KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE: TETE 3105P

COURSE NAME: APPLIED ELECTRONICS PRACTICAL

LAB REPORT FOR LABS 1,2,3&4

LAB INSTRUCTOR: MR. BALIGONZAKI PATRICK

PRESENTED BY
NAME REGISTRATION NO. SIGNATURE

ODOCH HERBERT 18/U/ETE/10168/PE

SSENTONGO ISMA 18/U/ETE/11262/PE

YEHANGANE PROMISE 19/U/ETE/1014/PE

Report Submitted on: 30/11/2021

i|Page
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 LAB ONE: WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR USING IC 741 ........................................ 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES: .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 THEORY ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 PROCEDURES............................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 OBSERVATION AND RESULTS .............................................................................................. 3
1.6 DATA DICUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 LAB 2: COLPITTS OSCILLATOR ................................................................................ 5
2.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 THEORY ...................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 EQUIPMENT USED .................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 OBSERVATIONS &RESULTS ................................................................................................... 7
2.6 DATA DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................. 11
2.7 ERROR ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 11
2.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 11
3.0 LAB 3: RC PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR ................................................................. 12
3.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. 12
3.2 THEORY .................................................................................................................................... 12
3.3 EQUIPMENT USED .................................................................................................................. 12
3.4 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................................. 13
3.5 OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS ................................................................................................ 14
3.6 DATA DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................... 16
3.7 ERROR ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 16
3.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 16
4.0 LAB 4: HARTLEY OSCILLATOR .............................................................................. 17
4.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. 17
4.2 THEORY .................................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 EQUIPMENT USED .................................................................................................................. 17
4.4 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................................. 18
4.5 OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS ................................................................................................ 20
4.6 DATA DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................... 21
4.7 ERROR ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 22
4.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 22

ii | P a g e
 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1:Schematic of Wien Bridge Oscillator .......................................................................... 2
Figure 2:Practical Wien Bridge Oscillator Setup....................................................................... 3
Figure 3:Output from Wien Bridge oscillator ............................................................................ 3
Figure 4:Colpitts Oscillator Simulation setup............................................................................ 6
Figure 5:Colpitts Oscillator output waveform ........................................................................... 7
Figure 6:Reading frequency from voltage probe ....................................................................... 7
Figure 7:Output with shorted L1................................................................................................ 8
Figure 8:Output with open circuited L1..................................................................................... 8
Figure 9:Output with disconnected feedback ............................................................................ 9
Figure 10:Output with CE shorted ............................................................................................. 9
Figure 11:Output with CE shorted ........................................................................................... 10
Figure 12:Output with C3 shorted ........................................................................................... 10
Figure 13:RC Phase shift Oscillator simulation setup ............................................................. 13
Figure 14:RC Phase shift oscillator output waveform ............................................................. 14
Figure 15: Frequency of RC Phase shift oscillator from voltage probe .................................. 14
Figure 16:Output when Rf wass open circuited ....................................................................... 15
Figure 17: Output when C3 was shorted.................................................................................. 15
Figure 18:Hartley Oscillator setup with C3=1.1nF ................................................................. 19
Figure 19:Hartley Oscillator setup with C3=1.1nF ................................................................. 19
Figure 20:Output when C3 is 1.1nF ......................................................................................... 20
Figure 21:Output when C3 is 2.2nF ......................................................................................... 20
Figure 22:Frequency of output when C3 is 1.1nF ................................................................... 21
Figure 23:Frequency of output when C3 is 2.2nF ................................................................... 21

iii | P a g e
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
V-Volts
I-Current
A-Amperes
Ω-Ohms
Op-Amp-Operational Amplifier
CRO-Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Hz-Hertz
K-Kilo
M-Mega
BJT-Bipolar Junction Transistor
IC-Integrated Circuit
RC-Resistor-Capacitor
AC/a.c.-Alternating Current
DC/d.c.-Direct Current
H-Henrys
F-Farads
s-seconds
m-milli
μ-micro

iv | P a g e
1.0 LAB ONE: WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR USING IC 741
1.1 OBJECTIVES:
• Designing and practically constructing a Wien bridge oscillator using Op-Amp 741
• Plotting the output waveform of the constructed circuit
• Determining the frequency of oscillation then comparing them with the theoretical
value.

1.2 APPARATUS:
• One Dual Power Supply(+/-15V)
• Four Resistors
• Two 0.1μf capacitors
• One IC μA 741
• One Oscilloscope
• One Breadboard
• Connecting wires and probes

1.3 THEORY
The Wien bridge oscillator is an RC oscillator which does not use an inductor since the
inductors are hard to integrate on- chip. The inductor is replaced by an RC resonant circuit.
The oscillator frequency is set by the R and C components. • It uses a non-inverting amplifier
and hence does not provide any phase shift during the amplification stage. Since the required
total phase shift is 0 0r 2𝑛Π, in a Wein bridge, no phase shift will be required in the feedback
network. This condition occurs when bridge is balanced. At resonance, the frequency of
oscillation is exactly the resonance frequency of balanced Wien bridge and is given by

𝟏
𝒇𝒓 =
𝟐𝜫𝑹𝑪

The gain required for sustained oscillation at this frequency is 3. It is provided by the non-
𝑹𝒇
inverting amplifier with Gain𝑨 = 𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏

W𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑹𝒇 = 𝑭𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑨 = 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑶𝒑 − 𝑨𝒎𝒑

1|Page
1.4 PROCEDURES
• Given 𝑓𝑟=1khz and C=0.1uF and R1=10KHz, we calculated the values of R and Rf as
illustrated below

𝟏
Theoretical Frequency 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪

1 1
𝑅= = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝒌𝛀
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑥1𝑥0.1𝜇

𝑅𝑓
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1 + =3
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
3= 1+
10

𝑹𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝛀

But due to unavailability of the 20kΩ we decided to use 10KΩ for Rf hence to calculate the
new R1.

𝟏𝟎𝑲
𝟑=𝟏+
𝑹𝟏

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟓𝑲Ω

• We setup the Wien bridge oscillator circuit on the breadboard and checked the
connections as shown in the figures below.

Figure 1:Schematic of Wien Bridge Oscillator

2|Page
 Figure 2:Practical Wien Bridge Oscillator Setup

• We connected the given and calculated values of R and Rf in their respective places as
given in the schematic
• We connected the output of the circuit to the C.R.O and when turned on, we observed
the sinusoidal signal and measured its frequency.
• We drew the waveforms on a graph and then tabulated the readings and compared them
with theoretical values

1.5 OBSERVATION AND RESULTS

• CRO output

Figure 3:Output from Wien Bridge oscillator

• Output Frequency

3|Page
From the oscillator output, we were able to calculated output period T as 1000μs hence we
calculated the frequency as follows.
While reading the time from the x-axis, by counting the number of squares and getting node
position
Period 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑋 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1000𝜇𝑠
1 1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑇 1000𝜇𝑠
As given the theoretical frequency is the same as the values for which we calculated the
resistances practically.

• Comparing theoretical values and practical values

PARAMETER THEORETICAL PRACTICAL

Output Frequency 1kHz 1kHz

Rf 20kΩ 10kΩ

R1 10kΩ 5kΩ

1.6 DATA DICUSSION

From the CRO output, its amplitude is linear and more of a sinusoidal like waveform since the
feedback is fed to the positive terminal of the non- inverting amplifier, it does not provide any
𝑹𝒇
phase shift. More so at any given frequency, the ratio of should be three or greater than
𝑹𝟏

three to provide sufficient loop gain for the amplifier gain A=3,

All resistor and capacitor values for both the series and parallel circuit respectively should be
equal so as to give the attenuation factor =1/3 for the amplifier gain to be 3

1.7 ERROR ANALYSIS

Since the output frequency of the CRO, upon calculation gave us the same theoretical
frequency, there was no need to perform error analysis for the output frequency.

1.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The practical was successful and helped us a lot in diving deep into understanding Wien
bridge oscillators both theoretically and practically. In addition, some of us who didn’t know
how to operate CRO’s, we really had a good time understanding how to calibrate them for
analyzing output from circuits.

4|Page
2.0 LAB 2: COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
2.1 OBJECTIVES
• Designing a Colpitts oscillator using BJT and setting it up using simulating software
• Analyzing and observing the sinusoidal output waveform,
• Finding the frequency of oscillation of the simulated Oscillator
• Analyzing between simulated values with the design theoretical values.

2.2 THEORY
The resistors R1, R2 and R3 provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor CE
provides a.c. ground thereby preventing any signal degeneration (bypass capacitor). This also
provides temperature stabilization. The capacitor Cc is employed to block d.c. and to provide
an a.c. Path. The radio frequency choke (RFC) offers very high impedance to high frequency
currents which means it shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for
collector and keeps a.c. currents out of d.c. supply source. The amount of feedback is
determined by the ratio of C1 and C2. The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant
circuit which consists of variable capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction
of C1 and C2 are earthed. The capacitor C2 has its one end connected to base via C3 and the
other to emitter via CE. The voltage developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback
required for the sustained oscillations. The frequency of oscillations can determined be as
follows.

𝟏
𝒇𝒓 = 𝟐𝝅
√𝑳𝑪𝑻

𝑪 ×𝑪
where CT is the capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series and is given as: 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏+𝑪𝟐
𝟏 𝟐

2.3 EQUIPMENT USED

• Simulation software (NI Multisim 14.1) using the following components
o One Power supply(+12V)
o One BJT 2N2222A
o Three resistors(4K7Ω,1K5Ω,10KΩ)
o Four capacitors (24n,0.1μ,0.01μ, unknown (Farads))
o Two inductors(300m,10m(Henrys))
o One Oscilloscope
o A voltage Probe

5|Page
2.4 PROCEDURE
• We calculated the value of C2 that will produce a resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟) of 10.8kHz
as follows.
1
From resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟, 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 , given 𝑓𝑟 = 10.8𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 10𝑚𝐻
𝑇

Getting total capacitance CT

1 2 2
1
( ) ( )
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 2𝜋×10.8𝑘
Then 𝐶𝑇 = =
𝐿 10𝑚

∴ 𝑪𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟕𝝁𝑭
𝑪 ×𝑪 𝑪 ×𝑪 𝑪 ×𝑪
Now from 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏+𝑪𝟐 hence 𝑪𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏+𝑪𝟐 = 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪 𝟏−𝑪𝑻𝑻
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏

∴ 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝒖𝑭
• We calculated the feedback fraction as follows.
𝑪𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝒏𝑭
𝜷= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑪𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝒖𝑭
• We then simulated the design using Multisim and obtained an output waveform.

Figure 4:Colpitts Oscillator Simulation setup

• To determine the frequency of the oscillator, we placed a voltage probe at the wire to
the oscilloscope.
• We shorted L1 and got the output waveform and did the same with opening L1
• We analyzed the output waveform after disconnecting the feedback by removing C3.
• We analyzed the output when shorted and opened the emitter bypass capacitor CE
• We finally analyzed the output when we shorted C3

6|Page
2.5 OBSERVATIONS &RESULTS
• The output waveform of the simulated circuit was as follows

Figure 5:Colpitts Oscillator output waveform

• On determining the frequency of the simulated oscillator, it was found to be 10.7KHz.

This is illustrated below.

Figure 6:Reading frequency from voltage probe

7|Page
 • The output waveform when L1 was shorted.

Figure 7:Output with shorted L1

• Output waveform for L1 open circuited

Figure 8:Output with open circuited L1

8|Page
 • The output when the feedback was disconnected.

Figure 9:Output with disconnected feedback

• The output when CE was shorted.

Figure 10:Output with CE shorted

9|Page
 • The output when CE was open circuited.

Figure 11:Output with CE shorted

• The output when C3 is shorted

Figure 12:Output with C3 shorted

10 | P a g e
2.6 DATA DISCUSSION
The frequency of the Simulated value was 10.7kHz while the theoretical value was 10.8kHz.
This is because the software used for simulation applies some factors which can be configured
for example the beta of the BJT used. In addition, also the rounding off we did during
calculations of the capacitance C2 also has a factor in this small difference.

Shorting and opening of the inductor L1 technically removes the inductor from the tank circuit,
hence when the supply is connected, the capacitor charges but the energy is not stored in the
inductor which leads to the poor output as illustrated in the observations.

Removing the feedback removing C2 means that there will be no feedback back to the BJT
from the a.c generated in the tank oscillator hence giving a rugged output as the oscillations
cannot be sustained without regenerative feedback.

CE capacitor helps to prevent provide a.c ground thereby preventing any signal degeneration,
shorting this capacitor, leaves the amplifier viable to signal degeneration.

C3 capacitor is used to block d.c. and provide a.c path hence shorting it makes the input to the
amplifier liable to d.c. hence reduces the coupling of the a.c from the feedback to the base of
the amplifier.

2.7 ERROR ANALYSIS

Analyzing the error in the theoretical and simulated frequencies from

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 10.8𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 10.7𝑘𝐻𝑧

%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟔%
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 10.8𝑘𝐻𝑧

2.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The lab was a success, especially when one is geared towards the cementing of the theoretical
parts of this course unit, except that we only did simulations which have some limitations as
compared to the practical done in labs.

I recommend that maybe we do these labs practically on breadboards so that we increase our
capacity of using the practical lab equipments including oscilloscopes, multimeters etc.

11 | P a g e
3.0 LAB 3: RC PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
3.1 OBJECTIVES
• To get the fundamental knowledge about a RC Phase-Shift Oscillator and get familiar
with its calculations
• To design and simulate RC Phase-Shift Oscillator using BJT, obtain the output
waveform, determine the frequency of oscillation and compare simulated values with
the theoretical values.

3.2 THEORY
RC Oscillator basically consists of an amplifier (can be realized by using op-amps or others)
and a RC feedback network. The amplifier provides 180-degree phase shift while the RC ladder
network(three) provides the needed 180-degree shift to satisfy the Barkhausen equation.

To get the frequency of oscillation provided resistors R and capacitors C in the feedback are
equal, then the frequency of oscillations produced by the RC oscillator is given as:

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√2𝑁

Where; ƒr is the Output Frequency in Hertz, R is the Resistance in Ohms, C is the Capacitance
in Farads, N is the number of RC stages. (N = 3)

3.3 EQUIPMENT USED

• Simulation software (NI Multisim 14.1). In this software we used the following
components
o One Dual Power supply(+/-12V)
o IC 741
o Four resistors (Unknown (Four)(Ohms))
o Three capacitors (Unknown (Farads))
o One Oscilloscope
o A voltage Probe

12 | P a g e
3.4 PROCEDURE
• Given the Oscillator frequency, we calculated the value of the frequency determining
resistors R1, R2, R3, and the value of the feedback resistor RF required to sustain
oscillations as follows.
𝟏
From 𝒇𝒓 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪√𝟐𝑵

Given: 𝑓𝑟 = 6.5𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐶 = 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 1.0𝑛𝐹, 𝑁 = 3

𝟏
Therefore 𝑹 = 𝟐𝝅×𝒇
𝒓 ×𝑪×√𝟐𝑵

1
𝑅= = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟔𝒌Ω ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝒌Ω
2𝜋 × 6.5𝑘 × 1.0𝑛 × √2 × 3

R=R1R2=R3 = 10kΩ
Calculating Rf;
𝑅𝑓
From 𝐴𝑣 = = 29
𝑅

𝑹𝒇 = 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟔𝒌 = 𝟐𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝒌Ω ≈ 𝟐𝟗𝟎𝒌Ω

Therefore, the value of the feedback resistor 𝑹𝒇 required to sustain the oscillations is
290kΩ.
• When then simulated the circuit as shown below.

Figure 13:RC Phase shift Oscillator simulation setup

• We then placed a voltage probe at the output to obtain the simulated frequency
• We then open circuited RF and observed what happens.
• We finally shorted C3 and observed what happens.

13 | P a g e
3.5 OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS
• Output waveform

Figure 14:RC Phase shift oscillator output waveform

• Frequency of the waveform was determined to be 6.29kHz compared to given 6.5kHz

Figure 15: Frequency of RC Phase shift oscillator from voltage probe

14 | P a g e
 • This shows what happened when RF was open circuited

Figure 16:Output when Rf wass open circuited

• This shows what happened when C3 was shorted

Figure 17: Output when C3 was shorted

15 | P a g e
3.6 DATA DISCUSSIONS
The frequency of the Simulated value was 6.29kHz while the theoretical value was 6.25kHz.
This is because the software used for simulation applies some factors which can be configured
for example some parameters of the IC 741 used. In addition, also the rounding off we did
during calculations of the resistances R and Rf also has a factor in this difference.

Opening the resistor Rf ensures that there is no path for the signal from the RC network into
the Op-Amp due to high input impedance of the op-amp hence no feedback from the RC
network. This leads t the straight-line output.

Shorting C3 means there is no input into the RC network hence no input to the op-amp hence
a straight-line output.

3.7 ERROR ANALYSIS

Analyzing the error in the theoretical and simulated frequencies from

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 6.5𝐻𝑧 − 6.29𝑘𝐻𝑧

%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟑%
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 6.5𝑘𝐻𝑧

3.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The lab was a success, especially when one is geared towards the cementing of the theoretical
parts of this course unit, except that we only did simulations which have some limitations as
compared to the practical done in labs.

I recommend that maybe we do these labs practically on breadboards so that we increase our
capacity of using the practical lab equipments including oscilloscopes, multimeters etc.

16 | P a g e
4.0 LAB 4: HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
4.1 OBJECTIVES
• Designing and simulating Hartley Oscillator using BJT,
• Analyze the output waveform
• Determine and Analyze the frequency of oscillation and compare simulated values with
the theoretical values.

4.2 THEORY
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the
inductors L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed.
The coil L 1 has its one end connected to base via R1 and the other to emitter via C2. So, L2 is
in the output circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and together form an
Auto-transformer.
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.
The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling ofL1 and L2 helps in determining the
frequency and establishes the feedback. As the transistor provides 180phase shift, another
180ophase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the
input and output voltages.
•This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When
the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

1
The frequency of the Hartley Oscillator is given by 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿
𝑇𝐶

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

4.3 EQUIPMENT USED

• Simulation software (NI Multisim 13). In this software we used the following
components
o One Power supply(+12V)
o One BJT 2N3904
o Three resistors(10KΩ,1KΩ,22Ω)
o Five capacitors (10μ(electrolytic),100n (3), unknown (Farads))
o Two inductors (1.2 μ,6.8 μ (Henrys))
o One Oscilloscope
o Frequency counter

17 | P a g e
4.4 PROCEDURE
• Given a Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 1.2μH and
6.8μH to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor C3 that can be adjusted to
produce resonant frequencies of 1.2MHz lower and 1.7MHz upper frequencies. We
calculated the values of C3 (i.e. CH & CL) that produced the upper fH and lower fL
frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley oscillator’s bandwidth as shown
below.

𝟏
From 𝒇𝒓 = ……………………. (i)
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑻 𝑪

where 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 (ignoring the mutual inductance M)

𝑳𝑻 = (𝟔. 𝟖 + 𝟏. 𝟐)𝝁𝑯 = 𝟖𝝁𝑯

Making C the subject from eqn (i);

𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
( ) ( )
𝟐𝝅 × 𝒇𝑯
𝑪𝑯 = = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝑴 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟔𝒏𝑭 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟏𝒏𝑭
𝑳𝑻 𝟖𝝁
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
( ) ( )
𝟐𝝅 × 𝒇𝑳
𝑪𝑳 = = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝑴 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝒏𝑭 ≈ 𝟐. 𝟐𝒏𝑭
𝑳𝑻 𝟖𝝁
Therefore, the values of C3 that produce the upper and lower frequencies f H and
fL are 1.1nF and 2.2nF respectively.

Oscillator Bandwidth: 𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝑯 − 𝒇𝑳
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝑴𝑯𝒛 − 𝟏. 𝟐𝑴𝑯𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑴𝑯𝒁
• We then simulated the Hartley oscillator circuit in Multism using both values of C3
as shown below.

18 | P a g e
 Figure 18:Hartley Oscillator setup with C3=1.1nF

Figure 19:Hartley Oscillator setup with C3=1.1nF

• We then measured the values of the frequencies in both scenarios of upper and
lower 3db frequencies using a frequency counter.

19 | P a g e
4.5 OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS
• Output waveforms for both values of C3

Figure 20:Output when C3 is 1.1nF

Figure 21:Output when C3 is 2.2nF

20 | P a g e
 • Frequency of output for both values of C3

Figure 22:Frequency of output when C3 is 1.1nF

Figure 23:Frequency of output when C3 is 2.2nF

4.6 DATA DISCUSSIONS

The frequencies of the Simulated values for C3 as 1.1nF and 2.2nF were 1.128MHz and
1.553MHz respectively representing the lower and upper frequencies respectively while the
theoretical values were 1.2MHz and 1.7MHz. This is because the software used for simulation
applies some factors which can be configured for example some parameters like the beta of the
BJT used. In addition, also the rounding off we did during calculations of the capacitances for
C3 have factors in this difference.

21 | P a g e
4.7 ERROR ANALYSIS
Analyzing the error in the theoretical and simulated frequencies

For Lower Frequency

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 1.2𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 1.128𝑀𝐻𝑧

%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟔%
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 1.2𝑀𝐻𝑧

For Upper Frequency

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 1.7𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 1.553𝑀𝐻𝑧

%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = × 100% = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟒%
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 1.7𝑀𝐻𝑧

4.8 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The lab was a success, especially when one is geared towards the cementing of the theoretical
parts of this course unit, except that we only did simulations which have some limitations as
compared to the practical done in labs.

I recommend that maybe we do these labs practically on breadboards so that we increase our
capacity of using the practical lab equipments including oscilloscopes, multimeters etc.

22 | P a g e