix of T is nilpotent.  3 4 1   0 0 0 
4. The matrix of T with respect to the basis (CSIR NET June 2017)

1,1  x,1  x  x 2 ,1  x  x 2  x3 is 41. Consider the matrix

 1  x 2 7 11 
diagonal  
A  x    3x 2x 4 ; x   .
(CSIR NET June 2017)
 8x 17 13 
 
Then
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1. A  x  has eigenvalue 0 for some x   the eigenvalues of A are in  . Then

2. 0 is not an eigenvalue of A  x  for any 1. M is empty

x  a b  
2. M    | a, b, c, d   
3. A  x  has eigenvalue 0 for all x    c d  
3. if A  M then the eigenvalues of A are
4. A  x  is invertible for every x  
in 
(CSIR NET June 2017) 4. if A, B  M are such that AB  I then
42. Let A be an m  n matrix of rank m with
det A 1, 1
n  m . If for some non-zero real number
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
 , we have x t AAt x   xt x, for all x   m
45. Let V be a vector space over  with
t
then A A has dimension n. Let T : V  V be a linear
1. exactly two distinct eigenvalues
transformation with only 1 as eigenvalue.
2. 0 as an eigenvalue with multiplicity
Then which of the following must be true ?
nm
1. T  I  0
3.  as a non-zero eigenvalue n 1
2.  T  I  0
4. exactly two non-zero distinct
n
eigenvalues 3.  T  I   0
(CSIR NET Dec 2017) 2n
4.  T  I  0
43. Let A be a 3  3 matrix with real entries.
(CSIR NET June 2018)
Identify the correct statements.
46. Let A  M 3    be such that A8  I 33 .
1. A is necessarily diagonalizable over 
2. if A has distinct real eigenvalues then it Then
is diagonalizable over  1. minimal polynomial of A can only be of
3. if A has distinct eigenvalues then it is degree 2
diagonalizable over  2. minimal polynomial of A can only be of
4. if all eigenvalues of A are non-zero then degree 3
it is diagonalizable over  3. either A  I33 or A   I33
(CSIR NET Dec 2017) 4. there are uncountably many A satisfying
the above
 a b  (CSIR NET June 2018)
44. Let M   A    | a, b, c, d   and
  c d 
 28
47. Let A be an n  n matrix (with n  1 ) 3 1 0 0 0 0
0
satisfying A2  7 A  12 I nn  O nn , where  3 0 0 0 0 
0 0 2 1 0 0
I nn and O nn denote the identity matrix 4.  
0 0 0 2 0 0
and zero matrix of order n respectively. 0 0 0 0 2 1
 
Then which of the following statements are 0 0 0 0 0 2 
true ? (CSIR NET June 2018)
1. A is invertible
2. t 2  7t  12n  0 where t  Tr  A 

3. d 2  7d  12  0 where d  Det  A  True false key

1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F
4.  2  7  12  0 where  is an
5. F 6. T 7. T 8. F
eigenvalue of A
9. F 10. T 11. T 12. T
(CSIR NET June 2018)
13. T 14. F 15. T 16. T
48. Let A be a  6  6  matrix over  with
17. T 18. T 19. F 20. T
2 4
characteristic polynomial   x  3  x  2  21. F 22. T 23. T 24. T

and minimal polynomial   x  3 x  2  .

2 25. F 26. T 27. T 28. T
29. F 30. T 31. F 32. F
Then Jordan canonical form of A can be
33. T 34. T 35. T 36. F
3 0 0 0 0 0
0 37. F 38. T 39. F 40. T
 3 0 0 0 0 
0 0 2 1 0 0 41. T 42. F 43. T 44. T
1.  
0 0 0 2 1 0 45. F 46. F 47. F 48. F
0 0 0 0 2 1 49. F 50. T 51. T 52. T
 
0 0 0 0 0 2  53. F 54. F 55. T 56. F
3 0 0 0 0 0 57. T 58. T 59. F 60. F
0
 3 0 0 0 0  61. T
0 0 2 1 0 0
2.  
0 0 0 2 0 0
Assignment key
0 0 0 0 2 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 2  SCQ
1. 1 2. 2 3. 4 4. 4
3 0 0 0 0 0
0
 3 0 0 0 0  5. 4 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1
0 0 2 1 0 0 9. 4 10. 3 11. 2 12. 3
3.  
0 0 0 2 0 0 13. 2 14. 3 15. 3 16. 3
0 0 0 0 2 1 17. 3 18. 4 19. 1 20. 1
 
0 0 0 0 0 2  21. 4 22. 2 23. 4 24. 4
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25. 4 26. 2 27. 1 28. 1 MCQ

29. 2 30. 1 31. 4 32. 3 1. 1,3 2. 1,2 3. 1,4 4. 2,3
33. 1 34. 2 35. 1 36. 3 5. 1,2,4 6. 1,3 7. 3,4 8. 1,3,4
37. 4 38. 2 39. 1 40. 2 9. 1,3 10. 3 11. 2,3 12. 2,4
41. 3 42. 1 43. 2 44. 2 13. 1 14. 2,3,4 15. 1,3,4 16.1,3,4
45. 1 46. 2 47. 2 48. 4 17. 1,2,3 18. 1,2 19. 1,3,4 20.1,3,4
49. 4 50. 3 51. 4 52. 1 21. 1,2 22. 1,3,4 23. 3,4 24. 3,4
53. 4 54. 3 55. 3 56. 3 25. 1,3,4 26. 1,3 27. 1,2 28. 3,4
57. 1 58. 1 59. 3 60. 1 29. 1,2,3,4 30. 2,3 31. 1,2,3,4 32. 1,3
61. 3 62. 4 63. 2 64. 4 33. 1 34. 2,3 35. 1,3,4 36. 2,4
65. 1 66. 3 67. 2 68. 1 37. 2,3 38. 1,3,4 39. 1,2,4 40. 1,3
69. 3 70. 4 71. 1 72. 2 41. 1 42. --- 43. 2,3 44. 3,4
73. 4 74. 4 75. 1 76. 2 45. 3,4 46. 4 47. 1,4 48. 2,3
77. 4 78. 2 79. 2 80. 1
81. 3 82. 1 83. 1 84. 4
85. 2 86. 4 87. 1 88. 2
89. 1 90. 3 91. 3 92. 4
93. 3 94. 1 95. 3 96. 4
97. 1 98. 2 99. 2 100. 3
101. 1 102. 4 103. 1 104. 3
105. 4 106. 4 107. 4 108. 3
109. 4 110. 3 111. 2 112. 4
113. 4 114. 3 115. 1 116. 1
117. 4 118. 3 119. 2 120. 3
121. 2 122. 4 123. 1 124. 4
125. 4 126. 2 127. 4 128. 1
129. 4 130. 3 131. 4 132. 3
133. 3
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Chapter - 10
Quadratic forms
10.1 Definition and examples
Def. Quadratic Form : An expression q in n variables is called a quadratic form if it is an
homogeneous expression of degree two.
Def. Matrix of a quadratic form : Let q be a quadratic form in variables x1 , x2 ,....., xn over

a field F. A n  n matrix A is said to be matrix of q if

(i) A is symmetric.

 x1 
x 
(ii) q(X)  XAX , where  2 

 
 xn 

Def. Real Quadratic Form : A quadratic form is said to be real if its matrix A is over the
real field  and the column vector X is in the vector space  n .
Note : We shall confine our study to real quadratic forms only. Therefore , unless otherwise
stated , a quadratic form will be understood to be a real quadratic form.
Method : To write the matrix of a quadratic form.
Input : A quadratic form q(X) is given.
Output : Symmetric matrix of q(X).
Working Steps : The matrix of the quadratic form is given by
 1 1 
 coeff of x1
2
coeff of x1x2  coeff of x1xn 
2 2
 
 1 coeff of x x coeff of x22 
1
coeff of x2 xn 
2 1
A = 2 2 
 
     
1 1 
 coeff of xn x1 coeff of xn x2  coeff of xn2 
2 2 
Method : To find a quadratic form when its matrix is given .
Input : Matrix of a quadratic form A =  aij  is given.
nn
 2

 x1 
x 
Working Steps : (i) Take X =  2 

 
 xn 
(ii) Compute XAX and we get the required quadratic form.

Exercise 10.1
1. Which of the following are quadratic forms :
(i) x 2  y 2  x y  y z  4 y (ii) x12  2 x1 x2  x32  4 x1 x2 x3

(iii) x12  x22  3 x32  2 x1 x2 (iv) x 2  y 2  z 2  4 xy  2 xz  3 y z  5

(v) x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xy (vi) x12  x1 x2  x1 x3

2. Write the symmetric matrices of the following quadratic forms :

(i) x12  2 x22  x32  2 x1 x2  x2 x3  4 x1 x3 (ii) ( x  y )2  ( z  t ) 2

(iii) x1 x2  3x2 x3  2 x1 x3 (iv) ax 2  2hxy  by 2

(v) ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2hxy  2 fy z  2 g z x (vi) x12  2 x22  3x32  4 x2 x3  6 x1 x3

(vii) 2 x 2  4 y 2  3z 2  2 xy (viii) x1 x2  x2 x3  x3 x1
3. Write the quadratic forms corresponding to following symmetric matrices :

 1 2 4  2 5 3
 1 4
(i)   (ii)  2 3 5 (iii)  5 0 4 
 4 2  4 5 7   3 4 1

 
 1 3 4 1 0 5 2
   a 0 0 0
7 2 0 1
(iv)  3 1 (v)  0 b 0  (vi) 
 2 5 0 3 2
   0 0 c   
7 2 1 2 4
4 1
 2 
Answers
1. (i) No (ii) No (iii) yes (iv) No (v) Yes (vi) Yes

   1 
 1 1 2  1 1 0 0 0 2
1
  1  
1 1 0 0  1 3  a h
2. (i)  1 2 (ii)  (iii)  0 (iv)  
 2 0 0 1 1 2 2  h b
 1     3 
 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
 2   2 
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 1 1
 0
a h g 1 0 3  2 1 0 2 2
 
1 1
(v)  h b f (vi)  0 2 2 
 (vii)  1 4 0 (viii)  0
 2 2
 g f c   3 2 3  0 0 3 1 1 
 0
 2 2 
3. (i) x12  8 x1 x2  2 x22 (ii) x12  3 x22  7 x32  4 x1 x2  8 x1 x3  10 x2 x3

(iii) 2 x12  x32  10 x1 x2  6 x1 x3  8 x2 x3 (iv) x12  x22  x32  6 x1 x2  8 x1 x3  7 x2 x3

(v) ax 2  by 2  cz 2 (vi) x12  2 x22  3x32  4 x42 10 x1 x3  4 x1 x4  2 x2 x4  4 x3 x4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.2 Diagonalization

Def. Discriminant of a quadratic form : The discriminant of a quadratic form is defined to be the
determinant of its matrix i.e. for q(X)= XA X , the discriminant of q(X) is det (A).
Def. Rank of a quadratic form : Rank of a quadratic form is defined to be the rank of its matrix.
Def. Singular and non – singular quadratic forms : A quadratic form is said to be singular if
its discriminant is zero ; otherwise it is called non – singular.
Def. Let q(X) = XAX be any quadratic form. A substitution X = BY in it is called a linear
transformation of the quadratic form. Further , if B is singular then the linear transformation X = BY
is called singular and if B is non – singular then it is called non-singular.
Result 1 : A quadratic form remains a quadratic form when subjected to a linear transformation.
Result 2 : The rank of a quadratic form is invariant under a non-singular linear transformation.
Def. Diagonal quadratic form : A quadratic form q(X) = XA X is called diagonal if matrix A is of
D O
the type  r where Dr is a diagonal matrix of order r.
O O 
OR
A quadratic form q in the variables x1 , x2 ,.........., xn is called canonical or diagonal if it is

represented as q = a1 x12  a2 x22  ............  ar xr2 , where r  n .

Def. Diagonalization : The process of transforming a quadratic form into a diagonal form is called
diagonalization.
There are many methods to diagonalize a quadratic form. Among them we shall discuss two methods.
 4

Result 3 : Every real quadratic form of rank r can be reduced to the form d1 y12  d 2 y22  ...  d r yr2 , di  0
by the application of a linear transformation. OR
Every real quadratic form on a field can be reduced to a diagonal form.
Method : To diagonalize a quadratic form.
Input : A quadratic form.
Output : Equivalent diagonal quadratic form and equations of transformation.
Working Steps :
(i) Find the symmetric matrix A of the given quadratic form.
(ii) Form the augmented matrix [A : I].
(iii) Check the entry a11. If a11  0 its okay but if a11 = 0 then make it non – zero by suitable row

operations and corresponding column operations.

(iv) Makes 0’s below a11 by applying row operations.
(v) Apply the corresponding column operations of step (iv) to make 0’s on the right of a11 .

(vi) Repeat the above process on a22 , a33 .... so on untill A is diagonalized. Then augmented matrix

[A : I] is transformed to a matrix, say, [D : P ], matrix A is congruent to D.

(vii) The equations of transformation are X = PY and diagonal form of given quadratic form is
d11 y12  d 22 y22  ...........  d nn yn2 .

Def. Rank , Index and Signature of a quadratic form : The number of non – zero terms in
the diagonal form of a quadratic form is called its rank and is denoted by r.
The number of positive terms in the diagonal form of a quadratic form is called its index and
is denoted by p.
The number 2p – r is called signature of a quadratic form and is denoted by s.
Example 1 : Reduce to diagonal form and find the rank , index and signature of the
following quadratic forms : x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz .

 1 1 0 3 
 1 1 2 3 
Solution : The matrix of the given quadratic form is A =  
 0 2 4 6 
 
 3 3 6 9 
 1 1 0 3  1 0 0 0
 1 1 2 3  0 1 0 0
Consider the augmented matrix [A : I] =  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 3 3 6 9  0 0 0 1
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 1 1 0 3  1 0 0 0
 0 0 2 0  1 1 0 0
Operating R 2  R 2  R1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 , we get ~  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 6 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 0 0 2 0  1 1 0 0
Operating C 2  C 2  C1 , C 4  C 4  3C1 , we get ~  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 6 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 0 4 2 6  0 0 1 0
Operating R 2  R 3 , C 2  C3 , we get ~  
 0 2 0 0  1 1 0 0
 
 0 6 0 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
1 1  0 1 1 3  0 0 0
Operating R 2  R 2 , C 2  C 2 , we get ~  2 
2 2  0 1 0 0  1 1 0 0
 
 0 3 0 18  3 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
0 1 1 3  0 0 0
 2 
Operating R 3  R 3  1R 2 , R 4  R 4  3R 2 , we get ~  1 
0 0 1 3  1 1 0
 2 
 3 
0 0 3 27  3 0 1
 2 

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
 2 
Operating C3  C3  1.C 2 , C4  C4  3C2 , we get ~  1 
0 0 1 3  1 1 0
 2 
 3 
0 0 3 27  3 0 1
 2 
 6

1 0 0 0 0  1 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
2
R 4  R 4  (3)R 3 , C 4  C4  (3)C3 ,we get ~   =[D : P ]
1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0
 2 
 0 0 0 18  0 3 0 1 

Thus the diagonal form is y12  y22  y32  18 y42 .

and rank = 4 , index = 2 , signature = 0.

1 0 1 0
 x1    y1 
 x  0 0 1 3  
 y2
Equations of transformations are given by X = PY i.e.  2    1 1  
 x3   0 0   y3 
   2 2   y4 
 x4   0 0 0 1 

1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  y3 , x2 = y3  3 y4 , x3 = y2  y3 and x4 = y4 .
2 2
Def. Canonical quadratic form : A quadratic form q(X)  X A X is said to be canonical if
(i) it is diagonal.
(ii) all non – zero elements on the diagonal of A are either 1 or 1 .
OR
A quadratic form q(X) in the variables {x1 , x2 ,..........., xn } is called in canonical form if

q(X) =  x12  x22  ...........  xr2 where r  n

Example 2 : Reduce the quadratic form x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz into

canonical form and also find the equations of transformation and rank , index , signature.
Solution : For the given quadratic form we have already obtained in example (1) that
1 0 0 0 0  1 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
 2 
[A : I] ~  1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0
 2 
 0 0 0 18  0 3 0 1 

1 1
Operating R 4  R 4 , C4  C 4 , we get
18 18
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1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
~  1  = [D : P ]
0 0 1 0  1 1 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  0 
 2 18 

Thus the canonical form of quadratic form is y12  y22  y32  y42 .

Equations of transformations are given by

1 0 1 0 
 1   y 
 x1  0 0 1  1
x   2 y 
X = PY i.e.  2    1 1  2
 x3  0 0   y3 
   2 2  
 x4   1  4
y
0 0 0 
 18 
1 1 1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  y3 , x2 = y3  y4 , x3 = y2  y3 and x4 = y4 .
2 2 2 18
Also , rank , index and signature are given by same manner as in the diagonal form.
So Rank = 4 , Index = 2 and Signature  0 .
Def. Canonical quadratic form over complex field : A quadratic form q(X)  X A X is said

I O
to be in canonical form if matrix A is of the type A =  r  , where Ir denotes the
O O 
identity matrix of order r. OR
A quadratic form q(X) in the variables {x1 , x2 ,..........., xn } is called in canonical form

over C, q(X) = x12  x22  ...........  xr2 , r  n

Example 3 : Reduce the quadratic form x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz into

canonical form over complex field and also find the equations of transformation.
Solution : For the given quadratic form we have already obtained in Example 2 that
 8

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
[A : I] ~  1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  0 
 2 18 
Operating R 3  i R 3 , C3  i C3 , R 4  i R 4 , C4  i C4 , we get

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
~  1  = [D : P ]
0 0 1 0  i i i 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  i 0 i
 2 18 

Thus the canonical form of quadratic form is y12  y22  y32  y42 .

Equations of transformations are given by

1 0 i 0 
 1   y 
 x1  0 0 i  i 1
x   2 y 
X = PY i.e.  2    1 1   2
 x3  0 i 0   y3 
   2 2  
 x4   1   4
y
0 0 0 i
 18 
1 1 1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  i y3 , x2 = i y3  i y4 , x3 = y2  i y3 and x4 = i y4 .
2 2 2 18
Lagrange’s method of diagonalization :
Input : A quadratic form q(X) = X A X .
Output : Diagonal form of q(X) .
Working steps :
(i) If quadratic form is given in the matrix notation then first change it into polynomial
expression form. Let the variables used are x1 , x2 ,.........., xn .

(ii) Collect the terms containing x1 in one bracket and take the coefficient of x12 common

outside the bracket to make it unity.

2
1 
(iii)Complete the square by adding and subtracting  coefficient of x1  .
2 
(iv)Repeat the above process for x2 , x3 ,..... and so on.
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(v) Give the name a1 y12  a2 y22  .......  ar yr2 to the last obtained expression , this is the

required diagonal form and the equations of transformation are given by values of
y1 , y2 ,....., yr in terms of x1 , x2 ,....., xn .

Example 4 : Apply Lagrange’s method to reduce the following to the diagonal form
2 x 2  2 y 2  3 z 2  4 yz  2 xy  4 zx .

Solution : The given quadratic form can be expressed as (2 x 2  2 xy  4 xz )  2 y 2  4 yz  3 z 2

= 2[ x 2  x( y  2 z )]  2 y 2  4 yz  3z 2
1 1
= 2[ x 2  x( y  2 z )  ( y  2 z ) 2 ]  2 y 2  4 yz  3 z 2  ( y  2 z ) 2
4 2
2
 1  1
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )   2 y 2  4 yz  3z 2  ( y 2  4 z 2  4 yz )
 2  2
2
 1  3
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )   y 2  2 yz  z 2
 2  2
2
 1  3 4 
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )    y 2  yz   z 2
 2  2 3 
2
 1  3 4 4  2
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )    y 2  yz  z 2   z 2  z 2
 2  2 3 9  3
2 2
 1  3 2  1
= 2  x  ( y  2z)   y  z   z 2
 2  2 3  3
3 2 1 2
= 2 y12  y2  y3
2 3
1 2
where y1  x  y  z , y2  y  z , y3  z .
2 3
Exercise 10.2
1. Diagonalize the following quadratic forms and also find the rank , index and signature.
(i) x 2  2 y 2  7 z 2  4 xy  8 xz (ii) xy  yz  2 xz

1 2 3
(iii) X '  2  2  4  X
 (iv) 2 x12  2 x22  3 x32  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2
 3  4  3 
(v) x 2  2 y 2  3z 2  4 yz  6 zx
 10
2. Reduce the following quadratic forms into canonical form and also find the equations of
transformations. Also find rank , index and signature.
(i) x12  3x22  5 x32 +4 x1 x2  4 x1 x3  10 x2 x3

1 2 3 1
2  4 6 2 
(ii) X '  X (iii) 2 x12  2 x22  3 x32  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2
3 6 9 3
 
1 2 3 1

3. Reduce the following quadratic forms into form d i yi2 and also find the equations of

transformations.
 1 2 4 
2 2 2
(i) 2 x  2 x  3 x  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2 (ii) X '  2 2 0 X
1 2 3  
 4 0  7 

(iii) x1 x2  x1 x3  x1 x4  x2 x3  x3 x4

4. By using the Lagrange’s method diagonalize the following quadratic forms.

(i) x12  2 x22  7 x32  4 x1 x2  8 x1 x3

(ii) 2 x12  5 x22  19 x32  24 x42  8 x1 x2  12 x1 x3  8 x1 x4  18 x2 x3  8 x2 x4  16 x3 x4

5. Reduce the real quadratic form

x12  3x22  8 x32  8 x42  4 x1 x2  6 x3 x1  4 x1 x4  10 x2 x3  16 x2 x4  20 x3 x4 to canonical form over

(i)  (ii)  . Also find the rank and index and write the matrix of transformation.

Answers
1. (i) y12  2 y22  9 y32 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.

1 2
(ii) y12  y2  2 y32 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.
4
14 2
(iii) y12  6 y22  y3 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.
3
3 2 1 2
(iv) 2 y12  y2  y3 , rank = 3 index = 3 signature = 3.
2 3
(v) y12  2 y22  4 y32 , rank = 3 index = 1 signature =  1.

2. (i) y12  y22  y32 , rank = 3, index = 2, signature = 1

1 1
Equations are x1  y1  2 y2  2 2 y3 , x2  y2  y3 , x3  y3
2 2
(ii) y12  y22 , rank = 2 , index = 1 , signature = 0.
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y2 y
Equations are x1  y1   3 y3  y4 , x2  2 , x3  y3 , x4  y4
2 2
(iii) y12  y22  y32 , rank = 3 , index = 3 , signature = 3.

3 2 1 2 1 2 2
3. (i) 2 y12  y2  y3 , equations are x1  y1  y2  y3 , x2  y2  y3 , x3  y3
2 3 2 3 3
(ii) y12  2 y22  9 y32 , equations are x1  y1  2 y2  4 y3 , x2  y2  4 y3 , x3  y3

1 2 3 1 1 1 1
(iii) y12  y2  y32  y42 , equations are x1  y1  y2  y3  y4 , x2  y1  y2  y3  y4 ,
4 4 2 2 2 2
1
x3  y3  y4 , x4  y4
2
4. (i) y12  2 y22  9 y32 (ii) 2 y12  3 y22  4 y32

 1 5 2 1
 0 2 1 1
 
5. (i) y12  y22  y32 ; rank = 3 ; index = 2 ;  0 0 0 1 
 
0 1 0 0 
 2 

 1 5 2i 1
0 2 i 1
 
(ii) y12  y22  y32 ; 0 0 0 1
 
0 1 0 0
 2 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.3 Definiteness of the quadratic forms

Def. Positive definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive
definite if q is always positive for all non-zero real values of X and is zero only if X = 0.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is positive definite if in its diagonal form (over reals)

all the variables x1 , x2 ,........, xn are present with positive coefficients i.e.

q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  an xn2 where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = index = n i.e. p = r = n.

Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive definite if q  X   0  X  0 .
 12

Def. Negative definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative
definite if q is always negative for all non-zero real values of X and is zero only when X = 0.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,......, xn ) is negative definite if in its diagonal form (over reals) all

the variables x1 , x2 ,........, xn are present with negative coefficients i.e.

q =  a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  an xn2 where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = n and index = 0 i.e. r = n and p = 0.
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Positive semi - definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called
positive semi – definite if q is always  0 for all real values of X .
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is positive semi – definite if in its diagonal form

(over reals) at least one variable out of x1 , x2 ,........, xn is absent and all remaining
variables are present with positive coefficients i.e.
q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  ar xr2 , r  n , where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = index < n i.e. p = r < n.
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive semi – definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Negative semi - definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called
negative semi – definite if q is always  0 for all real values of X .
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is negative semi – definite if in its diagonal form

(over reals) at least one variable out of x1 , x2 ,........, xn is absent and all remaining
variables are present with negative coefficients i.e.
q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  ar xr2 , r  n , where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank < n and index = 0 i.e. r < n and p = 0 .
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative semi – definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Indefinite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called indefinite if q
can assume both positive and negative values for different real values of X.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is indefinite if in its diagonal form (over reals) at least

one negative and one positive term is present.

Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called indefinite if q  X 1   0 for some X 1  0 ,

q  X 2   0 for some X 2  0

Def. Let q = XA X be a real quadratic form. The definiteness of the matrix A is defined
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to be the definiteness of the quadratic form q.

Def. Range of a quadratic form : The set of all values attained by a quadratic form is called its range.
Results : (i) Range of a positive definite and positive semi definite quadratic form is [0, ) .
(ii) Range of a negative definite and negative semi definite quadratic form is (,0] .
(iii) Range of an indefinite quadratic form is (, ) .
Example : Determine the definiteness of the quadratic form
6 x 2  25 y 2  61z 2  24 xy  36 xz  76 yz .

 6 12 18
Solution : The matrix of the given quadratic form is A =  12 25 38 
 18 38 61 

We have already obtained the diagonal form of this quadratic form in Example 4, namely,
6 y12  y22  3 y32 . Clearly this canonical form contains all the three variables and also with
positive coefficients, therefore the given quadratic form positive definite.
Note : If a quadratic form contains atleast one square term with positive sign and one square term with
negative sign, then that quadratic form is always indefinite.

Exercise 10.3
1. Determine the definiteness of the following quadratic forms using the digonalization process
(i) 6 x 2  3 y 2  3 z 2  4 xy  2 yz  4 zx (ii) 9 x 2  y 2  4 z 2  6 xy  4 yz  12 zx

(iii) 21x 2  11 y 2  2 z 2  30 xy  8 yz  12 zx (iv)  y 2  2 xy  2 yz

(v) 2 x12  4 x2 2  8 x32  2 x2 x3  2 x1 x3  2 x1 x2 (vi) x 2  2 y 2  3z 2  4 yz  6 zx

(vii)  3x 2  4 y 2  2 z 2  2 yz  xz  7 xy

Answers
1. (i) Positive Definite (ii) Positive Semi definite (iii) Negative Semi definite
(iv) Indefinite (v) Positive definite (vi) Indefinite
(vii) Indefinite
 14

10.4 Sylvester’s Criterion

Example : Write down all the minors, principal minors and the leading principal minor of
order 1,2,3 for a 3  3 matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

Solution : Let A   a21 a22 a23 

 a31 a32 a33 

(i) Minors of order 1 : a11 , a12 , a13 , a21 , a22 , a23 , a31, a32 , a33 .

Principal minors of order 1 : a11 , a22 , a33 .

Leading principal minor of order 1 : a11 .

a22 a23 a21 a22 a21 a22 a12 a13 a11 a13
(ii) Minors order of 2 : , , , , ,
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 a22 a23 a31 a33

a11 a12 a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12

, , ,
a31 a32 a23 a33 a21 a23 a21 a22

a11 a12 a11 a13 a21 a22

Principal minors of order 2 : , ,
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a23

a11 a12
Leading Principal Minor of order 2 :
a21 a22

a11 a12 a13

(iii) Minor of order 3  a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33

There is only one minor of order 3 which acts as principal minor and leading principal minor as well.
Result : Let A   aij  be a matrix, then
nn

2
(i) Number of all minors of order r  r is  n
Cr 

(ii) Number of all principal minors of order r  r is n Cr .

(iii) Number of leading principal minor of r  r is 1.

Theorem 1 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive definite iff all the leading principal

minors of A are positive.

Particular Cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22
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 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a13

a11 a12
a11  0 ,  0 , a21 a22 a23  0
a21 a22
a31 a32 a33

Theorem 2 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is negative definite iff all the leading

principal minors are alternatively negative and positive, starting with first.
Particular cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is negative definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13

a a12
(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is negative definite iff a11  0 , 11  0 , a21 a22 a23  0
 a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33  a31 a32 a33

Theorem 3 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive semi definite iff A is singular i.e

A  0 and all other principal minors are non-negative.

Particular cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive semi-definite iff a11  0 , a22  0 and 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive semi-definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

a11  0 , a22  0 , a33  0 , 0, 0,  0 and A  0
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

Theorem 4 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is negative semi definite iff A  0 and all

principal minors of even order of A are non-negative while those of odd order are non-positive.
Particular Cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is negative semi-definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22
 16

 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is negative semi-definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

a11  0 , a22  0 , a33  0 , 0 , 0 ,  0 and A  0 .
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

Theorem 5 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is indefinite iff at least one of the following

condition is satisfied.
(i) A has negative principal minor of even order.
(ii) A has positive principal minor of odd order and negative principal minor of even order.
Particular Cases :
a a 
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is indefinite iff A  0 and a11 and a22 are of opposite signs.
 a21 a22 

 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is indefinite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

(i)  0 or  0 or 0
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

(ii) Out of a11 , a22 , a33 , A at least one is positive and at least one is negative.

Theorem 6 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive semi-definite if A  0 and the other

leading principal minors are positive.

Particular Cases :
a a 
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive semi-definite if a11  0 , det  A   0
 a21 a22 

 a11 a12 a13 

a a12
(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive semi-definite if a11  0 , 11  0 and det(A)=0
 a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 

Theorem 7 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is Negative Semi-definite if det  A   0 and

the other Principal Minor of odd order are negative and of even order are positive.
Eigen Value Theorem For definiteness : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is

(i) Positive definite iff all eigen value of A are positive.

(ii) Negative definite iff all eigen value of A are negative.
(iii) Positive semi-definite iff at-least one eigen value is zero and all other eigen values are
non-negative.
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(iv) Negative semi-definite iff at-least one eigen value is zero and all other eigen values are non-
positive.
(v) Indefinite iff at-least one eigen value is positive and at-least one eigen value is negative.
Results :
1. If A and B are two congruent matrices then they have same rank, same index and same signature.
or
If two matrices are congruent then they have same number of positive eigen values and same number
of negative eigen values.
2. If A and B are two positive definite matrices, then A  B is also positive definite.
Proof : If A and B are positive definite, then for all non-zero values of X, we have
X ' AX  0 and X ' BX  0
 X ' AX  X ' BX  0
 X ' A  B  X  0

 A  B is positive definite.
3. If A and B are two positive definite matrices such that AB  BA , then AB is also positive definite.
4. If A is positive definite matrix, then Ak is also positive definite for all k   .
Proof : If A is positive definite, then all the eigen values of A are positive and hence all the eigen
values of Ak are also positive. Therefore, Ak is positive definite.
5. If A and B are two positive definite matrices, then ABA is also positive definite.
Proof : Since A is positive definite, therefore A is symmetric also i.e., A '  A
 ABA  A ' BA  B
Thus, A ' BA and B have same number of positive eigen values and B is positive definite, therefore
A ' BA  ABA is also positive definite.
6. If A is positive definite matrix, then A ' A is also positive definite.
Proof : Since A is positive definite, therefore A is symmetric also i.e., A '  A
 A ' A  A2
and A2 is positive definite by result (4). Therefore, A ' A is positive definite.
 18

Exercise 10.4
1. Determine the definiteness of the following quadratic forms using the Sylvester’s Criterion .
(i) 6 x 2  3 y 2  14 z 2  4 xy  4 yz  18 zx (ii) x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx

(iii)  x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  2 xy  2 yz (iv)  x 2  3 y 2  2 z 2

(v)  21x12  30 x1 x2 12 x1 x3  11x22  8 x2 x3  2 x32

2. Prove that the quadratic form ax 2  2hxy  by 2 is positive definite iff a > 0 and h 2  a b .

3. For a positive definite quadratic form X  A X , prove that A  0 .

Answers
1. (i) Positive Definite (ii) Positive definite (iii) Negative definite
(iv) Negative definite (v) Indefinite
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Assignment 1. There exists an eigenvector v of A such

---------------------- S C Q --------------------- that Av is perpendicular to v

1. Consider the quadratic form Q  v   v t Av , 2. The set {v   2 | f (v, v)  0} is a non-

zero subspace of  2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0  3. If v, w   2 are non-zero vectors such
where A   , v   x, y , z , w 
0 0 0 1 that f (v, v)  0  f (w, w) , then v is a
 
0 0 1 0
scalar multiple of w.
Then
4. For every v   2 , there exists a non-
1. Q has rank 3
zero w   2 such that f (v, w)  0 .
2
2. xy  z  Q  Pv  for some invertible
(CSIR NET June 2016)
4  4 real matrix P.
 3 1 0 
3. xy  y 2  z 2  Q  Pv  for some 4. The matrix  1 2 1 is
 0 1 3 
invertible 4  4 real matrix P.  
4. x 2  y 2  zw  Q  Pv  for some 1. positive definite.

invertible 4  4 real matrix P. 2. non-negative definite but not positive

(CSIR NET Dec 2015) definite.

2. Let A be a n  n real symmetric non- 3. negative definite.

singular matrix. Suppose there exists 4. neither negative definite nor positive
definite.
x   n such that xAx  0 . Then we can
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
conclude that
5. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such
1. det( A)  0 .
2. B   A is positive definite. that b 2  c 2  a  1 . Consider the 3  3

3. y   n ; yA1 y  0 . 1 b c 
matrix A  b a 0  .
4. y   n ; yA1 y  0 .  c 0 1 
(CSIR NET June 2016)
1. All the eigenvalues of A are negative
1 0 
3. Let A    . Let f :  2   2   be real numbers
 0 1
2. All eigenvalues of A are positive real
T
defined by f (v, w)  w Av . numbers
Pick the correct statement from below : 3. A can have a positive as well as a
 2
negative eigenvalue 4. For all  a1 ,....., an  , zero is an
4. Eigenvalues of A can be non real
eigenvalue of A.
complex numbers
(CSIR NET June 2011)
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 2. Suppose A, B are n  n positive definite
1 2 matrices and I be the n  n identity matrix.
6. Let A     M 2    and
4 3 Then which of the following are positive
 :  2   2   be the bilinear map definite
defined by   v, w   vT Aw . Choose the 1. A+B 2. ABA

correct statement from below : 3. A2  I 4. AB

(CSIR NET June 2011)
1.   v, w     w, v  for all v, w   2
3. Which of the following matrices are
2. there exists nonzero v   2 such that positive definite ?
2
  v, w   0 for all w    2 1 1 2
1.   2.  
3. there exists a 2  2 symmetric matrix B 1 2  2 1

such that   v, v   vT Bv for all v   2  4 1 0 4

3.   4.  
 1 4   4 0
4. the map  :  4   defined by
(CSIR NET June 2012)
  v1  
  4. Suppose A is a 3  3 symmetric matrix
v  v  w  
   2       1  ,  1   is linear  x
  w1  
  v2   w2  
    such that  x, y ,1 A  y   xy  1 .
  w2  
 1 
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
Let p be the number of positive eigenvalues
--------------------- M C Q -----------------------
of A and let q  rank(A)  p . Then
1. p 1 2. p  2
1. Let aij  ai a j , 1  i, j  b , where a1 ,....., an
3. q  2 4. q  1

are real numbers. Let A   aij  be the  (CSIR NET Dec 2012)
n  n matrix  a  . Then
ij 5. Let A be a n  n non-singular matrix with

1. It is possible to choose a1 ,....., an so as real entries. Let B  AT denote the

transpose of A. Which of the following
to make the matrix A non singular.
matrices are positive definite ?
2. The matrix A is positive definite if
 a1 ,....., an  is a non zero vector. 1. A  B 2. A1  B 1
3. AB 4. ABA
3. The matrix A is positive semidefinite for
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
all  a1 ,....., an  .
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3 1 2 9. Consider the quadratic forms q and p given

6. Let A   1 2 3  and Q  X   X t AX for
 2 3 1 
3
X   . Then
1. A has exactly two positive eigenvalues
2. all the eigenvalues of A are positive
3. Q  X   0 for all x   3
4. Q  X   0 for some x   3
(CSIR NET June 2017)
7. Consider the quadratic form
q  x, y , z   4 x 2  y 2  z 2  4 xy  2 xz  yz
over  . Which of the following statements
about the range of values taken by q as
x, y , z vary over  , are true ?
1. range contains 1,  
2. range is contained in  0, 
3. range  
4. range is contained in   N ,   for some
large natural number N depending on q
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
by q  x, y , z, w   x 2  y 2  z 2  bw2 and
p  x, y, z, w   x 2  y 2  czw .
Which of the following statements are
true ?
1. p and q are equivalent over  if b and
c are non zero complex numbers.
2. p and q are equivalent over  if b and
c are non zero real numbers.
3. p and q are equivalent over  if b and
c are non zero real numbers with b
negative.
4. p and q are NOT equivalent over  if
c0
(CSIR NET June 2013)
10. For any real square matrix M let    M 
be the number of positive eigenvalues of M
counting multiplicities. Let A be an n  n
real symmetric matrix and Q be an n  n
real invertible matrix. Then
1. Rank A  Rank QT AQ

8. Which of the following matrices are 2. Rank A  Rank Q 1 AQ

positive definite ? 3.    A      QT AQ 
 2 1 1 2
1.   2.   4.    A     Q 1 AQ 
1 2  2 1
 4 1 0 4 (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
3.   4.  
 1 4   4 0 11. Let f :  4   be defined by
(CSIR NET June 2012) f  x   xt Ax, where A is a 4  4 matrix

with real entries and xt denotes the

 4
transpose of x. The gradient of f at a point Assignment key
x0 necessarily is SCQ

1. 2Ax0 2. Ax0  At x0 1. 4 2. 3 3. 4 4. 1
5. 2 6. ---
3. 2 At x0 4. Ax0
MCQ
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1. 3,4 2. 1,2,3 3. 1,3 4. 1,3
12. For every 4  4 real symmetric non-
5. 3 6. 1,4 7. 1,3 8. 1,3
singular matrix A, there exists a positive
9. 1,3,4 10. 1,2,3,4 11. --- 12. 1,2,3
integer p such that
13. 4
1. pI  A is positive definite

2. A p is positive definite
3. A p is positive definite
4. exp  pA   I is positive definite

(CSIR NET Dec 2017)

1 2 0 
13. Let A   0 0 2  and define for
0 0 1 
 
x, y , z  

 x
 
Q  x, y, z    x y z  A  y  .
z
 
Which of the following statements are true
?
1. The matrix of second order partial
derivatives of the quadratic form Q is
2A
2. The rank of the quadratic form Q is 2
3. The signature of the quadratic form Q is
  0

4. The quadratic form Q takes the value 0

for some non-zero vector  x, y, z 

(CSIR NET June 2018)

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Chapter - 11
Inner Product Spaces
11.1 Definition and examples
Def. Inner Product : Let V be a vector space V over F where F is the field of complex numbers or
real numbers. A mapping ( , ) : V  V  F is called an inner product if it satisfies the following
axioms :
(i) (u , v ) = (v, u ) , the complex conjugate of (v, u )
(ii) (u , u )  0 and (u , u ) = 0 iff u = 0
(iii) (au  bv, w)  a (u , w)  b(v, w) for all u , v, w  V and a, b  F .
The space V equipped with an inner product is called an inner product space.
OR
A vector space V over F (F being the field of complex numbers or real numbers) is called an inner
product space if for any two elements u , v  V , there is defined an element of F , denoted by
(u , v ) ,satisfying the following axioms :

(i) (u , v ) = (v, u ) , the complex conjugate of (v, u )

(ii) (u , u )  0 and (u , u ) = 0 iff u = 0
(iii) (au  bv, w)  a (u , w)  b(v, w) for all u , v, w  V and a, b  F .
Remarks :
(1) Axioms (i) , (ii) and (iii) in the definition of Inner Product Space are called Symmetry , Non-
negativity and Linearity respectively.
(2) If F is the field of real numbers , then V is called real inner product space or Euclidean space. In
this case the axiom (i) is stated as : (u , v ) = (v, u )
(3) If F is the field of complex numbers , then V is called complex inner product space or Unitary space.
(4) It should be noted that by axiom (i) , we have , (u , u ) = (u , u ) so that (u , u ) is a real number and
hence (u , u )  0 in axiom (ii) is justified.
Some standard inner products :
1. Let u  ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ,...., yn ) be any two vectors in  n then the standard inner
 2

 y1 
y 
... xn     x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn
2
product is defined as (u , v)  uv '   x1 x2

 
 yn 

 x1   y1 
x  y 
Remark : If u   2  and v   2  be two column vectors of  n then the standard inner product is
 
   
 xn   yn 
given by  u , v   u ' v

2. Let u  ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ,...., yn ) be any two vectors in  n then the standard inner

product is defined as (u , v)  uv  x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn .

 x1   y1 
x  y 
Remark : If u   2  and v   2  be two column vectors of  n then the standard inner product is
 
   
 xn   yn 
given by  u , v   u ' v  x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn

3. Let A and B be any two matrices of same order, then the standard inner product is defined as :
n
If complex entries, then A, B  tr( B A)   aij bij
i , j 1

If real entries, then A, B  tr( B ' A)  a1b1  a2b2  ....  anbn

4. Consider the vector space  n with inner product x, y  xT y , then Ax, y  x, A y . Where x

and y are column vectors.

T
Proof : Ax, y   Ax  y

 xT AT y
 xT A y

 
 xT A y

 x, A y

Remark : If  n is replaced by  n , then Ax, y  x, AT y .

Example 1 : Consider the vector space R2 (R). Show that

(u , v)  x1 y1  2 x1 y2  2 x2 y1  5 x2 y2 where u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 )

is an inner product on R2.

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Solution : (i) For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , we have

(v, u ) = y1 x1  2 y1 x2  2 y2 x1  5 y2 x2

= x1 y1  2 x1 y2  2 x2 y1  5 x2 y2

= (u , v )
(ii) We have, by definition
(u , u ) = x1 x1  2 x1 x2  2 x2 x1  5 x2 x2

= x12  4 x1 x2  5 x22

= x 2
1  4 x1 x2  4 x22   x 2

= ( x1  2 x2 )2  x22  0

Also , (u , u ) = 0 iff ( x1  2 x2 )2  x22  0

iff x1  2 x2  0 and x2  0

iff x1 = 0 and x2 = 0

iff ( x1 , x2 ) = (0 , 0)

iff u = 0.
(iii) Let u = ( x1 , x2 ) , v = ( y1 , y2 ) and w = ( z1 , z2 ) , so that we have

au  bv  a ( x1 , x2 )  b( y1 , y2 )  (ax1  by1 , ax2  by2 )

Now by definition of inner product,

(au  bv, w)  (ax1  by1 ) z1  2(ax1  by1 ) z2 2(ax2  by2 ) z1  5(ax2  by2 ) z2

= a( x1 z1  2 x1 z2  2 x2 z1  5 x2 z2 ) + b( y1 z1  2 y1 z 2  2 y2 z1  5 y2 z2 )

= a(u, w)  b(v, w)
Hence (u , v ) defines an inner product on R2.

Example 2 : Given u1  (1,3) and u2  (2,1)  R 2 , find u  R 2 such that

(u , u1 )  3 and (u , u2 )  1
Solution : The standard inner product on R2 is defined as
(u1 , u2 ) =  ( x1, x2 ),( y1, y2 )   x1 y1  x2 y2
Now given that u1 = (1 , 3) , u2 = (2 , 1)

Let u = (x , y)
 4
Then by given conditions ,
(u , u1 ) = 3

  ( x, y), (1,3)   3
 x.1 + y.3 = 3
 x + 3y = 3 ......(1)
Also , (u , u2 )  1

  ( x, y), (2,1)   1
 x.2 + y.1 = 1
 2x + y = 1 ......(2)
6 7  6 7
Solving (1) and (2) , we obtain , x=  , y = . Hence u =   ,  .
5 5  5 5

Exercise 11.1
1. For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 )   2 show that (u , v)  2 x1 y1  x1 y2  x2 y1  x2 y2 is an inner product

on  2 .
2. Consider the vector space  2 () . For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , show that (u , v) defined by

(u , v)  x1 y1  x2 y1  x1 y2  4 x2 y2 is an inner product on  2 .

3. For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , show that (u , v)  x1 y2  x2 does not define an inner product on

 2 ( ) .
4. Let V be the vector space over C of all complex valued continuous functions on the
b
interval [a , b] . Define the inner product on V as  f (t ) , g (t )  =  f (t ) g (t ) dt . Show
a

that V is an inner product space.

5. In 3 () , let u  (1  i, i, 1) , v  (1  2i,1  i, 2i) . Find (u , v) and (v , u) and verify that :

(i) (u , v)  (v, u ) (ii) (u , v)  (v, u )  2 Re(u, v ) (iii) (u , v)  (v, u )  2 Im(u , v)

6. (a) Let u = (1, 2), v = (  1, 1)  2 . If w is a vector s.t. (u , w)= 1 and (v , w) = 3, find w.
(b) If u1  (1, 3,1), u2  (2,1, 4) , u3  (6, 7,8)   3 , find u   3 such that (u , u1 )  1 ,

(u , u2 )  1 , (u , u3 )  7 .

7. (a) Let V be the vector space of all real polynomials of degree  2, show that
1

 f ( x ) g ( x)    f ( x) g ( x) dx for all f ( x ) g ( x )  V is an inner product on V.

1
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(b) If f ( x )  x 2  x  4 and g ( x )  x  1 , then find  f ( x ), g ( x )  and  g ( x), g ( x)  .

 1 2 0  2 3 1 
8. Let A    and B    , then find
 2 3 1   0 1 2 
(i) A, A (ii) B, B (iii) A, B

Answers
 7 2 8
6. (a)   ,  (b) (1 , 1 , 1) 7. (b) 8 , . 8. (i) 19 (ii) 19 (iii) –3
 3 3 3

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.2 Properties of an inner product
Let V (F) be an inner product space then for all a, b, c  F and u , v, w  V , we have
(i) (au, v)  a (u , v) (ii) (u  v, w)  (u , w)  (v, w)
(iii) (u  v, w)  (u , w)  (v, w) (iv) (u , av)  a (u , v)

(v) (u , bv  cw)  b (u , v)  c (u, w) (vi) (u , v  w)  (u , v )  (u, w)

(vii) (u , v  w)  (u, v )  (u , w) (viii) (0, v )  (u, 0)  0
(ix) (u , v )  0 for all v  V  u = 0 (x) (u , w)  (v, w) for all w  V  u  v
Def. Norm of a vector : Let V be an inner product space and v  V . Then norm (length) of v,

denoted by v , is defined as v  (v, v )  (v, v)1 2

We take only non-negative value of square root and so norm of a vector is always a non-negative
real number.
Def. Unit Vector : A vector v of an inner product space V is called a unit vector if v = 1.

Result 1 : In an inner product space V over the field F , then

v
(i) av  a v for all a  F , v  V (ii) is always a unit vector, where v  0
v

Result 2 : Cauchy schwarz inequality : Let V be an inner product space. Then for arbitrary vectors
u , v  V , we have (u, v)  u v

Further , equality holds if and only if u and v are linearly dependent.

OR
Modulus of inner product of two vectors cannot exceed the product of their norms.
 6

Result 3 : Triangle’s inequality : Let V be an inner product space , then for all u , v  V , we have

uv  u  v .

Further if u  v  u  v , then u and v are linearly dependent.

Remark : In the above result , we have that if u  v  u  v , then u and v are

linearly dependent.
Now , we give an example to show that converse of this is not true , in general , i.e., if u and
v are linearly dependent , then it is not necessary that u  v  u  v .

For this , consider standard inner product on  3 .

Let u = (1, 2, 2) , v = (2, 4, 4)   3 then u and v are linearly dependent as v  2u

We have : u  (u, u ) = 1.1  (2)(2)  2.2 = 1 4  4  3

and v = (v , v ) = (2)(2)  4.4  (4)(4) = 4  16  16 = 6

Thus u + v = 3 + 6 = 9

Also , u + v = (1, 2, 2) and

u  v  (u  v, u  v ) = (1)(1)  2.2  (2)(2) = 1 4  4 = 3

Clearly u  v  u  v .

Result 4 : Parallelogram law : If u and v are vectors in an inner product space , then
2 2 2 2
u v  u v  2 u 2 v .

Result 5 : Every inner product space is a metric space.

Result 6 : Every inner product space is a normed linear space.
Example 1 : (i) Find the norm of the vector u = (2, 3,6)  R 3 .
u
(ii) Verify that is a unit vector.
u

Solution : (i) Using the standard inner product on R3 we have :

(u , u )  2.2  (3)(3)  6.6 = 4 + 9 + 36 = 49

 u  (u, u ) = 7.

u 1 2 3 6
(ii) We have,  (2, 3,6) =  ,  , 
u 7 7 7 7
u 2 2  3  3  6 6 49
So ,  .        . =  1.
u 7 7  7  7  7 7 49
u
Hence is a unit vector.
u
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Exercise 11.2
1. Let V(R) be a vector space of all real polynomial with inner product defined by
1
( f , g )   f ( x) g ( x) dx
0

If f ( x )  x 2  1 and g ( x )  x  1 then find ( f , g ) and g .

n 12 12
 n 2  n 2
2. For xi , yi  R , prove that  xi yi   xi   yi  .
i 1  i 1   i1 
1 12 12
1 2  1 2 
3. Prove that :  f ( x) g ( x) dx    f ( x ) dx    g ( x ) dx  where f ( x) and g ( x ) are continuous
0 0  0 
complex valued functions on [0 , 1].
4. If u = (2, 3,5) and v = (4,6, 10)   3 , verify that (u , v)  u . v . Why does the equality occur

here ?
5. If u ,v are vectors in a real inner product space s.t. u  v , prove that (u  v, u  v) = 0.

Answers
7 1
1.  , .
12 3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.3 Orthogonality

Def. Orthogonal Vectors : Let V be an inner product space and u , v be vectors in V. Then u is said
to be orthogonal to v (written u  v ) if (u , v) = 0.
Here note that
(i) If u  v , then (u , v) = 0 and so (v, u )  (u , v )  0 . Hence u  v iff v  u .
(ii) Since (0 , u) = 0 for all u  V so the zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.
(iii) Let u V such that u  u then (u , u) = 0  u = 0 . Hence the zero vector is
the only vector which is orthogonal to itself.
(iv) If (u , v )  0 , then (au, v)  a (u , v)  a.0  0 . Hence if u  v , then any scalar multiple of u is also
orthogonal to v
 8

Def. Orthogonal Set : A subset S of inner product space is said to be orthogonal if (u , v )  0 for all
u , v  S such that u  v i.e. every two distinct vectors of S are orthogonal.
Def. Orthonormal Set : A subset S of an inner product space V(F) is called an orthonormal
set if (i) u  1 for all u  S

(ii) (u , v )  0 for all u , v  S such that u  v

i.e. if every element of S is a unit vector and every two different vectors of S are orthogonal.
0 if i  j
Obviously, if a set {u1 , u2 ,......, un } is orthonormal, then we must have (ui , u j )  
1 if i  j
Result 1 : In an inner product space , an orthogonal set of non – zero vectors is linearly independent.
Result 2 : In an inner product space, an orthonormal set is linearly independent.
Result 3 : Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthonormal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an
n
arbitrary vector , then u   (u, ui )ui = (u , u1 )u1  (u , u2 )u2  .......  (u , un )un
i 1

OR
Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthonormal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an

arbitrary vector , then the coordinates of u relative to this basis are (u , ui ) , 1  i  n .

Result 4 : Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthogonal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an
n
(u, ui ) (u , u1 ) (u , u2 ) ( u , un )
arbitrary vector , then u   2
ui = 2
u1  2
u2  .......  2
un
i 1 ui u1 u2 un

Result 5 : Bessel’s inequality : If {u1 , u2 ,........., un } is any finite orthonormal set in an inner
n
2 2
product space V(F) and if v is any vector in V(F) , then  (v , u )
i 1
i  v .

Further, the equality holds iff v is in the subspace spanned by {u1 , u2 ,........., un } .

Result 6 : If {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors in an inner product space

V , then for any vector v  V

n 2 2 2 2
(v , ui ) 2 (v, u1 ) (v , u 2 ) (v , u n ) 2
i 1 ui
2
 v i.e.
u1
2

u2
2
 ...... 
un
2
 v .

Result 7 : Gram-schmidt orthogonalisation process : Every finite dimensional inner product space
has an orthonormal basis.
Result 8 : Construction : If an ordinary basis {u1 , u2 , u3} of an inner product space is given then an

orthonormal basis {v1 , v2 , v3} is constructed in the following manner :

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w1
v1 
w1
u1 w1 v1 w1  u1
w2
u2 w2 v2 ; w2  u2  (u2 , v1 )v1 ; v2 
w2
u3 w3 v3 w3  u3  (u3 , v1 )v1  (u3 , v2 )v2
w3
v3 
w3

Example 1 : Construct an orthonormal basis of R3(R) with standard inner product given the basis
{u1 , u2 , u3} , where u1  (1,0,1) , u2  (1,0, 1) , u3  (0,3, 4) .

Solution : If u = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) and v = ( y1 , y2 , y3 )  R3 then standard inner product is given by

(u , v)  x1 y1  x2 y2  x3 y3

Now the given basis of R3 is u1 , u2 , u3  where u1  (1,0,1) , u2  (1,0, 1) , u3  (0,3, 4)

Step I : We have :
u1 1  1 1 
v1   (1,0,1) =  ,0, 
u1 2 2
1  0 12
 2 2

Step II : Now let w2  u2  (u2 , v1 )v1 ......(1)

1 1
Now , (u2 , v1 )  1.  0.0  (1). 0
2 2
So , by (1) , w2  u2  (1, 0, 1)

1 1  1 1 
 v2  w2 = (1,0, 1) =  , 0,  
w2 2
1  0  (1) 2
 2 2

Step III : Again let

w3  u3  (u3 , v1 )v1  (u3 , v2 )v2 ......(2)

1 1
Now , (u3 , v1 )  0.  3.0  4. = 2 2
2 2
1 1
and (u3 , v2 )  0.  3.0  4. = 2 2
2 2
Thus , by (2) , we obtain :
 1 1   1 1 
w3  (0,3, 4)  2 2  ,0, 2 2 ,0,   = (0 , 3 , 0)
 2 2  2 2
1 1
 v3  .w3  (0,3,0) = (0,1,0)
w3 3
 10

Hence the orthonormal basis is {v1 , v2 , v3}

 1 1   1 1 
where v1   , 0,  , v2   ,0,   , v3 = (0 , 1 , 0).
 2 2  2 2

Exercise 11.3
1. Construct an orthonormal basis of 3 () with standard inner product given the basis {u1 , u2 , u3}

where
(i) u1  (1,1,1) , u2  (1, 2,1) , u3  (1, 2,3)

(ii) u1  (3,0, 4) , u2  (1,0, 7) , u3  (2,9,11) .

2. Construct an orthonormal basis of 3 () with standard inner product given the basis {u1 , u2 , u3}

where u1  (1  i, i,1) , u2  (2,1  2i, 2  i) , u3  (1  i ,0, i ) .

3. Construct an orthonormal basis w.r.t. standard inner product for the subspace of  4 generated by
(1,1, 1,1) and (1,0,1, 2) .
4. Let V be the vector space over  of all real polynomials of degree  2. Define an inner product on
1
V as ( f , g )   f ( x) g ( x) dx for f , g  V . Construct an orthonormal basis of V.
0

d2y dy
5. Let V be the vector space of real functions satisfying 2
 5  6 y  0 . In V , inner product is
dx dx
0
defined as (u , v)   u.v dx u , v  V . Find an orthonormal basis of V.


d3y d2y dy
6. Let V be the vector space of real functions satisfying 3
 6 2  11  6 y  0 . In V , inner
dx dx dx
0
product is defined as (u , v)   u.v dx u , v  V . Find an orthonormal basis of V.


7. Prove that two vectors u and v in a real inner product space V are orthogonal if
2 2 2
and only if uv  u  v (This is known as Pythagoras theorem)
2 2 2
8. Let V be a complex inner product space. If u and v are orthogonal , then u  v  u  v .

However, the converse need not be true.

9. Show that if V is a complex inner product space , then u , v  V are orthogonal if and only if
2 2 2
au  bv  au  bv for all a, b   .

10. If {u , v} is an orthonormal set in an inner product space V , then u  v  2 .

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Answers
 1 1 1   1 2 1   1 1   3 4   4 3  
1. (i)  , ,  , , ,  ,  ,0,  (ii)  , 0,  ,   ,0,  ,  0,1,0  
 3 3 3   6 6 6   2 2   5 5   5 5  

1 i 1   1 1  5i 3  3i   7  i 5 6  3i 
2.  (1  i ), ,  ,  , , , , ,
2 2 2   2 3 4 3 4 3   2 30 2 30 2 30 


 1 1 1 1   1 1 3 3     1 
3.  , ,  ,  ,  ,  , ,   4. 1, (2 x  1) 3 ,  x 2  x   3 20 
 2 2 2 2   2 2 2 2     6 

 
5. 2e 2 x , 6  5e3 x  4e2 x  6.  
2e x ,6e 2 x  4e x , 6 10e3 x  12e 2 x  3e x 

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.4 Orthogonal complement

Def. Orthogonal subspaces : Let V(F) be an inner product space. Two subspaces
W1 and W2 of V are said to be orthogonal to each other if ( w1 , w2 )  0 for all w1  W1 and w2  W2

Def. Orthogonal complement : Let V(F) be an inner product space and W be a subspace of V.
The orthogonal complement of W , denoted by W  , is given by
W  = {v  V : (v, w)=0 for all w  W} i.e. orthogonal complement of W is collection of all
those vectors of V which are orthogonal to every element of W. Clearly , we have
( w1 , w2 )  0 for all w1  W and w2  W  .

Thus W and W  are orthogonal to each other.

Result 1 : Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V(F) , then W  is a subspace of V. i.e.
orthogonal complement of a subspace is also a subspace.
Result 2 : Let V(F) be any inner product space , and W be a subspace of V , then prove that
(i) {0}  V (ii) V  = {0} (iii) W  W   {0} (iv) W1  W2  W2  W1

Result 3 : Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V(F). If {u1 , u2 ,......., un } is a basis of W ,

then w  W  iff (w, ui ) = 0 1  i  n . In other words, w is orthogonal to each element of W iff w is

orthogonal to all the elements in a basis of W.

Result 4 : If W is a subspace of a finite dimensional inner product space V, then V= W  W  i.e. V is
a direct sum of W and W  .
 12
Result 5 : Let V(F) be a finite dimensional inner product space and W be a subspace of V. If
{u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an orthonormal basis of W and {v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } is an orthonormal basis of W 

then {u1 , u2 ,.........., un , v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } is an orthonormal basis of V.

Result 6 : Let V be an inner product space and W be a subspace of V , then

(i) W  W  (ii) W  W  , if V is finite dimensional (iii) W   W 
Result 7 : If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a finite dimensional inner product space , then
 
(i)  W1  W2   W1  W2 (ii)  W1  W2   W1  W2

Def. Orthogonal projection : If W is a subspace of a finite dimensional inner product space V , then
we know that V = W  W  . By definition of direct sum , every element v  V can be uniquely
expressed as v  w  w , where w  W and w W  .
The vectors w and w are called orthogonal projections of v on the subspaces W and W  .
Result 8 : Let V(F) be an inner product space and S be a subspace of V. If L(S) denotes the
linear span of S, then

(i) S   L(S)

(ii) L(S)  S

(iii) L(S) = S if V is finite dimensional.
Result 9 : Let W1 , W2 ,.........., Wn be pairwise orthogonal subspaces of an inner product space
n n
2 2
V(F). If w =  wi where wi  Wi for i  1, 2,........, n , then w   wi .
i 1 i 1

Result 10 : If V(F) is a finite dimensional inner product space and {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an
n
2 2
orthonormal set in V(F) s.t.  (v , u )
i 1
i = v for all v  V then {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is a basis of V.

Exercise 11.4
1. Let W be a subspace of  4 () generated by the vectors u1  (1,2,3,  2) and u2  (2,4,5,  1) .

Obtain a basis for W  .

2. Consider 3 () with standard inner product defined in it. Let W be a subspace of  3 spanned

by the vector w = (2 ,  1 , 6) . Find the projection of the vector v = (4 , 1 , 2) on W and W  .

Answers
19 2
1. {(2,1, 0,0), (7,0,3,1)} 2. (2, 1,6) and (63,30, 16)
41 41
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True false exercise 9. The vector (1,3,7) is orthogonal to the two

vectors (2, –3,1) and (8,2,–2).

1. Let V be the span of these two vectors : 10. Because the inner product is linear, we

u  (1, 0, 1) and w  (0,1, 0) . Then the have these two rules for computation :

vector v  (1,0,1) is in the orthogonal a. x, u  v  x, u  x, v

complement of V. b. x  y, u  v  x, u  y, v
2. In an inner product space, the norm of a 2 2 2
11. If x  y  x  y , then the vectors x
vector x is defined to be x, x .
and y are mutually orthogonal.
3. The orthogonal projection of a vector y
12. x  y  x  y , for all x and y.
onto a nonzero vector x is the point
13. If x, y  x, z , then y  z .
 1 
p  y, x  2  x .
 x  14. If x, y  0 , then x  0 or y  0 .
 
4. If an n-dimensional inner-product space 15. If either x  0 or y  0 , then x, y  0 .
contains an orthonormal set of n vectors, 16. If x, y  0 , then x  y  y .
then the orthonormal set is a basis for the
17. If x  y  y , then x, y  0 .
space.
18. If u  (1,3, 2) and v  (2,1,0) , then
5. In an inner-product space (using real
numbers as scalars) these are correct : u , v  1 .
2 2 2 19. A sufficient condition for orthogonality (or
x,  y   x, y , x  y  x  y ,
perpendicularity) of the pair u , v is
x, y  z  z , x  y , x .

6. The orthogonal projection of (1, 3) onto u v  vu .

(–2, 2) is (–1, 1). 20. Consider the subspace

7. If x and y are real unit vectors in an inner W  span (1,3, 2),(0,1, 2) , then (4,–2,1) is
2
product space, then x  y  2(1  x, y ) . orthogonal to W .

8. The three vectors u  (3,3,1), 21. The orthogonal projection of (5, 3) onto

v  (2, 1, 3) and w  (8, 11,9) form an  14 7 

(–2, 1) is  ,  .
 5 5
orthogonal set.
22. Let W be a subset of  n . If a vector x is

orthogonal to W and to W  , then x  0 .

 2
23. The null space of a matrix is the orthogonal 35. If u1, u2 ,...., un  spans an inner-product
complement of its row space.
space V, and if x  V and x, ui  0 for
n
24. Let v, u and x be three vectors in  such
i  1, 2,...., n , then x  0 .
that x  (v  u ) and x  (v  u ) . It follows
36. If W is a subspace in a finite-dimensional
that x  v and x  u . (The notation x  v
inner-product space V, then V  W  W  .
means that x is orthogonal to v.)
37. In a finite-dimensional inner-product space,
25. The orthogonal projection of a vector v
every subspace is the orthogonal
onto a vector z is v, z v / z , z .
complement of some other subspace.
26. An orthogonal set of non-zero vectors is
 1 6 6 
necessarily linearly independent.  3 8 3 
38. Let A   
27. If the columns of a square matrix form an  1 2 6 
 
orthonormal set, then the same is true of its  1 4 3
rows. Applying the Gram-Schmidt process to the
28. If the components of the vector v are not  1 3 1 
integers, then the length of v is not an 3 1 1
columns, we obtain  
integer.  1 1 3
 
29. An orthonormal set of vectors is  1 1 1 
necessarily linearly independent. 39. The rows in a unitary matrix are vectors of
30. If the columns of a 9  7 matrix form an norm one.
orthonormal set, then the same is true of its 40. Let A be a real symmetric matrix. If
rows. Ax  2 x and Ay  3 y , then we are justified
31. In an inner-product space, zero is the only in concluding that x, y  0 .
vector that is in W and W  . Here W is a 41. Let A be a symmetric and real matrix.
subspace of the inner-product space. Suppose that Ax   x and Ay   y ,
32. If V is a subspace of an inner-product space where    , x  0 and y  0 . Then we
X, then every point x in X can be expressed
can conclude that x  y .

as x  u  v , where v is in V and u is in V .
42. For x and y in  n , x, y  y, x .
4
33. The space  , with its usual inner product,
has many different orthonormal bases.
34. Let v  (1,0, 2,1) and w  (1,1, 1,1) . The
projection of x  (1,0,1, 0) on the span of
1
v, w is v.
2
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Assignment 2.  x V | x, y  1
---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
3. {x V | x, z  0 for all z such that
1. Let V be the inner product space consisting
z , y  0}
of linear polynomials, p : 0,1   (i.e., V
4. {x V | x, z  1 for all z such that
consists of polynomials p of the form
p  x   ax  b, a, b   ), with the inner z , y  1}

1 (CSIR NET Dec 2013)

product defined by p, q   p  x  q  x  dx
0
3. Let T1 ,T2 be two linear transformations

for p, q V . An orthonormal basis of V is from  n to  n . Let  x1 , x2 ,...., xn  be a

1. {1, x} 
2. 1, x 3  basis of  n . Suppose that T1 xi  0 for

 1 every i  1, 2,..., n and that xi  Ker T2 for

3. 1,  2 x 1 3 4. 1, x  
 2 every i  1, 2,..., n . Which of the following
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) is/are necessarily true ?
1. T1 is invertible.
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
2. T2 is invertible.

1. Let J be the 3  3 matrix all of whose 3. Both T1 ,T2 are invertible.

entries are 1. Then : 4. Neither T1 nor T2 is invertible.

1. 0 and 3 are the only eigenvalues of A. (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
2. J is positive semidefinite, i.e., 4. Let V denote the vector space of all
Jx, x  0 for all x   3 . polynomials over  of degree less than or

3. J is diagonalizable. equal to n. Which of the following defines

a norm on V ?
4. J is positive definite, i.e., Jx, x  0
2 2 2
1. p  p 1  ....  p  n  1 , p  V
for all x   with x  0
3

(CSIR NET Dec 2011) 2. p  supt 0,1 p  t  , p V

2. Let y be a nonzero vector in an inner 1

product space V. Then which of the 3. p   p  t  dt , p  V

0
following are subspaces of V ?
4. p  supt 0,1 p '  t  , p V
1.  x V | x, y  0
(CSIR NET June 2014)
 4

5. Let u , v, w be vectors in an inner product 8. Suppose v1 ,...., vn  are unit vectors in  n
space V, satisfying u  v  w  2 and 2
n
2
such that v   vi , v , v  n
 u , v  0,  u, w  1,  v, w  1 . Then i 1

which of the following are true ? Then decide the correct statements in the
following
1. w v u  2 2
1. v1 ,...., vn are mutually orthogonal.
1 1 
2.  u , v  forms an orthonormal basis
2 2  2. v1 ,..., vn  is a basis for  n .

of a two dimensional subspace of V. 3. v1 ,...., vn are not mutually orthogonal.

3. w and 4u  w are orthogonal to each 4. Atmost n  1 of the elements in the set
other.
v1 ,..., vn  can be orthogonal.
4. u , v, w are necessarily linearly
(CSIR NET June 2016)
independent.
9. Consider the vector space V of real
(CSIR NET June 2014)
polynomials of degree less than or equal to
6. Let A be a real n  n orthogonal matrix,
n. Fix distinct real numbers a0 , a1,...., ak .
t t
that is, A A  AA  I n , the n  n identity
For p V
matrix. Which of the following statements
are necessarily true ?   
max p a j : 0  j  k 
1. Ax, Ay  x, y  x, y   n Defines a norm on V

2. All eigenvalues of A are either +1 or –1 1. only if k  n

3. The rows of A form an orthonormal 2. only if k  n

basis of  n 3. if k  1  n

4. A is diagonalizable over  4. if k  n  1

(CSIR NET Dec 2014) (CSIR NET June 2017)

7. Let A be an n  n matrix with real entries.

Define x, y A
: Ax, Ay , x, y   n . Then

x, y A
defines an inner-product if and only

if
1. Ker A  0

2. rank A  n
3. All eigenvalues of A are positive.
4. All eigenvalues of A are non-negative.
(CSIR NET June 2016)
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True false key

1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. T 12. F
13. F 14. F 15. T 16. T
17. F 18. F 19. T 20. T
21. F 22. T 23. T 24. T
25. F 26. T 27. T 28. F
29. T 30. F 31. T 32. T
33. T 34. F 35. T 36. T
37. T 38. F 39. T 40. T
41. T 42. T
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3
MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,3 3. 2 4.1,2,3
5. 1,2,3,4 6. 1,3 7. 1,2 8. 1,2
9. 2,4