materials

Article
Advantages of the Application of the Temper Bead
Welding Technique During Wet Welding
Jacek Tomków * , Grzegorz Rogalski , Dariusz Fydrych and Jerzy Łabanowski
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza street 11/12,
80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; grzegorz.rogalski@pg.edu.pl (G.R.); darfydry@pg.edu.pl (D.F.);
jerzy.labanowski@pg.edu.pl (J.Ł.)
* Correspondence: jacek.tomkow@pg.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-58-347-18-63




Received: 7 February 2019; Accepted: 13 March 2019; Published: 19 March 2019


Abstract: Thermo-mechanically rolled S460ML steel was chosen for welding in underwater wet
welding conditions by covered electrodes. The main aim of this study was to check the weldability
for fillet welds in a water environment by controlled thermal severity (CTS) tests and to check the
influence of temper bead welding (TBW) on the weldability of the investigated steel. Non-destructive
and destructive tests showed that S460ML steel has a high susceptibility to cold cracking. In all
joints, hardness in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) was extended to the 400 HV10 values. Microscopic
testing showed the presence of microcracks in the HAZ of all welded joints. TBW was chosen
as the method to improve the weldability of the investigated steel. This technique allows for the
reduction of the maximum hardness in the HAZ below the critical value of 380 HV10, as stated by the
EN-ISO 15614-1:2017. It was determined that for S460ML steel, from the point of view of weldability,
the pitch between two beads should be in the range 75%–100%. Also, if the pitch between two beads
increases, the hardness, grain size, and number of cracks decreases. In all specimens where the
hardness of the HAZ was below 380 HV10, there were no microcracks.

Keywords: underwater welding; weldability; temper bead welding; cold cracking; wet welding;
CTS test; covered electrodes; hardness measurements; steel

1. Introduction
The research into the processes of joining in underwater conditions is developing annually.
There are many studies on the use of friction stir welding (FSW) in this environment [1,2].
FSW produces a small heat-affected zone (HAZ), which creates better mechanical properties in joints [3].
However, the most popular method of joining is still arc welding. There are three methods of welding
in underwater conditions. The first is dry welding, in which the welder and welding area are in a
specialized chamber without contact with the aqua environment [4,5]. The second method is welding
with the use of a local dry chamber. In this method, the diver/welder is in direct contact with the
water, but the welding area is located in a special chamber that isolates this area from the surrounding
water environment [6,7]. The final and most common method of underwater welding is wet welding,
where the diver and welding area are in contact with the water environment. This method is the
cheapest and can be used for many applications, including offshore and marine structures, which may
require repairs underwater [8].
Repair welding in the open air is a well-known process and often results in joints with good
mechanical properties. Welding in an underwater environment, on the other hand, generates some
significant problems due to imperfections and the lower mechanical properties of underwater joints in
comparison to joints made in the open air. The weldability of steel joints made in open air conditions
is often better than those made in the water [9,10].

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Materials 2019, 12, 915 2 of 12

Water as a welding environment causes instability of the electric arc. However, there are some
studies in this field that have showed that stability could be improved by using a static mechanical
constraint support [11]. The other method that could improve the stability of the welding arc is
welding with filler materials with a calcium fluoride content [12].
There are three big problems generated by the underwater conditions. Firstly, the high cooling
rate, which makes the t8/5 (cooling time in the temperature range 800–500 ◦ C) much shorter than in
air welding [13]. This leads to the formation hardened structures in the HAZ. The second problem
is the presence of residual stresses after welding. The third factor that generates the lower quality
of underwater joint is the diffusible hydrogen content in deposited metal [14]. These three factors
are responsible for the susceptibility to cold cracking, which is the biggest problem in underwater
wet-welding processes [15,16]. Cold cracks can be located in the weld and in the HAZ. Cold cracking is
the main problem in the welding of high-strength low allow (HSLA) steels [17], which are commonly
used as a part of offshore constructions [18]. There are a few methods for improving the weldability of
steels that are commonly used for joints made in the open air. The water environment precludes the
use of most of them. For air welding, one of the typical methods for improving the weldability of steel
is the pre-heating of the base material during welding. The latest laboratory experiments show that
induction heating in the water is possible [19], however, this technique is still not well-known and is
not used in real structures.
An alternative solution that offers the possibility of controlling the thermal welding cycle is
temper bead welding (TBW) [20,21]. It consists of the application of additional beads inside an existing
weld or on its face layer. The area of application of this technique mainly involves air repair welding
using the MMA, TIG and FCAW processes in the power [22] and pressure equipment industry [23].
TBW provides local heat treatment to prior weld layers and their HAZ. The heat of the tempering
beads can refine and temper the coarse-grained HAZ of the existing welds. It can provide a reduction
in hardness in the HAZ [24]. At the Gdańsk University of Technology, research was carried out to
show the possible effectiveness of TBW for steels from other groups than those investigated in this
article [25,26]. The studies of the TBW technique show that for S355G10 + N and S460N steel, TBW can
be an effective method to limit the susceptibility to cold cracking.
The thermo-mechanically rolled steels have better weldability than normalized, quenched and
tempered steels [27]. However, the behavior of the thermo-mechanically rolled steels during wet
welding conditions requires testing.
The first aim of this research was to check the weldability of thermo-mechanically rolled S460ML
steel (CeIIW = 0.365%) in underwater conditions using wet welding method for joints welded with
covered electrodes. The weldability of this steel is well known, and joints made in open air using
this steel are of good quality [28]. The second aim of this study was to investigate the relationship
between the structure and the hardness of the HAZ for the different values of the pitch during wet
TBW. This has not been reported in the literature to date.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
For the welding, S460ML 14 mm-thick plates were chosen. As a filler material, ISO 2560-A:
E 38 0 R 11 [29] rutile electrodes with a diameter of 4.0 mm were used. These produce good plasticity
of the welds, which can reduce the susceptibility to cold cracking. The chemical composition of the
S460ML steel and electrodes is listed in Table 1. Table 2 presents the mechanical properties of the
used materials.
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12
Materials 2019, 12, 915 3 of 12
Table 1. Chemical composition of used materials wt.%.

Material C 1. Si
Table Mncomposition
Chemical P S used Cr
of Mowt.%.
materials Ni Cu V CeIIW*
S460ML in accordance
Material 0.12 Si
0.50 Mn
1.40 0.015 0.004 0.04 Mo0.01 Ni
0.02 Cu
0.01 0.01 0.365 1
with control analysis C P S Cr V Ce IIW *

E S460ML
38 9 R in11accordance
electrodes 0.12 0.50 1.40 0.015 0.004 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.365
with control analysis
deposit in accordance
E 38 9 R 11 electrodes 0.07 0.44 0.55 0.01 0.02 0.04 – – 0.05 – –
with manufacturer
deposit in accordance 0.07 0.44 0.55 0.01 0.02 0.04 – – 0.05 – –
data
with manufacturer data
*Ce*IIW carbon
Ce– IIW equivalent
—carbon byby
equivalent the International
the InstituteofofWelding.
International Institute Welding.

Mechanicalproperties
Table2.2.Mechanical
Table propertiesof
ofused
usedmaterials
materialsin
inaccordance
accordance with
with manufacturer
manufacturer data.
data.

Material
Material Re R e (MPa) Rm
(MPa) m (MPa) AA
R(MPa) 5 5(%)
(%)
S460ML
S460ML 515 515 598598 25 25
E 38 0 R 11 electrodes deposit 503 538 26
E 38 0 R 11 electrodes deposit 503 538 26

2.2.Welding
2.2. WeldingProcess
Process
There are
There are many
many weldability
weldabilitytests,tests,for
forexample
examplethe thecontrolled
controlledthermal
thermalseverity
severity(CTS),
(CTS),Tekken,
Tekken,
and implant tests [30–32]. For this study, the CTS test was chosen, because
and implant tests [30–32]. For this study, the CTS test was chosen, because in a water environment in a water environment
themost
the mostpopular
popularwelding
weldingmethod
methoduses usesfillet
fillet welds.
welds. InInaddition,
addition,this
thistest
testenables
enablesassessment
assessmentof ofthe
the
susceptibilityto
susceptibility tocold
coldcracking
crackingin inall
alljoint
jointareas.
areas.In Inthe
thenext
nextstep,
step,the
theTBW
TBWtechnique
techniquewas wasused
usedfor
forpad
pad
welding to determine the influence of the pitch on the microstructure of
welding to determine the influence of the pitch on the microstructure of the HAZ and the hardness the HAZ and the hardness
ofthe
of thejoints.
joints.TBW
TBWspecimens
specimenswere weremade made byby varying
varying thethe relative
relative deposition
deposition of the
of the beads
beads according
according to
to methodology presented in the literature [25]. Weld beads for the
methodology presented in the literature [25]. Weld beads for the TBW samples were made on 200 TBW samples were made on
200 mm × 100 mm sections in a flat welding position. The welds were laid
mm × 100 mm sections in a flat welding position. The welds were laid in order to obtain different in order to obtain different
distances between
distances between the theaxes
axesofofthe beads
the beads(in (in
a non-parallel
a non-parallelmanner). The welding
manner). The weldingschema with a with
schema temper a
bead is presented in Figure 1. This method allowed us to obtain specimens
temper bead is presented in Figure 1. This method allowed us to obtain specimens with different with different percentages
of overlap ofofthe
percentages second
overlap ofweld bead onto
the second weldthe firstonto
bead weldthe(pitch). Between
first weld twoBetween
(pitch). welds, 120twoswelds,
time passed.
120 s
All samples were made at a depth of 0.5 m. The diffusible hydrogen content
time passed. All samples were made at a depth of 0.5 m. The diffusible hydrogen content in the in the deposited metal
obtained by
deposited the obtained
metal glycerin method for wetmethod
by the glycerin weldingfor with
wetEwelding
38 9 R 11 electrodes
with E 38 9 Rwere in the range
11 electrodes were of
51.5
in thetorange
61.4 mL/100
of 51.5 tog61.4
[33].mL/100 g [33].

Schemeofofthe
Figure1.1.Scheme
Figure thetemper
temperbead
beadwelding
welding(TBW)
(TBW)technique
techniquespecimen,
specimen,1—first
1—first(tempered)
(tempered)padding
padding
weld,2—second
weld, 2—second(tempering)
(tempering)padding
padding weld.
weld.

TheCTS
The CTSspecimens
specimenswere
weremade
madein
inaccordance
accordancewith
withthe
theEN
ENISO
ISO17642:2005
17642:2005[34]
[34]standard
standardwith
withthe
the
parameters given in Table 3. The TBW specimen parameters are shown in Table
parameters given in Table 3. The TBW specimen parameters are shown in Table 4. 4.
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

Materials 2019, 12, 915 4 of 12

Table 3. Welding parameters for the controlled thermal severity (CTS) tests.

I (A) U (V) t (s) Vsp(mm/s) ql (kJ/mm) I (A) U (V) t (s) Vsp (mm/s) ql (kJ/mm)
Specimen No. Table 3. Welding parameters for the controlled thermal severity (CTS) tests.
First Weld Second Weld
1 188 U (V)
I (A)
23.0 18.8 Vsp3.99
t (s) (mm/s)
1.08
ql (kJ/mm)
188
I (A)
23.8
U (V)
14.9
t (s)
5.03
Vsp (mm/s)
0.89
ql (kJ/mm)
Specimen2No. 188 23.8 18.5 4.06 1.10 180 26.0 14.7 5.14 0.91
First Weld Second Weld
3 188 22.5 19.5 3.85 1.10 184 24.3 18.9 3.95 1.12
1 4 188188 23.0
22.8 18.8
12.8 3.99
5.86 1.08
0.73 188
184 23.8
25.0 14.9
18.0 5.03
4.16 0.89
1.11
2 188 23.8 18.5 4.06 1.10 180 26.0 14.7 5.14 0.91
3
5 188
180 22.5
25.2 17.5
19.5
4.28
3.85
1.07
1.10
192
184
21.8
24.3
15.4
18.9
4.87
3.95
0.86
1.12
4 6 188184 22.8
24.3 16.5
12.8 4.55
5.86 0.98
0.73 188
184 23.5
25.0 19.3
18.0 3.88
4.16 1.14
1.11
5 180 25.2 17.5 4.28 1.07 192 21.8 15.4 4.87 0.86
6 184 24.3 16.5 4.55 0.98 188 23.5 19.3 3.88 1.14
Table 4. Welding parameters for the TBW technique.

Specimen No. Pad Weld

Table I (A) parameters
4. Welding U (V) Tfor (s) theLTBW
(mm)technique.
Vsp (mm/s) ql (kJ/mm)
1 192 25.5 17.6 121 6.88 0.71
SpecimenTBW1
No. Pad Weld I (A) U (V) T (s) L (mm) Vsp (mm/s) ql (kJ/mm)
2 204 29.0 17.0 125 7.35 0.80
1 192 25.5 17.6 121 6.88 0.71
TBW1
2 1 204 188 29.0 27.5 17.016.1 130
125 8.07
7.35 0.640.80
TBW2
1 2 188 204 27.5 30.5 16.114.9 125
130 8.39
8.07 0.740.64
TBW2
2 1 204 188 30.5 27.3 14.918.9 136
125 7.20
8.39 0.710.74
TBW3
1 2 188 208 27.3 27.5 18.916.8 130
136 7.74
7.20 0.740.71
TBW3
2 1 208 188 27.5 26.3 16.817.0 130
115 7.74
6.76 0.730.74
TBW4 1
TBW4 2 188 205 26.3 27.3 17.014.7 115
120 6.76
8.13 0.700.73
2 205 27.3 14.7 120 8.13 0.70
1 188 27.3 17.9 147 8.21 0.62
TBW5 1 188 27.3 17.9 147 8.21 0.62
TBW5
2 2 205 205 28.0 28.0 13.313.3 9292 6.92
6.92 0.840.84

2.3. Examination Procedure

2.3. Examination Procedure
After the welding process, all specimens were tested using visual testing (VT) and penetrant
After the welding process, all specimens were tested using visual testing (VT) and penetrant
testing (PT), as well as metallographic macroscopic and microscopic testing. Then, the Vickers HV10
testing (PT), as well as metallographic macroscopic and microscopic testing. Then, the Vickers HV10
hardness measurements were taken in accordance with EN ISO 9015-1:2011[35]. The investigated
hardness measurements were taken in accordance with EN ISO 9015-1:2011 [35]. The investigated
S460ML steel was classified as a material from the material group 2.2 in accordance with the EN-ISO
S460ML steel was classified as a material from the material group 2.2 in accordance with the EN-ISO
15614-1:2017 [36]. The maximum hardness values of the HAZ recommended by this standard cannot
15614-1:2017 [36]. The maximum hardness values of the HAZ recommended by this standard cannot
exceed the level of 380 HV10.
exceed the level of 380 HV10.
The hardness measurement scheme for CTS testing is presented in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the
The hardness measurement scheme for CTS testing is presented in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the
regions of the TBW specimens in which the hardness was measured. The hardness measurements in
regions of the TBW specimens in which the hardness was measured. The hardness measurements in
the first padding weld of the normalization area of HAZ (HAZN) and the overheated area of the
the first padding weld of the normalization area of HAZ (HAZN) and the overheated area of the HAZ
HAZ (HAZO) were located in the HAZ at the axis of the first bead.
(HAZO) were located in the HAZ at the axis of the first bead.

Figure 2. Hardness point distribution in the CTS specimens.

Figure 2. Hardness point distribution in the CTS specimens.
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Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

Figure 3. Hardness measurement areas of the heat affected zone (HAZ)—TBW specimens, overheated
area of HAZ (HAZO) of the 1st padding weld in the weld axis, normalization area of HAZ (HAZN)
Figure 3. Hardness measurement areas of the heat affected zone (HAZ)—TBW specimens, overheated
of the 1st padding weld in the weld axis.
area of HAZ (HAZO) of the 1st padding weld in the weld axis, normalization area of HAZ (HAZN) of
Figure 3. Hardness measurement areas of the heat affected zone (HAZ)—TBW specimens, overheated
the 1st padding weld in the weld axis.
area of and
3. Results HAZDiscussion
(HAZO) of the 1st padding weld in the weld axis, normalization area of HAZ (HAZN)
of the 1st padding
3. Results and Discussion weld in the weld axis.
3.1. CTS Test
3. Results
3.1. CTS Test and Discussion
3.1.1. Microscopic Testing
3.1.1. Microscopic
3.1. CTS Test Testing
After non-destructive testing, second welds from specimens 1, 2, 5 and 6 were rejected from
Afterexaminations
further non-destructivedue testing, second welds
to significant from specimens
imperfections. The1, 2, 5 and 6 were
remaining rejected
welds were from furtherof
capable
3.1.1. Microscopic Testing
examinations due to significant imperfections. The remaining welds
undergoing further examinations. In the HAZ of each specimen, acicular and martensitic structures were capable of undergoing
wereAfter
further found,non-destructive
examinations.
which are In athe testing, second
HAZofofrapid
result eachcoolingweldsduring
specimen, from specimens
acicular
welding in 1,
the2,water.
and martensitic 5 and 6 were
structures
The short rejected
were from
found,
cooling time
further
which examinations
are a result of due
rapid to
coolingsignificant
during imperfections.
welding in the The
water. remaining
The
also caused high residual stresses and limited the extraction of diffusible hydrogen in the welding short welds
cooling were
time capable
also caused of
undergoing
high residual further
stresses examinations.
and limited In
the the HAZ
extraction ofofeach specimen,
diffusible
environment. The weld metal structure was built of dendrites. The results of the microscopic acicular
hydrogen in and
the martensitic
welding structures
environment.
were
The found,
weld
examinationmetalwhich CTS are
ofstructure a result
was built
specimens ofare
rapid coolinginduring
ofpresented
dendrites. The
Figure welding
results in microscopic
of the
4. During the water. The
macroscopic short cooling
examination
testing, cracks time
of CTS
in the
also
HAZ caused
specimensof the high
are
two residualinstresses
presented
specimens Figure
(the firstand
4.weldlimited
During the extraction
macroscopic
in specimen of diffusible
4 and testing,
specimen cracks
6) andhydrogen
ininthe
weldHAZ in one
of the welding
of the two
specimen
environment.
specimens
(first weld(the The
first weld4)
in specimen metal
in were structure
specimen
observed.4 andwasThe built of
specimen
cracks dendrites.
6) the
in and in weld
HAZ The
were results
of initiated
one of the
specimen
in the(first
microscopic
weld weld in
root and
examination
specimen
propagated of CTS
4) were
along specimens
observed.
approximately Theare presented
cracks
50% in the
of in Figure
thelength
HAZ were
of the4.initiated
During macroscopic
fusion line.in the weld
This testing,
arearoot
wasand cracks
propagated
characterized in theby
HAZ
along of the two
approximately specimens
50% of (the
the first
length weld
of in
the specimen
fusion line. 4 and
This specimen
area
an overheated, coarse grain, martensitic structure as is shown in Figure 4a,b. The cracks were was 6) and in
characterized weld by of
anone specimen
overheated,
(first
coarse weld
observed inmartensitic
grain,in specimen
the welded4) were that
structure
joints observed.
as is shown
were Theincracks
made with in
Figure the
4a,b.
the HAZ were of
The cracks
lowest value initiated
wereheat in the(ql).
observed
input weld
in the root
welded
Microscopicand
propagated
joints that were
examination along
ofmadeapproximately
S460MLwith the 50% value
steellowest
showed of the length
of
that heat
cracks of the
input fusion line.
(ql). Microscopic
occurred in allThis area was characterized
examination
joints welded inof the
S460ML by
water
an
steel overheated,
showed that coarse
cracks grain,
occurred martensitic
in all jointsstructure
welded asin is
the shown
water
environment. These cracks were located in the HAZ, along the fusion line. It was estimated that the in Figure
environment. 4a,b. The
These cracks
cracks were
were
observed
located
total lengthin the
in the HAZ,
of welded
these along joints
cracks thewerethat30%–40%
fusion were
line.made of with
It was the length
estimated
the total lowest value
that the
of of
total
the heat line.
length
fusion input (ql). cracks
of these
Cracks Microscopic
in thewere
weld
examination
30%–40% of the of
also were revealed. S460ML
total length steel
of theshowed
fusion that
line. cracks
Cracks inoccurred
the weld in
also all joints
were welded
revealed. in the water
environment. These cracks were located in the HAZ, along the fusion line. It was estimated that the
total length of these cracks were 30%–40% of the total length of the fusion line. Cracks in the weld
also were revealed.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Cont.
(a) (b)
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Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Results
ResultsofofCTS
CTSmicroscopic
microscopictesting
testingshows cracks
shows in in
cracks HAZ,
HAZ, 1—weld metal,
1—weld 2—HAZ,
metal, (a)
2—HAZ,
Specimen
(a) 1; (b)
Specimen Specimen
1; (b) 2; (c)
Specimen Specimen
2; (c) 3; (d)
Specimen Specimen
3; (d) 6. Etch.
Specimen Nital
6. Etch. 4%.4%.
Nital

3.1.2. Hardness
3.1.2. Hardness Measurements
Measurements
The hardness
The hardnessmeasurements
measurementswere wereperformed
performedonon
cross-sections of at
cross-sections ofleast oneone
at least weldweld
fromfrom
eacheach
CTS
specimen.
CTS The results
specimen. of theofhardness
The results measurements
the hardness are presented
measurements in Table
are presented 5.
in Table 5.

Table 5.
Table Results of
5. Results of hardness
hardness measurements—CTS
measurements—CTS specimens.
specimens.
Specimen No. Hardness HV10 ql (kJ/mm)
ql
Specimen No. BM HAZ Hardness
Weld HV10 HAZ BM (kJ/mm)
Measurement BM
1 2 3 4 HAZ5 6 7Weld8 9 HAZ 11
10 12 BM
13
point
Measurement
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
point
First weld 230 221 390 376 380 276 299 258 405 405 380 221 224 1.08
1
Second weld – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.89
First
2 weld 230 221 390 376 380 276 299 258 405 405 380 221 224 1.08
First weld
Second weld 224 –228 – 425 – 432 – 402 – 272 – 254 – 278 – 423 – 400 – 418 – 224 – 221– 1.10
0.89
Second weld – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.91
3
2
First
First weld 219 224218 228397 425422 432412 402272 272264254253278 403423 380400 397418 208224 209
weld 221 1.10
1.10
Second
Second weld
weld 223 –218 – 391 – 433 – 421 – 233 – 254 – 260 – 406 – 380 – 425 – 211 – 221– 1.12
0.91
4
3
First weld 204 222 377 397 380 292 281 285 400 400 421 208 232 0.73
First weld 230 219217 218411 397417 422427 412254 272240264239253 392403 389380 405397 218208 209
Second weld 209 1.10
1.11
Second weld
5 223 218 391 433 421 233 254 260 406 380 425 211 221 1.12
First weld
4 215 215 419 439 424 278 261 288 428 416 399 217 227 1.07
Second weld – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.86
First
6 weld 204 222 377 397 380 292 281 285 400 400 421 208 232 0.73
Second weld 226 230217 217411 411417 417417 427254 254240240239239 392392 389389 405405 218218 209
First weld 209 1.11
0.98
Second weld
5 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1.14
First weld 215 215 419 439 424 278 261 288 428 416 399 217 227 1.07
Second weld – – – – – – – – – – – –
The CTS tests showed that the weldability of the S460ML steel in underwater conditions can be – 0.86
6
described as poor. For all specimens, the maximum HV10 hardness in the HAZ exceeded the critical
First weld 226 217 411 417 417 254 240 239 392 389 405 218 209 0.98
value of 380 HV10. This proved that in this area of each specimen, brittle martensitic structures formed.
Second weld – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1.14
There were also many branched microcracks in the welded joints.
The CTS
3.2. Temper tests
Bead showed
Welding Testthat the weldability of the S460ML steel in underwater conditions can be
described as poor. For all specimens, the maximum HV10 hardness in the HAZ exceeded the critical
value of 380 HV10.Testing
3.2.1. Macroscopic This proved that in this area of each specimen, brittle martensitic structures
formed. There were also many branched microcracks in the welded joints.
In the first step of the examination, macroscopic tests were performed. The main aim of these
examinations was to calculate the pitch between the two beads. After the macroscopic testing of
3.2. Temper Bead Welding Test
specimens with a pitch of; 11%, 19%, 43%, 55%, 73%, and 100%, were selected for the next examinations.
There were no cracks
3.2.1. Macroscopic in these specimens. The results of the macroscopic testing are presented in Figure 5.
Testing
In the first step of the examination, macroscopic tests were performed. The main aim of these
examinations was to calculate the pitch between the two beads. After the macroscopic testing of
 In the first step of the examination, macroscopic tests were performed. The main aim of these
examinations was to calculate the pitch between the two beads. After the macroscopic testing of
specimens with a pitch of; 11%, 19%, 43%, 55%, 73%, and 100%, were selected for the next
examinations. There were no cracks in these specimens. The results of the macroscopic testing are
Materials 2019, 12, 915 7 of 12
presented in Figure 5.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 5.5. Results

Resultsofofthe
theTBW
TBWmacroscopic
macroscopic testing,
testing, I—first
I—first (tempered)
(tempered) bead,bead, II—second
II—second (tempering)
(tempering) bead,
bead, (a) pitch 11%; (b) pitch 19%; (c) pitch 43%; (d) pitch 55%; (e) pitch 73%; (f) pitch 100%. Etch.
(a) pitch 11%; (b) pitch 19%; (c) pitch 43%; (d) pitch 55%; (e) pitch 73%; (f) pitch 100%. Etch. Nital 4%.
Nital 4%.
3.2.2. Microscopic Testing
3.2.2.The
Microscopic
results ofTesting
the microscopic testing are presented in Figure 6. The welds in each of these
specimens showed dendritic
The results of the structures
microscopic (Figure
testing 6a, area 1).in There
are presented Figurewas bright,
6. The fine-grained
welds in each offerrite
these
arranged in columns, from which grew acicular ferrite at the boundaries of the
specimens showed dendritic structures (Figure 6a, area 1). There was bright, fine-grained dendrites. Inside the
ferrite
dendrites
arranged in there were fine
columns, fromferrite
whichgrains. The structure
grew acicular ferrite atofthe
theboundaries
HAZ was of different. Near the
the dendrites. fusion
Inside the
line, there were expanded quasiperlite grains with a structure following the Widmannstätten
dendrites there were fine ferrite grains. The structure of the HAZ was different. Near the fusion line, system
(e.g.,
there Figure 6b,c, areaquasiperlite
were expanded 2). The structure
grainsofwith
thisazone also indicated
structure followingthethepresence of bainitic
Widmannstätten hardening
system (e.g.,
structures and low-carbon martensite (Figure 6d). In the areas located the furthest
Figure 6b,c, area 2). The structure of this zone also indicated the presence of bainitic hardening distance from
the fusion line, there were normalization structures with fine ferrite and pearlite. In all specimens,
changes due to the tempering bead were observed. With the highest value of the pitch between two
beads, there was a partial disappearance of the structure of the dendritic base bead and the formation
of a ferritic fine-grained structure (e.g., Figure 6e,f, area 1). In the HAZ, the heat of the tempering
beads refined and tempered the coarse-grained zone of the first bead (Figure 6g). When the pitch
increased, the grain size decreased. TBW provided local heat treatment of the joints. The maximum
hardness values for wet welding appeared in the coarse grained HAZ [37]. The grain size decreased
during TBW (Figure 6h,i, compare with Figure 6a–d), which led to a reduction of hardness in the
HAZ. The pitch increased and the number of cracks decreased. However, TBW could not repair the
microcracks that occurred during the welding of the first bead and could even propagate these cracks
(Figure 6j). Cold cracks can occur up to 48 h after welding is completed. TBW was used in the 120 s
after first bead was laid, thus this technique reduced the probability of the occurrence of these cracks.
 Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

(Figure
Materials 6j).12,Cold
2019, cracks can occur up to 48 h after welding is completed. TBW was used in the
915 8 of120
12 s
after first bead was laid, thus this technique reduced the probability of the occurrence of these cracks.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 6. Cont.
Materials 2019, 12, 915 9 of 12
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

(i) (j)
Figure
Figure Results
6. 6. of of
Results TBW
TBW microscopic testing;
microscopic testing;1—first
1—first bead, 2—HAZ
bead, 2—HAZ under
under first bead,
first 3—area
bead, 3—area of of
thethe
HAZHAZ of of
thethe
second
secondbead overlapping
bead overlappingthethe
first bead,
first bead, 4—HAZ
4—HAZ of of
thethe
second
secondbead
beadoverlapping
overlapping thethe
HAZ
HAZ
of of
thethe
first bead,
first 5—second
bead, 5—second bead, 6—HAZ
bead, 6—HAZ under
under thethe
second
secondbead,
bead,7—base
7—base metal.
metal.(a,b) pitch
(a,b) pitch11%;
11%;
(c,d) pitch 43%; (e,f) pitch 55%; (g,h) pitch 73%; (i,j) pitch 100%. Etch. Nital
(c,d) pitch 43%; (e,f) pitch 55%; (g,h) pitch 73%; (i,j) pitch 100%. Etch. Nital 4%. 4%.

3.2.3. Hardness Measurements

3.2.3. Hardness Measurements
The hardness measurements were performed on cross-sections of each specimen with all ranges
The hardness measurements were performed on cross-sections of each specimen with all ranges
of pitch. The hardness was measured at points in two specific areas of the HAZ (overheated and
of pitch. The hardness was measured at points in two specific areas of the HAZ (overheated and
normalized) of the first tempered weld (Figure 3). The results of the hardness measurements are
normalized) of the first tempered weld (Figure 3). The results of the hardness measurements are
presented in Figure 7. When the pitch between two beads increased, the hardness in the HAZO
presented in Figure 7. When the pitch between two beads increased, the hardness in the HAZO of
of the first padding weld decreased. The HAZO area in the specimens with low pitch values was
the first padding weld decreased. The HAZO area in the specimens with low pitch values was
characterized by the presence of the coarse-grained brittle structures created by the highest cooling
characterized by the presence of the coarse-grained brittle structures created by the highest cooling
rate in the welded joint (Figure 6b). These types of structures are one of the factors responsible for cold
rate in2019,
Materials the12,
welded jointREVIEW
x FOR PEER (Figure 6b). These types of structures are one of the factors responsible
10 of 12for
cracking. Thus, the HAZO area has a crucial influence on the formation of cracks.
cold cracking. Thus, the HAZO area has a crucial influence on the formation of cracks.

Figure 7. Hardness distribution for specimens with different overlap values in HAZO and HAZN
Figure 7. Hardness distribution for specimens with different overlap values in HAZO and HAZN
areas of the first (tempered) weld.
areas of the
Figure 7. first (tempered)
Hardness weld. for specimens with different overlap values in HAZO and HAZN
distribution
Inareas
all CTS specimens
of the the hardness
first (tempered) weld. was greater than 405 HV10. The HAZ of the tempered beads
showedIn all CTS specimens
a significant the hardness
reduction wasafter
in hardness greater
usingthan
the405
TBWHV10. The HAZ
technique. of the tempered
For specimens with abeads
pitch
showed a significant
In all CTS
in the range reduction
specimensthe
of 75%–100% in hardness
thehardness after
hardnessvalues using
was greater the TBW
than 405
were below technique.
380HV10.
HV10The For
HAZ
in the specimens with
area.aIn
of the tempered
overheated pitch
beads
the
in
HAZN, no significant changes in hardness were observed. The comparison in hardness decreasedthe
the range
showed a of 75%–100%
significant the
reductionhardness
in values
hardness were
after below
using the 380
TBW HV10 in the
technique. overheated
For specimens area.
withIn
a pitch
in
HAZN,
in the range of 75%–100% the hardness values were below 380 HV10 in the overheated area. Inin
no significant changes in hardness were observed. The comparison in hardness decreased the
the HAZ for different steels, as presented in Table 6. The results showed that the TBW technique was
more effective for steel with a CeIIW lower than 0.4%.

Table 6. Comparison of hardness HV10 for different steels for the TBW technique [25,26].
Materials 2019, 12, 915 10 of 12

the HAZ for different steels, as presented in Table 6. The results showed that the TBW technique was
more effective for steel with a CeIIW lower than 0.4%.

Table 6. Comparison of hardness HV10 for different steels for the TBW technique [25,26].

HV10max in Hardness decrease in Fulfillment the criterion of EN-ISO

Steel CeIIW (%)
HAZO HAZO after TBW (pitch) 15614-1:2017 [36] (Lower than 380 HV10)
S355G10 + N 0.385 429 67 (100%) yes
S460ML 0.365 436 63 (100%) yes
S460N 0.464 464 54 (87%) no

4. Conclusions
The results of this experiment showed that the cracking of S460ML joints made in underwater
conditions occurs due to a typical mechanism used when welding steel with a higher carbon content
than the filler material. This phenomenon causes hydrogen diffusion from the weld to the HAZ.
The influence of residual stress on brittle structures saturated with hydrogen results in cold cracking.
The conclusions drawn based on the experiment results and discussion are:

• S460ML thermo-mechanically rolled steel has high susceptibility to cold cracking in wet welding
conditions using covered electrodes. The joints are characterized by high hardness (above the
critical value of 380 HV10). There is also a lot of cracking in the HAZ.
• The TBW technique allows for reducing hardness in the HAZ of specimens made in the water
environment. In comparison to the CTS test specimens, the hardness after TBW decreased by 63
HV10. The TBW technique could also reduce number of microcracks in comparison with the CTS
test specimens.
• When the pitch between two beads increases, the hardness, grain size and the number of cracks
decreases. However, TBW is ineffective for repairing cracks that occurred while the first bead
was welded.
• From a weldability point of view, the best pitch for S460ML thermo-mechanically rolled steel
welded underwater is above 75%. Above this pitch the hardness is lower than the critical value
380 HV10.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.T., D.F. and J.Ł.; Methodology, J.T., G.R., D.F. and J.Ł.; Formal
Analysis, J.T and D.F.; Investigation, J.T. and G.R.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, J.T. and D.F.;
Writing—Review and Editing, J.T, D.F., J.Ł. and G.R.
Funding: The APC was funded by the statutory subsidy of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at
Gdańsk University of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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