Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Richard Siddle is Lecturer in Japanese Studies at the School of East Asian Studies,
University of Sheffield.
Sheffield Centre for Japanese Studies/
RoutledgeCurzon series
Series editor: Glenn D. Hook
Professor of Japanese Studies, University of Sheffield
PART I
Structure 19
PART II
Subjectivity 131
Index 250
Contributors
The idea for this volume began with a project at the School of East Asian Studies,
University of Sheffield, funded by the Japan Foundation and entitled ‘Regionalism
and identity in Okinawa’. The editors would like to thank Professor Ian Gow, a
partner in the original project, and all of the participants in the Workshop on
Okinawa, which was held at the University of Sheffield, 6–7 April 2001. For
financial support, we are grateful to the Japan Foundation, the Japan Foundation
Endowment Committee, and the Chubu Electric Power Company.
We are also grateful to Arakawa Akira for his permission to include Michael
Molasky’s partial translations of his poems ‘Minashigo no uta’ (An Orphan’s Song) and
‘Yūshoku jinshu – sono ichi’ (The Coloured Race) in Chapter 13.
Note on the text
Following Japanese convention, the family name precedes the given name unless
the author of a source publishes in English and does so using the reverse order.
Long vowels are indicated by a macron, except in the case of place and other
common names, such as Tokyo and Ryukyu.
Abbreviations
Okinawa. Its subordinate integration into global, regional and national orders has
posed a challenge for the governments and peoples of Okinawa for centuries. While
this structural subordination of Okinawa and the wider Ryukyu islands during the
period of the Chinese world order was never complete (Fairbanks 1968), and was
ameliorated by the cultural and economic benefits it brought, Satsuma’s extension
of control over the islands from 1609 onwards created a triangular relationship with
both China and Japan. In the face of Western imperial expansion, the pace of
Okinawa’s asymmetrical incorporation into the Japanese empire quickened with the
annexation and dismantling of the island kingdom from 1879. This was followed
by its integration, albeit often belatedly, into the political and economic structures
of the rapidly developing Japanese state as ‘Okinawa Prefecture’. Until the empire’s
defeat in 1945, Okinawa was part of another, as yet little explored, triangular
relationship, sitting between the empire of Japan proper and the colony of Taiwan
(Formosa), acquired in 1895 as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. This policy of
subordinating the Ryukyus within Japanese political and economic, if not cultural,
space, was part of the historical development of Japan as a subimperial power in
East Asia (Takahashi 2001). The particular catch-up path of development pursued
by Japan led to military aggression and territorial aggrandizement throughout the
region. The legacy of the Second World War’s outcome has been twofold, one
international, one domestic. The first is Japan’s well-known colonial legacy in East
Asia, which continues to this day to constrain the government’s relations with
neighbouring states (Hook et al. 2001: 151–257). The second is the less well-known
‘colonial’ legacy within Japan’s own legal, territorial borders (as with the island and
native people of Hokkaido on the northern periphery of the ‘developmental state’).
This combination of geography and strategic significance has historically meant
that the ‘Okinawa problem’ becomes most acute precisely at key moments of
transition or crisis within the modern Japanese state; the early Meiji transition to
modernity; war, defeat and the occupation after 1945; and most recently the post-
Cold War realignment.
The latest manifestation of the ‘Okinawa problem’ cannot be understood outside
of this context. The historical memory of the nineteenth century, not to mention of
the mid-twentieth century, when Okinawa suffered enormously at the hands of
both American and Japanese troops, continues to cast a long shadow over relations
2 Glenn D. Hook and Richard Siddle
with the mainland (on the war, see Ōta 1984). Indeed, Okinawa’s precarious,
shifting position within the tri-dimensional space of politics, economics and culture
still generates a multiplicity of answers to the most fundamental of questions: What
is Okinawa? Who are the Okinawans? The recasting of these two questions as one
is provocatively encapsulated in the title of this chapter: ‘Japan? Structure and
subjectivity in Okinawa’. This title, and the chapters making up the book, have one
clear aim: to jettison any notion that the structural subordination of Okinawa
politically and economically within global, regional and national orders in any way
implies the suffocation of Okinawan agency. While ‘Okinawans’ are produced as
subjects within powerful structural and ideological formations, Okinawans have
historically understood, negotiated, accepted, and indeed occasionally subverted,
these structural constraints. They continue to do so to this day. By examining how
structure and subjectivity interact and intertwine in tri-dimensional space, this book
sets out to shatter the mirror that reflects Okinawa and its peoples as no more than
a peripheral appendage to the world and regional stages, or as a fully integrated
former colony of the Japanese empire. It is more than that, but is it Japan?
A definitive and satisfactory answer to these interrelated questions is a huge, and
probably impossible, undertaking. In attempting, though, to at least move research
in this direction, this volume seeks from the outset to avoid the pitfall of reifying
Okinawa or Okinawans, or Japan and the Japanese for that matter, by focusing
instead primarily on sets of relationships: Okinawa and Japan, of course, as the
overwhelming and determining relationship, but also on Okinawa and the US,
Okinawa and the region, and Okinawans with themselves, their past and their
Japanese ‘Others’. The chapters acknowledge, and attempt to illuminate, the
complex, interwoven and entangled nature of these relationships. They are divided
into two sections, which seek broadly to interpret Okinawa from ‘above’ and ‘below’,
or in another pair of oppositions, from external and internal perspectives. Some
authors place Okinawa in the centre of the frame of vision, while others see it
refracted through the prisms of powerful, constraining structures and forces. A
number of chapters take the political economy of Okinawa as the unit of analysis
while yet others delve into the complex subjectivity of a single individual. All,
nevertheless, by casting light on different facets of the kaleidoscope of Okinawa and
Okinawan experience, combine to push forward our overall understanding of the
historical and contemporary structures, forces and contradictions that are Okinawa
and its peoples.
The book sets out to answer the above questions from a variety of disciplinary
perspectives. By bringing together specialists in both the human and social sciences,
the aim is to tease out an understanding of Okinawa and the Okinawans in a way
that demonstrates the central role of both structure and subjectivity when grappling
with the central question: Japan? The iconoclastic question driving this research
partly arises due to the multifaceted nature of borders. From the late nineteenth
century onwards the legal boundaries inscribed in cartographic space have placed
Okinawa within the sovereign, territorial borders of Japan. Yet even this formalistic
understanding of the structural relationship between Japan and Okinawa needs to
be tempered by a recognition of the legal severance of Okinawa in the wake of
Introduction 3
Japan’s defeat in the Second World War. The US occupation of Okinawa from
1945–72 meant that a more tentative, but nevertheless legal, reinscription of borders
took place as a result of Okinawa, the Amami group, and the Ogasawara islands
being placed under US tutelage as a separate administrative authority – a military
colony in all but name. Although Japan retained ‘residual sovereignty’ over
Okinawa, the formalistic borders embracing Japan and Okinawa were over-
inscribed by a quarter-century long American space. The legacy of this Occupation
has meant that, even after the reversion of Okinawa to full Japanese sovereignty in
1972, structurally and subjectively Okinawa and the Okinawans remain part of a
triangle, with the other two angles being made up by the US and Japan. The
influence of the Japanese and American angles of the triangle on Okinawa has
differed over time, but has consistently constrained the independence of Okinawa
in political and economic space. Even after the formal end of the American
interlude, the structural position of Okinawa is determined within this dual relationship.
Conclusion
The focus of this book on both structure and subjectivity in Okinawa serves to
elucidate the complex nature of both the Okinawan political economy and
Okinawan identity. Many of the issues touched on above are dealt with in rich detail
in the following chapters. This Introduction has briefly sketched the economic,
political and social terrain and outlined how Okinawa and the Okinawans have
been integrated in a subordinate position within global, regional and national
orders, both historically and in the contemporary period. It has highlighted
contemporary issues and controversies while tentatively proposing some conceptual
frameworks within which to try to make sense of them. This will become clear in
the two parts of the book.
Part I investigates the external and internal structural position of Okinawa in the
global, regional and national orders, with a particular focus on political economy
and security. In essence, this part of the book examines and seeks to explain the
Introduction 15
structural constraints imposed on Okinawa while remaining alert to the potential
opportunities these structures offer to Okinawan people. Chapter 2 by Furuki uses
a ‘world-system’ approach to place Okinawa in the context of the region’s and the
world’s historical development, paying particular attention to the idea of Okinawa
as a frontier region. The question of how Okinawa has emerged within the regional
and world orders provides the backcloth for many other contributions. Both
Furuki and Hook (Chapter 3) pay particular attention to the role of borders and
boundaries, with Hook examining Okinawa’s attempt to create a microregional
zone of economic cooperation by inscribing Okinawa as part of a wider, regional
space. The identities of regions, as well as people, are central to understanding the
current attempts being made to forge a greater degree of economic autonomy for
Okinawa as part of East Asia, not just Japan.
Yet US regional strategy constrains the role Okinawa can play, as Gabe (Chapter
4) makes clear. It is as part of this current triangle, with Japan and the US, that he
develops his argument on the importance of Okinawa to the US. Any change
in Okinawa’s structural position can only be carried out through the central
government, but little ground for optimism seems to exist, given Okinawa’s role in
US regional and global strategy. The US occupation, presence and role in Okinawa
has been one of the reasons for large numbers of Okinawans to abandon their homes
in search of a better life abroad, as Sellek shows in Chapter 5. Yet the existence of
this trend in earlier periods demonstrates how, placed within global, regional and
national structures, the people of Okinawa have not simply being ‘pushed’ out of
Okinawa, but have been agents in shaping their own destinies.
The last two chapters of Part I examine the structural position of Okinawa within
Japan. McCormack (Chapter 6) provides a detailed coverage of the costs borne by
the islands and the islanders as a result of the particular path of development
pursued. The role of the ‘construction state’ in remaking Okinawa with concrete,
some of this for the wider benefits of the people but with a devastating impact on
the natural environment, is testimony to the development model holding sway. The
previous governor of Okinawa knows at first hand the difficulty of trying to carry
out change within the domestic political economy, as he shows in Chapter 7. It is
not that ‘decentralization’ of political structures is not a clarion call in Japan as in
some other centralized states. It is rather that, in the case of Japan, the actual way
decentralization has been pursued has left prefectural governments with little
freedom to pursue an independent course. In this sense, Okinawa under Imamine
remains structurally in the same position as Okinawa under Ōta.
Part II is composed of chapters that attempt to understand Okinawa from the
inside out. Collectively, they emphasize Okinawan subjectivity, agency and
engagement with the structures of the larger political economy dealt with in Part I.
They give precedence to the voices and understandings of Okinawans themselves.
Many are concerned, in some way, with identity. The chapters by Siddle and Aldous,
for instance, look at the ways in which Okinawans, at different times and in pursuit
of contrasting political objectives, have articulated quite differing views of themselves.
In his discussion of the politics of indigenousness, Siddle (Chapter 8) demonstrates
how particular versions of Okinawan identity, informed by specific historical
16 Glenn D. Hook and Richard Siddle
narratives, not only drive the political agenda but can also be shaped by it. For
Aldous (Chapter 9), the anger and direct action displayed by ordinary people during
the Koza riots of 1970 was not just a symptom of their frustration against an unfair
US military administration, but also an indication of their particular understanding
of citizenship. Chapter 10 by Tanji digs below the surface of the ‘Okinawa struggle’
to focus on diversity between and among various movements, often lumped together
but motivated by not always compatible political, gender or environmental concerns.
Although they express their ‘Okinawan’ identities in different ways, she finds,
however, that ‘disunity is strength’.
The importance of the past, and its politicization, is a key theme in this section.
In Chapter 11 on the recent struggles over the commemoration of the Battle of
Okinawa, Yonetani highlights the complex and contested linkages between past
and present, and between academic history, social memory and politics. This is
contested terrain, indeed. Remembering the battle, in which over one-quarter of
the population died, arouses strong emotions among many Okinawans. These can
expose deeply ambivalent feelings, often suppressed in other contexts, about their
relationship with mainland Japan. Yonetani illustrates how different versions of the
‘truth’ of the battle, with their wider implications of Japan’s responsibility for
Okinawan suffering, have reached a flashpoint in the displays of the new prefectural
Peace (war) Museum. Nelson, too, in Chapter 12 on the comedian Fujiki Hayato,
discusses how Fujiki uses memories of the war (among other themes) in his
performances to both problematize and challenge the comfortable assumptions of
his local audiences.
Nelson, and Molasky, too, in his examination of the works of Arakawa Akira in
Chapter 13, are concerned with the ways in which meanings are appropriated and
contested within a symbolic world created by Okinawans, for Okinawans. Both
Fujiki and Arakawa, in their very different creative fields, have prompted a
generation of Okinawans to reflect upon their complicity in the maintenance of
structures of domination, both external and internal. Arakawa, in particular, was
one of the few intellectuals strongly to oppose reversion to Japan, and he remains
an important critic of the Okinawan establishment today. Molasky explores
Arakawa’s trenchant criticism and its poetic expression, linking its source to
Arakawa’s own troubled identity as an Okinawan.
What this book attempts, then, is a comprehensive approach to Okinawa and the
Okinawans taking account of both structure and subjectivity. It is by adopting this
dual approach that the answer to the question of this chapter – Japan? – can we hope
be found.
References
Angst, Linda (2001) ‘The sacrifice of a schoolgirl: the 1995 rape case, discourses of power,
and women’s lives in Okinawa’, Critical Asian Studies 33, 2: 243–66.
Arasaki, Moriteru (1996) Okinawa Gendaishi (A Contemporary History of Okinawa), Tokyo:
Iwanami Shoten.
Fairbanks, John F. (ed.) (1968) The Chinese World Order, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Introduction 17
Hook, Glenn D., Gilson, Julie, Hughes, Christopher W. and Dobson, Hugo (2001) Japan’s
International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security, London: Routledge.
Hook, Glenn D. and McCormack, Gavan (2001) Japan’s Contested Constitution: Documents and
Analysis, London: Routledge.
Maeshiro, Morisada, Makino, Hirotaka and Takara, Kurayoshi (1998) Okinawa no Jiko
Kenshō: Teidan- Jōnen kara Ronri e (Self-examination of Okinawa: Discussions, from Sentiment to
Logic), Naha: Hirugisha.
Molasky, Michael and Rabson, Steve (2000) Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from
Okinawa, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Okinawa Ken Kikaku Kaihatsubu Kikaku Chōsei Shitsu (1998) Okinawa Keizai no Gaikyō
(An Outline of the Okinawan Economy), Naha: Okinawa Prefectural Office, Okinawa Ken
Kikaku Kaihatsubu Kikaku Chōsei Shitsu.
Okinawa Ken Sōmubu Kichi Kōshitsu Kichi Taisaku Shitsu (1998) Okinawa no Beigun Kichi
(US Bases in Okinawa), Naha: Okinawa Prefectural Office, Okinawa Ken Sōmubu Kichi
Kōshitsu.
Ōta, Masahide (1984) The Battle of Okinawa: The Typhoon of Steel and Bombs, Tokyo: Kume
Publishing.
Roberson, James (2001) ‘Uchinaa pop: place and identity in contemporary Okinawan
popular music’, Critical Asian Studies 33, 2: 211–42.
Sered, Susan (1999) Women of the Sacred Groves: Divine Priestesses of Okinawa, New York and
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siddle, Richard (1998) ‘Colonialism and identity in Okinawa before 1945’, Japanese Studies
18, 2: 117–33.
Smits, Gregory (1999) Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-modern Thought and Politics,
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Takahashi, Susumu (2001) ‘The global meaning of Japan: the state’s persistently precarious
position in the world order’, in Glenn D. Hook and Hasegawa Harukiyo (eds) The
Political Economy of Japanese Globalization, London: Routledge.
Willcox, Bradley, Willcox, Craig and Suzuki Makoto (2001) The Okinawa Way: How to
Improve your Health and Longevity Dramatically, London: Penguin.
Part I
Structure
2 Considering Okinawa as a
frontier1
Furuki Toshiaki
His argument is not based upon the world-system perspective, but is a comparison
between frontiers and borders in relation to state theory. Gidden’s concept of
‘frontier’, however, overlaps with that of Chase-Dunn and Hall, in that a border is
viewed as a line rather than an area. ‘Borders’, in Giddens’ view, ‘are only found
Considering Okinawa as a frontier 23
with the emergence of the nation states’ (1985: 50). A border, therefore, is a line
drawn by the formation of the modern nation-state. ‘Modern state borders may
coincide with natural defensive boundaries, but while this may be important to the
fortunes of a state in war, it is irrelevant to the character of borders. Borders are
nothing other than lines drawn to demarcate state’s sovereignty’ (Giddens 1985: 51).
The concept of frontier, as clarified above, is a peripheral zone or area that
emerges when a region or state existing prior to the modern age becomes
incorporated into the nation-state or the interstate system. A border, on the other
hand, is a line drawn to indicate national sovereignty. With a frontier, therefore,
social relations exist, as mentioned earlier; however, with borders, there are none.
A border simply means a line by which a frontier is held within the nation-state,
although a frontier may often transgress this line. This is the case, for instance, in
regions where the principle of the nation-state has not been clearly established. East
Asia is one such region, as here the concept of ‘borders’ remains ambiguous.
Okinawa became incorporated into this regional world-system towards the end of the
fourteenth century. It was known as Koryūkyū (ancient Ryukyu), starting from around
the thirteenth century, and was part of a regional trading zone with China. Although
it is beyond the scope of this chapter, it should be noted that even earlier than this, ‘a
trade zone centred on China, in other words, a trade zone in the East Asia region’
had developed from the tenth century onwards and the Ryukyu island chain was
part of this zone (Nishizato 1986: 159). Pax Sinica was built upon such foundations.
It was during this stage that the state was formed and widespread trade emerged
under Pax Sinica. The state originated on the main island of Okinawa, where the
three small states of the Sanzan were formed: Chūzan, Sannan and Sanpoku.
Towards the end of the fourteenth century, of these three, Chūzan emerged as the
most powerful. At the time, East Asia was witnessing the decline of Mongolian rule
over China and the Korean peninsula. It was an unstable period. Amidst this
‘fluctuation’ – that is, an unstable element which is inherent in a system at the
moment of self-organizing into a new order (Straussfogel 1998, 2000) – the Han tribe
formed the Ming dynasty in 1368 and the China-centred regional world-system
was reorganized. While simultaneously excluding the wako (Japanese pirates)
through policies of tributary trade and kaikin (ban on free trade), the Ming dynasty
pressed its peripheries into paying tribute. Since the basic policy was to prohibit
private trade, periphery nations wishing to trade with China acquired entry solely
by means of participating in the tributary system. While Korea moved forward
quickly in this regard, the problem with the wako meant Japan found itself in
opposition. In these circumstances, in 1372 the crown head of Chūzan, the strongest
of the three states, ‘dispatched his brother Taiki and followers [to the Ming dynasty]
in order to pay distant reverence and precious tribute’ (Takara 1989: 49). In this
manner Chūzan became incorporated into the China-centred regional world-
system, emerging as its frontier. By 1380 Sannan and in 1383 Sanpoku were both
embraced in the system, paying tribute and establishing diplomatic relations. In
this way, ties between Sanzan and the Ming dynasty became firmly established. By
the fifteenth century Ryukyu power-holders began to unify the regime. In 1406, Shō
Hashi deposed Bunei (the king of Chūzan), crowning his father as the new king. The
kings of Sanpoku, in 1416 and then of Sannan in 1429, were similarly overthrown
by Shō Hashi. Following his father’s death in 1421, he became the first king of the
first unified regime of Ryukyu. Known as the First Shō dynasty, the monarchy
continued for six generations until, in 1470, the Second Shō dynasty was established.
This monarchical regime continued into the mid-seventeenth century.
The unification of the Ryukyu regime was important for the emergence of the
great trade era in East Asia. According to Takara Kurayoshi,
Considering Okinawa as a frontier 25
Ryukyu’s form of foreign trade featured the entrepot which was mainly conducted
by the state. The state maintained friendly relations with other states and traded
with the expectation of keeping such relationships. Herein existed a form of
diplomatic strategy. The most decisive element of this strategy was diplomacy
with China (tributary), and bearing this relationship in mind it formed diplomatic
relations with other states (international tributary system). Foreign trade for
Ryukyu was first and foremost peaceful and friendly, as stated in the archives of
the Ryukyu Dynasty (Rekidai Hōan). Friendly measures were the best means
possible for a small state with little resource to carry on relations with others.
(Takara 1989: 147)
This strategy is evident from the inscription on the ‘Bell Bridging All Countries
of the World’ (Bankoku Shinryō no Kane) cast by order of King Shō Taikyū (on the throne
1454–60), in which Ryukyu looked upon itself as an important part of the Chinese
world order and insisted on building a bridge to all countries as a trading nation.
duly received their annual land taxes from Ryukyu and merits reaped from
trade with China continued as expected, they had no qualms about the
‘autonomy’ of Ryukyu . . . on the other hand, for Ryukyu, as long as
26 Furuki Toshiaki
the tributary system with China was maintained and trade was able to be
continued, the needs of its ruling class were satisfied. Hence there appeared to
be a mutual consensus.
(Kinjō 1978: 193–4)
While the significance of this mutual consensus may differ, what is clear from the
perspective of world-system analysis is that the emergence of such a relationship
meant the deterioration of the frontier. The situation was a type of ‘membrane’ in
which the ceremonial rule of the China-centred world-system and authoritarian
control by Satsuma coexisted. Discord between the two was avoided through the
mutual consensus of both ruling classes. The cost of the burden lay with the ordinary
people of Ryukyu. In this way, although Okinawa’s potentiality could not be
realized, it did not mean the disappearance of Ryukyu as a frontier. Indeed, disputes
about the ryōzoku kankei took place between pro-Japanese and pro-Chinese groups,
yet crucially both acknowledged the uniqueness of Ryukyu. In other words, despite
Satsuma’s ability to permeate, the quality of the ‘membrane’ remained as a frontier
that protected existing social relations.
Considering the fact that the history of East Asia’s international relations was
founded upon the principle of a tributary relationship sustainable for over a
thousand years, it is difficult to assume that its demise could be brought about
by a single event, such as the Opium War . . . rather, it is conceivably more
acceptable to view it as a demise that was caused by internal change in the
tributary system itself.
(Hamashita 1997: 8–9)
In other words, the tributary states or their alliances took it upon themselves to rebel
against China as ka (i.e. not as i). This caused trading profits to plummet, ultimately
bringing things to a halt, and motivating the archaic tributary states to take on
European ways. This created open rebellion against China. As a result, China
abandoned its tributary system and its ka–i state of order as it entered the twentieth
century (Hamashita 1997: 9). It is from this time that the ‘bifurcation point’ (the
point where a stable structure reaches its limits and spontaneous self-organization
occurs) of the China-centred world-system begins.
Japan existed, of course, but it was categorized as being outside of Pax Sinica.
Eventually the situation changed as contact began from the Japanese side. Thus, in
1870 the Meiji government concluded the Treaty of Mutual Amity and Trade with
the Qing dynasty. This created quite a stir among the Qing who decided to grant
a treaty with Japan and, in the following year, the 1871 Sino-Japanese Treaty was
ratified. This event is an especially important one to note as it symbolizes the final
demise of Pax Sinica. It is also one of the greater ‘fluctuations’ as observed from the
context of the China-centred world-system’s transition towards a bifurcation point.
In the same year, the Meiji government began to focus its attention on Ryukyu.
The problem of the shipwrecked Miyako islanders, one of the islands of
Ryukyu, galvanized public interest at the time. The shipwreck involved the murder
of 54 out of 66 Miyako islanders who drifted upon Taiwan’s shores. The Meiji
government used the incident as a way to lay claim to Ryukyu. In the following
year, 1872, ‘Shō Tai was given status as head of the clan kingdom of Ryukyu,
recognizing him as a member of the nobles. All diplomatic along with friendly
relations carried out between Ryukyu and all other nations . . . henceforth fell under
the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ (Kinjō 1978: 5–6).
In 1875, the Meiji government started procedures to disband the Ryukyu clan and
fully integrate Ryukyu into the Japanese state. Thus, it prohibited the continuation
of the tributary state relationship between Ryukyu and the Qing dynasty,
and demanded that Ryukyu change its calendar to the Japanese-style of calendar,
based upon the era names of the Japanese emperor. In 1879, moreover, the Meiji
government used military reinforcements to oust the Ryukyu clan, thereby
establishing the prefecture of Okinawa (March 1879). Finally, in the same month,
the government demanded that Shuri Palace be surrendered within thirty-one days
(Kinjō 1978: 7). The Qing court insisted that the Sino-Japanese Treaty implied that
neither nation would invade each other’s territory, and demanded the return of
Ryukyu’s national polity and government back to its former state. Opposition moved
towards an unfolding of events encouraging negotiation between both governments.
As a new agreement was reached, the Qing court acquired Yaeyama and Miyako
islands as its territories and the Meiji government obtained the right of marketing
activities in China. The agreement, however, was aborted as Qing withdrew from
officially endorsing it. Hence the situation remained unchanged ( Kinjō 1978: 153–6).
As evidenced, the annexation of Ryukyu meant the embracing of it into the
Japanese state. In other words, this marked the incorporation of Ryukyu within
Japan’s borders. From this point on, Ryukyu as a frontier disintegrated. It is important
to note that this end of Ryukyu as a frontier is closely connected with the end of Pax
Sinica. As events moved towards a major bifurcation point, Ryukyu’s position can be
viewed as part of the greater China-centred world-system and its many ‘fluctuations’.
Considering Okinawa as a frontier 29
Okinawa and the nanshin policy
In this way, Japan incorporated Okinawa, turning it into a Japanese periphery.
As a result, Okinawa emerged as ‘waga nan mon’ (the Southern Gate of Japan), that
is, a strategic point of national defence along the borders of Japan. Despite the
spread of the Japanese empire, which was created without a long-term vision,
Okinawa remained as a strategic periphery. The reason for this lies in the
indeterminate structure of East Asia. It was necessary for Japan to put its borderline
point under constant surveillance in order to secure the Japanese empire for itself.
The Japanese government’s nanshin policy (to expand its territories towards
Southeast Asia) confirmed the strategic importance of Okinawa. The policy aimed
to ‘successfully carry through with the war by making full use of East Asia’s wealth’
through migration of people from Japan whose main aim was to develop and
acquire this wealth freely (Ōta 1972: 327). Okinawa became the ‘first combatant’
of this policy. According to Ōta Masahide, owing to memories of migration to East
Asia during the Ryukyu era and migration to Southeast Asia subsequent to the
modern age, Okinawans were psychologically prepared to work with such policies
(Ōta 1972: 326). From this perspective, the frontier as a memory served the cause
of an expansionary policy for the modern Japanese state. In this sense, Okinawa was
cleverly exploited to spur the nanshin policy of the empire of Japan.
Ironically, history brings down its own curtain. With the Pacific War and the
repeated defeat of the Japanese army, Okinawa inevitably became the ‘front-line
combatant’ of the border region. War on the Okinawa front became the only war
involving military personnel and civilians alike, creating its own demise by taking
the lives of more than 200,000 people. Among the war dead included 122,000
Okinawans – 28,000 were soldiers and civilians in the military, 94,000 were civilian
residents – representing 61 per cent of the total number of lives taken. The remainder
were 66,000 Japanese soldiers (including Korean and Taiwanese soldiers) who came
from outside Okinawa prefecture and 13,000 American soldiers (including some
British soldiers). The names of the war dead during this time are all engraved on the
Cornerstone of Peace, a memorial next to Mabuni Hill where the Battle of Okinawa
ended. This memory is still fresh in the archives of recent history.
In August 1945, the Empire of Japan unconditionally surrendered and the war
came to an end. Sakhalin, Taiwan and Korea were henceforth no longer
considered territories of Japan and people of non-Japanese ancestry hitherto
considered ‘Japanese’ were no longer ‘Japanese’. After the war, however,
people existed who were on the borders of what was considered ‘Japanese’.
These were the Koreans, Ainu and the people of Okinawa.
(Oguma 1998: 460)
30 Furuki Toshiaki
For twenty-seven years thereafter, until reversion in 1972, Okinawa ‘remained as
a boundary’ (Oguma 1998: 461). What does the word ‘boundary’ refer to here?
There is a need to distinguish ‘frontier as a boundary’ and ‘border as a boundary’,
although under US occupation, Okinawa perhaps complies with neither.
In January 1946, a memorandum by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme
Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), designated Okinawa as ‘politically and
administratively separate from Japan’. Hence Okinawa became an entity existing
outside of Japan’s jurisdiction. This separation by MacArthur also stemmed from
the American view that the people of Okinawa were different from the Japanese
(Oguma 1998: 462–6; Nakano and Arasaki 1976: 14–16). As such, this appears to
be a form of accepting Okinawa as a frontier but, in reality, it was just a means
to separate Okinawa from Japan. What did the US plan to do with Okinawa?
Despite the complicated arguments between opting for a status for Okinawa as
US territory or as a US Trusteeship (Oguma 1998: 467–72), the US military, faced
with Cold War tensions, insisted upon the former. This also included extending
human rights to the people of Okinawa as ‘Americans’, a difficult issue (Oguma
1998: 469). On the other hand, the argument favouring US Trusteeship, which
was written into the San Francisco Peace Treaty, threatened to open the way for
Chinese and Soviet intervention in Okinawan affairs, and also tied the US’s hands
through the United Nations. As an interim step, therefore, the US government
continued to monopolize its administrative rights over Okinawa, although in the end
this continued right up until return to Japan in 1972 (Oguma 1998: 469). With the
1949 socialist revolution in China and the intensification of the Cold War, especially
in the wake of the 1950 outbreak of war on the Korean peninsula, the US forged
ahead in creating ‘permanent’ military bases as a ‘temporary’ occupation force. In
this way, Okinawa emerged as a border marked by a military line. Not only was the
position of ‘Okinawa as a frontier’ conditional under such circumstances, but
Japan’s border was also being negated. In the wake of the militarization of Okinawa,
conflict emerged between the people of Okinawa and the US military occupying
Okinawa.
An all-island struggle
Despite American criticism of Japan’s historic role in Okinawan affairs, the realities
of US occupation weighed heavily on the people of Okinawa, causing them to seek
‘return to Japan’ (Oguma 1998: 466). While the reversion issue cannot be dealt
with here in detail, one event does bear mention from the perspective of world-
system analysis: the 1956 all-island struggle. The struggle provides insight into the
complex nature of Okinawa as a ‘membrane’. It illustrates how, during times of
conflict, problems can be caused not only by the presence of the US military and
the role of the Japanese government, but by the people of Okinawa as well. The
catalyst for the struggle was the June 1956 Report of the Special Subcommittee of
the Armed Services Committee, House of Representatives, also known as the
Melvin Price Report (Oguma 1998: 515). What enraged the Okinawans was the fact
that the report included extremely low calculations for the value of Okinawan land
Considering Okinawa as a frontier 31
and low rental fees for the land taken over by US military forces. The report also
did not take up the question of claims for damage made by islanders. Despite calls
to address these grievances, nothing was done. As a result, the whole of Okinawa
came together as a suprapartisan movement, rising up as shimagurumi (one island,
one people).
There are three points to mention: first is the nature of Okinawa’s struggle under
US military rule. The struggle, as Nakano Yoshio and Arasaki Moriteru point out,
‘meant that the whole island rose up against rule by the US military which had
continued for ten years’ (1976: 85). Second, the movement sheds light on the nature
of ‘reversionist thought supported by the Japan Reversionist Movement’ (Nakano
and Arasaki 1976: 85). Although the Japanese government was asked to support
Okinawans in their struggle to return to Japan, it adopted a ‘wait-and-see’ attitude,
fearful of damaging the US–Japan relationship. Third, the struggle highlights the
issue of Okinawan identity; namely, ‘the spirit of Okinawa expressed as a single
ethnic group united in its identity’ (Oguma 1998: 57). In other words, memories of
Okinawa as a frontier remained. Okinawa existed in a state of extensive permeability
through its military border: the all-island struggle was in a sense a direct challenge
to this situation supported by memories of Okinawa as frontier. The US’s
uncompromising stance and Japan’s ‘wait-and-see’ attitude led to the suppression
of the struggle. At the same time, suprapartisan cooperation gave way to conflict
and competition among different groups. Despite these difficulties, however, the
struggle can be seen as the precursor of the Okinawa reversionist movement further
on down the road.
Reversionist nationalism
Even during the 1950s popular support for reversion to Japan existed, but this
strengthened in the 1960s, as seen in 1960 with the creation of Okinawa Ken Sokoku
Fukki Kyōgikai (OSFK – Okinawa Prefecture Reversion to the Fatherland Congress).
The members of this group ‘envisioned themselves as being an all-island supra-
partisan reversion movement’ (Nakano and Arasaki 1976: 116). Despite this, the
Okinawa Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), newly formed in 1959, would not
participate. This indicates the existence of two different forces moving towards
reversion by this time. Whereas the OSFK claimed to be suprapartisan, the
Okinawa LDP dismissed it as ‘anti-American’, itself preferring ‘a gradual step-by-
step process’ in order to pursue ‘substantial reunification with the fatherland’
(Nakano and Arasaki 1976: 116). Despite their opposing strategies the two different
groups occasionally overlapped with each other. This came from having a common
identification as Okinawans, which created ‘a fluctuation of the Okinawan identity
between the two others, Japan and the US, as well as the fluctuation between
continuing or discontinuing efforts to acquire rights as Japanese for the past century’
(Oguma 1998: 501). On the grounds of connecting two opposing groups, the
movement can be called reversionist nationalism. Of course the memory of being
a frontier had receded significantly. Later on, however, the concept surfaced again,
along with heated debates over independence and the growth of anti-reversionism.
32 Furuki Toshiaki
At the time of reversion in 1972, the demand grew for reversion without nuclear
weapons – that is hondonami, or on a parity with the mainland. The acceptance of
this demand on the part of both the US and Japanese governments was at heart
a strategy to absorb the reversionist nationalist movement. In this way, Okinawa
remained as a military border for the US armed forces, at the same time as it was
transferred to Japan as a border.
U.S. hegemony in East Asia was realized through the transformation of the
periphery of the former Sino-centric tribute-trade system into the periphery of
a U.S.-centric tribute-trade system. The U.S.-centric system, however, was far
more militaristic in structure and orientation than its Sino-centric predecessor.
Not only was it based on a military-industrial apparatus of incomparably
greater size and technological sophistication, more important, the US-centric
system also fostered a functional specialization between the imperial and the
vassal states that had no parallel in the old Sino-centric system.
(Arrighi et al. 1999: 266)
Japan clearly manifested this type of functional specialization under what Nakamura
Masanori calls the ‘1960 regime’ (Nakamura 1995: 3), a term that refers to a
prospering Japan under Pax Americana during the period of high economic growth,
stable politics and high mass consumption. Japan acted as the core of the US-centric
system during this time. And Okinawa, located on the outskirts of this core, was
incorporated as a border to the peripheries.
Note
1 English translation by M. K. Meyer Ohya, Chūō University, Tokyo, Japan.
Considering Okinawa as a frontier 37
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3 Responding to
globalization
Okinawa’s Free Trade Zone in
microregional context1
Glenn D. Hook
Conclusion
The above discussion has drawn attention to the way that Okinawa has responded
to the pressures of globalization in the national political economy and the regional
context of emerging zones of cooperation. It shows how, in the face of these external
and internal pressures, the national government in the end put forward a policy
implying the lowering of the borders of the Japanese state, if only by inches, as seen
in the creation of the Special FTZ in Nakagusuku. As the tax rate applicable
to those companies locating in the FTZ is preferential, ‘two systems within one
state’ have been conceded, albeit on an extremely limited basis, suggesting the
prefecture achieved at least some minor success in trying to exploit the opportunities
created by globalization. In essence, Okinawa is seeking to revitalize the local
economy and strengthen economic self-reliance by attracting inward investment
and promoting trade with mainland Japan and East Asia. The question of whether
the prefecture can become internationally competitive, given the high transportation
costs and relatively high costs of labour, remains to be seen. If, as now, little progress
continues to be made towards microregional cooperation, then Okinawa may
well be destined to remain as a peripheral, subordinate and dependent outreach of
the Japanese political economy, reliant on public works, tourism and US bases for
its survival.
52 Glenn D. Hook
Yet the failure of the prefecture to implement the All-Okinawa FTZ highlights
how resistance to globalization was to be found at both the national and local levels.
In comparison with the national economy, which has internationally competitive
sectors such as electronics and transportation machinery, the local Okinawan
economy remains weak and vulnerable in the face of liberalization and deregulation.
As a result, the response to globalization clearly did not break down along
national–local lines, with the national bureaucracy mounting resistance to and local
actors offering support for the All-Okinawa FTZ. Rather, it involved a complex
amalgam of both resistance and support. Okinawans, too, seek to protect their own
interests. That resistance emerged not only in the agricultural sector but also in the
manufacturing sector illustrates the fragility and vulnerability of Okinawa in the face
of globalization. In this sense, not only does Okinawa suffer as a result of continuing
dependence on military bases and government subsidies: it also suffers under the
pressures of globalization as this dependence has distorted the structure of the local
political economy.
At the same time, the national government’s resistance to lowering the boundaries
of the Japanese state highlights its continuing concern over the social dimension of
globalization. As seen in the case of the maintenance of visas for Taiwanese visitors,
concern over the potential inflows of illegal migrant workers and other illegal
entrants is a powerful weapon for those seeking to resist globalization (Megumi
1997: 153). In this way, the pressures of globalization are advancing both the
potential for the creation of shared, transborder identities, with Okinawa becoming
part of an overlapping layer of identities at the local, national and regional levels,
at the same time as they are generating the potential for a backlash against the
lowering of national boundaries and the reinforcement of an ethnic national
identity. The case of Okinawa illustrates the difficulty of removing barriers to the
flows of people and the government’s continuing attachment to an ethnic identity,
though this remains under pressure from globalization.
The subjective dimension of regionalism, as seen in the attempts to create a
regional identity, highlights the contested nature of a region’s boundaries and the
role different actors can play in redefining Okinawa’s spatial location as part of
the region-building process. The prefecture’s emphasis on geographical proximity,
shared climate and cultural and historical links with Taiwan and China demon-
strates how subjective identities can be exploited by political actors as a means to
realize interests. The imputation of these spatial relations with geographical and
historical meaning is in marked contrast to the attempts being made to create an
Asia Pacific identity based on economic indices, such as the pattern of trade and
investment. In a sense, Okinawa is forced to rely on this specific form of identity
building precisely because of the weakness of economic links, whereas APEC has
to rely on economic indices precisely because of the weakness of geographic and
historical links.
Finally, changes in the structure of the international system can indeed be said
to exert a crucial influence on the way domestic agents play a role in the global
political economy. In the case of the Japan Sea Zone and the Yellow Sea Zone, for
instance, the ending of the Cold War and the pressures of globalization opened up
Responding to globalization 53
new space for subnational political authorities and other domestic actors to become
more active internationally. This is illustrated by Fukuoka, where businesses are
moving offshore and these and other local actors are playing a pivotal role in
developing the Pan Yellow Sea Zone through investment, trade and the creation
of a crossborder production system involving China and South Korea. In the case
of Okinawa, in contrast, it is rather the legacy of the Cold War, as seen in the
continuing location of US bases in the prefecture, together with the pressures of
globalization, that propelled the prefecture to play a more proactive international
role. Clearly, globalization is not affecting Japan in a uniform way. In this sense,
without the ending of the domestic Cold War in Okinawa, the prefecture will
continue to be constrained by globalization and be unable to exploit fully the
opportunities for economic revival it contains.
Note
1 The author gratefully acknowledges the support of Igarashi Akio and the Asian Studies
Frontier Research Project, Rikkyō University, which enabled him to make a research
trip to Okinawa.
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54 Glenn D. Hook
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4 It is high time to wake up
Japanese foreign policy in the
twenty-first century
Gabe Masaaki
The end of the Cold War, which had enveloped the globe for the latter half of the
twentieth century, and the onset of globalization, have brought to the people of
the twenty-first century a mixture of hope, change and disorder. While the super-
power rivalry is a thing of the past, vacuums of power have brought a growing
recognition of the importance of avoiding disorder not only in terms of national
security, but also from the standpoint of human security that is defined as freedom
from fear and freedom from want in the framework of pursuing economic, food,
health, environmental, personal, community and political security (UNDEP 1994:
22–33). At the same time, leaders have come to realize that it will be impossible to
create peace so long as sound measures are not adopted to deal with the workings
of the various levels of domestic politics including economics and social and cultural
issues. Furthermore, notions of security seem wholly inadequate if they ignore
problems that are not contained by borders, such as the environment and human
rights.
Even the US–Japan alliance, always an unbalanced structure and perhaps best
seen as a holdover of the security arrangements between developed countries during
the Cold War era, has increasingly been influenced by the dynamics of each
country’s economy and social change and, hence, by the framework of its domestic
politics. For example, in Okinawa the regular incidents and accidents as well as the
environmental pollution created by the US military and military personnel can no
longer be overlooked, as often occurred previously (Kreiner 2001). Illustrative of this
trend, in January 2001 the Okinawa prefecture assembly unanimously passed a
resolution, the first of its kind, requesting the prevention of new incidents by US
military personnel and a reduction in the number of US marines (Okinawa Taimusu,
19 January 2001). Lt. General Earl B. Hailston of the US Marine Corps, who
was the highest ranking officer on Okinawa, called the governor and other local
conservative politicians ‘all nuts and a bunch of wimps’, in response to such
Okinawan attitudes to the US Marines on Okinawa (Ryūkyū Shimpō, 6 February
2001, and Pacific Stars and Stripes, 7 February 2001). This resolution is a symbol that
the people of Okinawa have developed increased sensitivities to human rights and
the environment and, in this respect, are perhaps becoming more in tune with
international developments at the dawn of the new millennium.
56 Gabe Masaaki
Pressure from the twenty-first century
The close of the twentieth century saw the Cold War in Europe come to an end with
the collapse of the socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and the dissolution of the
Soviet Union. Perhaps the denouement to this drama is now being played out on
the Korean peninsula. The North–South summit, which even as it was being
proposed was fraught with difficulties, has been realized and with it, one hopes, the
Cold War structures in East Asia that have spanned fifty years are beginning to be
dissolved. The Korean peninsula is starting to shift from a military standoff to
peaceful coexistence. Along with such encouraging developments, however, have
come serious conflicts over human rights and ethnic and religious strife in regions
where nation-states are fragile. The limits to problem-solving through military
means have become quite clear. Certainly, a large-scale forward deployment
strategy of the Cold War variety, such as that found in the US presence on Okinawa,
has proven increasingly difficult to legitimize in terms of the national security of
any country.
In the United States the beginning of the twenty-first century has also been
accompanied by the birth of a new political administration under President George
W. Bush. Signs that this new administration intends to change American foreign
policy towards Japan are already visible. Examples are evident in a non-partisan
report on policy vis-à-vis Japan entitled The United States and Japan: Advancing Toward
a Mature Partnership (INSS 2000: 1–7). Written under the supervision of Richard
L. Armitage, the newly appointed Deputy Secretary of State in the George W. Bush
administration (who was, incidentally, also the Assistant Secretary of Defense for
International Security under President Ronald Reagan), the report recommends
that the prohibition on Japan’s right to collective self-defence be removed. The
Japanese government has interpreted the meaning of Article 9 of the constitution
to mean that Japan is not allowed to join actions in the name of collective self-
defence, but could use the right of self-defence in case of homeland attack. This
interpretation reflects the Japanese desire not to become involved in armed conflicts
outside of Japanese territory, a lesson learned from the experience of the Asia–Pacific
War. If the Japanese government changes this interpretation in order to exercise the
right of collective self-defence, Japanese troops will be sent abroad to join military
campaigns in order to support US forces. According to the report, such a move
would allow for a maturing of the US–Japan security relationship, modelled on the
special alliance between the United States and Britain (INSS 2000: 2).
These points are consistent with those advanced by former Deputy Assistant
Secretary of Defense Kurt M. Campbell in his article ‘Energizing the US–Japan
security partnership’, which included commentary on the full implementation
of the new US–Japan Defence Guidelines to be operational in contingency or
humanitarian crises, the joint use of facilities with Japanese Self-Defence Forces
(SDF), the re-examination of agreements related to the roles and missions of the
respective armed forces, and the regulation of training exercises (Campbell 2000).
The broader context in which these points ought to be considered involves the
effort by the United States over the past decade or so to design a new diplomatic
and military strategy for the post-Cold War era. After replacing the administration
of President George Bush (Sr), one that had remained locked in a Cold War mindset
in many respects, the Clinton administration took the new framework of the
international political economy into careful consideration as it attempted to create
its post-Cold War vision. While the Clinton administration promoted globalization
and revived the American economy, its foreign policy lacked consistency and was
occasionally even indecisive. It was characterized by the separation of economic and
security issues and the tight specification of conditions for action. The former
succeeded in creating a framework in which domestic political concerns might be
given priority. Unfortunately, it failed to facilitate the integration of American
interests. These interests clarified American diplomatic action domestically and
internationally at the same time that they made flexible responses difficult.
cultural traits among Okinawans, strong in-group feelings and the naichi emigrants’
prejudice, Okinawan emigrants had a strong sense of esprit de corps and established
the Okinawan community, segregating themselves from the naichi emigrant
community (Ishikawa 1981: 103).
Many Okinawan emigrants conceded that there was a vast difference between
the naichi emigrants and themselves in economic and cultural terms and tried to
respond to the prejudice by the promotion of ‘standard’ Japanese language and
customs. This assimilation policy was considered to be the only way towards a
civilized and equal participation in the Japanese state (Siddle 1998: 130). The
incident in which a group of Okinawan emigrants in the Philippines forcefully
deported three tattooed Okinawan woman back to Okinawa in 1916 is just another
example of their determination to have their customs standardized. Okinawan
emigrants already residing in the Philippines decided to establish their own Kenjinkai
(Association of Emigrants originating from Okinawa) in the Philippines to discuss
the measures to avoid further prejudice caused by the presence of these tattooed
women (Ryūkyū Shimpō, 28 November 1999).
Okinawans in Japan’s colonies were regarded ambiguously both by locals and by
Japanese from naichi. There was a distinctive difference in terms of labour conditions
Migration and the nation-state 81
between the imperial self ‘Japanese’ and Okinawans who were integrated into
Japan’s colonial policy as subordinate labour, although they were placed higher
than the local indigenous workers, as seen among the emigrants from Okinawa in
the Japanese mandate of Micronesia in the 1930s who worked as sugar plantation
workers (Tomiyama 1996: 146–7).
The main concern of the US government behind this overpopulation problem was
to maintain political stability in Okinawa. The fear was that, due to labour unrest
and discontent building up among Okinawans, particularly susceptible youth,
Okinawans may become communists and rise up in revolt against the US (Amemiya
1999: 59). It was precisely for this reason that James L. Tigner of Stanford
University, commissioned by USCAR, investigated the possibilities of sending
Okinawan emigrants to Latin America. Bolivia was chosen by Tigner as a place for
resettlement, since the Bolivian government was also interested in receiving a larger
84 Yoko Sellek
number of Okinawans so as to carry out a social revolution in order to achieve self-
sufficiency in food with some financial aid provided by the US. Supporting the
social revolution was also beneficial for the US government in order to hold
communism at bay (Amemiya 1999: 59). For this reason, USCAR set up a budget
of US$160,000 for supporting the transportation costs of emigrants, and in 1953
the Ryukyu government passed legislation in order to provide loans to emigrants.
The qualification for emigration to Bolivia was to be either a farming family or an
unaccompanied male farmer aged between 16 and 40. In the case of a family, they
must have more than two people who were capable of working in the family and
the head of the household should be a male aged between 20 and 50. They were
expected to settle in Bolivia on a permanent basis and remain in the designated
area of settlement for at least five years. Those who were unable to pay the expenses
necessary to emigrate were able to take out a loan from the Ryukyu emigration
fund. Fifty hectares of land was guaranteed to each household by the Bolivian
government. The actual breakdown of those who emigrated to Bolivia in 1954 was:
70 unaccompanied male emigrants and 184 male and 145 female family emigrants.
The number of applicants for the first planned emigration to Bolivia was nearly
nine times more than the number of emigrants who were selected to emigrate in
1954 (Ishikawa 1995: 28–31).
As a result, ‘emigration fever’ broke out in Okinawa and, under the agreement
between the Uruma emigration union and the Bolivian government, the first group
of 399 Okinawans was sent to the Uruma site in Bolivia. However, the lives of the
Okinawan emigrants were not as bright as they had expected due to poor living
conditions with no potable water nearby, a mysterious disease and serious floods.
Those who decided to remain in Bolivia as farmers eventually moved to a different
site, Colonia Okinawa, which remains to this day.
Between 1951 and 1964, 3,238 people emigrated to Colonia Okinawa as
‘planned’ emigrants despatched by the Ryukyu government, while the Japanese
government carried out a separate scheme for emigration to San Juan in Bolivia
based on an agreement with the Bolivian government signed in 1956 (Ishikawa
1995: 22). The status of Okinawans in such a third country was highly ambiguous.
Those who departed for a designated country directly from Okinawa carried
certificates of identity issued by the United States authorities which stated, ‘The
High Commissioner of the Ryukyu Islands hereby requests all whom it may concern
to permit safely and freely to pass, and in case of need to give lawful aid and
protection to: — a resident of the Ryukyus’ (Foreign Ministry, 19 August 1962). On
the other hand, Okinawans residing in Okinawa were able to obtain Japanese
passports issued in Japan proper, if they travelled via Japan proper to their country
of destination. It was also possible for those who had already emigrated to a third
country using the certificates of identity issued by the United States authorities to
have their Japanese passports issued on the exchange of these certificates of identity.
The Japanese government assumed that it should exercise its protective authority
over the emigrants from Okinawa residing in a third country, including those who
emigrated to Bolivia under the financial support of the US government. According
to a letter written by the Foreign Ministry dated 19 August 1955 addressed to
Migration and the nation-state 85
Japanese embassies abroad, ‘as Okinawan emigrants are Japanese nationals, it is
necessary to protect them in collaboration with the U.S. Embassies in the designated
areas’ (Foreign Ministry, 19 August 1962).
However, although Okinawans were Japanese nationals, their rights as Japanese
nationals as guaranteed by the constitution were not applied, if their application
contravened Article 3 of the Peace Treaty. The Japanese government ‘was unable
to be involved with any administrative issues, such as the selection and the training
of emigrants, and the provision of any responsible measures in relation to the
acceptance of those emigrants by their host countries’ (Foreign Ministry, 1 April
1958). For example, according to official correspondence from the Japanese
embassy in Bolivia, the Bolivian government made the following complaints in
relation to the Okinawan emigrants:
Conclusion
When people decide to migrate it is quite possible that ‘individuals act to maximize
income while families minimize risk, and that the context within which both
decisions are made is shaped by structural forces operating at the national and
international levels’ (Massey et al. 1993: 433). The majority of the emigrants from
Okinawa emigrated abroad based on cost-benefit judgements made in economic
terms, hoping that they would be ‘better off’ being abroad. Some structural forces
were inevitably operating in relation to the emigration from Okinawa throughout
the prewar and the postwar periods. The political economy, the global and regional
distribution of power and resources, have certainly been reflected in the structure
of emigration from Okinawa. The Okinawan emigrants have been utilized within
a number of different contexts: first, they served the Western colonial powers and
then Japan as a late imperialist, and later America under Cold War imperialism. In
Migration and the nation-state 89
the prewar period, emigration was carried out as a ‘thinning policy’ by the Japanese
government in order to improve the economic situation of Okinawa. In the postwar
period, while ‘chain migration’ was continuing based on the migration network, the
new destinations were carefully selected within the context of Cold War imperialism.
The postwar emigration from Okinawa to Bolivia and the attempted emigration to
Micronesia and Cambodia indicate that the primary interest of the governments of
Japan and the US was the US’s continued military possession of the Ryukyu Islands
for security reasons in the context of the Cold War. America had absolutely no
intention of providing protection for Okinawans as American citizens by annexing
Okinawa as a part of the US. The best solution for the US was to keep emigrants
from Okinawa as cheap labour.
Although Okinawans held Japanese nationality, which legally guaranteed their
protection by the state, the status of emigrants from Okinawa in a third country was
somewhat ‘fuzzy’. They were sometimes treated as Japanese nationals but on other
occasions were treated as non-Japanese, all depending on the view of each country
of their destination and on each specific situation. The whole picture of emigration
from Okinawa in the postwar period illustrates one fact more than any other:
namely, that the Japanese government had to compromise its own sovereignty as a
nation-state in light of concerns over security and the bilateral relationship with the
US. In this sense, the importance of the Japanese ‘state’ surpassed the significance
of the ‘nationals’ symbolized by the emigrants from Okinawa.
This structure of emigration surely indicates another story of the victimization of
Okinawans and the emigration from Okinawa may be understood as part of a
collective trauma, a banishment from the islands, where dispersed minorities in
their overseas destinations are longing to return home. Okinawans had to create an
extremely strong esprit de corps among themselves, compared to the emigrants from
other prefectures. To improve their status in their overseas destinations Okinawans
established Kenjinkai everywhere they emigrated, set up their own loan system and
helped one another among themselves. They have maintained strong group ties
and solidarity deriving from a relationship with the homeland, Okinawa, sustained
over an extended period and have established significant networks around the world.
Although their initial migratory chains have been triggered by external factors,
once a movement is established, networks based on their relatives and common
place of origin provide safer paths for the next migrants. Migratory movements,
once started, become self-sustaining social processes and emigrants originating from
Okinawa have scattered all over the world, shaping the political economy in the era
of globalization.
The Okinawan emigrants or Okinawan diaspora nowadays imply a very positive
and ongoing relationship between their homeland, Okinawa, and their places of
settlement. ‘Sekai no Uchinānchu’ (The World Uchinanchu Congress) has been
going on since 1990, and recent years have seen thousands of people of Okinawan
descent from all over the world come back to Okinawa to participate. As typical of
migration movements, this network of the Okinawan diaspora will no doubt prove
to be advantageous for Okinawans in fitting into a globalized society where the
meaning of the nation-state boundary is becoming less significant.
90 Yoko Sellek
Notes
1 It was in 1866 when the Tokugawa shogunate gave official permission, upon
application, to those who had to study or carry out commercial activities abroad. In
1867, 103 passports were issued, 90 of them to domestic servants employed by foreigners
in Japan who were to leave the country with their employers. See Tsuchida (1998: 80).
2 The recruitment proposals rejected by the Meiji government included those by
the Southern Australian government (1877), a five-year contract plan offered by the
Hawaiian government (1879), an immigration treaty to migrate to Cuba by the Spanish
government (1880), a proposal to work as sugar and coffee plantation workers by
the Dutch West Indies (1833) and recruitment of 250 tracklayers in America, 200
construction workers in Russia, 500 colony soldiers assigned to Indonesia by the
Netherlands, coal miners in California (no number given) and 2,000 tracklayers in
Oregon. See Suzuki (1992: 26).
3 Between 1924 and 1934 only 2 per cent of Japanese emigrants went to Manchuria,
whereas between 1935 and 1945, 85 per cent of all Japanese emigrants went to
Manchuria (Suzuki 1969: 14, quoted from Sowell 1996: 106).
4 The ‘income of Okinawa in 1909 was half that of the next poorest prefecture and in
1911 the average annual earnings in Japan stood at 46 yen, 37 after tax; in Okinawa the
figure were 14.3 and 8.4 yen, respectively’ (Ōta 1995: 191, quoted in Siddle 1998: 122).
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6 Okinawa and the structure
of dependence
Gavan McCormack
Tourism
Tourism is a major Okinawan industry. Since the Marine Expo of the 1970s growth
has been spectacular, from 400,000 visitors in the year of reversion to 1.5 million
in 1975 and 4.1 million in 1998, with a target of expansion to 5 million per year by
the year 2002 as Okinawa aims to join Hawaii and the Australian Gold Coast as a
‘super mega-resort’ and part of the ‘Golden Triangle’ of tourism (McCormack and
Shikita 2000: 237).3
Yet this industry is also heavily dependent: over 80 per cent of the major resort
hotels are owned by mainland interests, and even at the construction stage, local
firms are involved only as sub- or sub-sub-contractors (Okinawa Rōdō Keizai, 1992).
Even in areas of high concentration of tourist facilities, such as Onna Village which
can accommodate 10,000 visitors, only 12 per cent of employees in the hotels are
local people (McCormack and Shikita 2000: 239). In some hotels not only are the
staff but the food and even the nicknacks for the omiyage souvenir trade are imported
(Matsushima 2001: 57). Waste and water are particularly vexing problems. The
high-consumption and high-waste lifestyle of the tourists is cited as justification for
the construction of high-tech incineration facilities, while 1,000 litres of water is
required per tourist each day (as against the average for the residents of the islands,
even including the US service personnel, of 370 litres) (Ui 1996: 14–15).4 With the
traditional kā now neglected and often unusable, and with the northern rivers
already largely harnessed and underground water reserves being rapidly drawn
down and threatened by chemical pollution, the plan to double current numbers
of tourists seems questionable. The installation of desalinization plants might be
thought to offer one possible solution, but the trial plant which now operates in
Okinawa’s main island is small-scale (20,000 tons per day), dependent on fossil fuel
and expensive (Ui 1996: 14).
The ‘Resort Law’ of 1987 encouraged not only Okinawa Island and its outlying
islands, but much of the rural, mountain and coastal Japan that was suffering from
depopulation and economic decline, to think that resort development might offer
a solution to their problems. The whole of Okinawa, including the outlying islands,
became caught up in a frenzy of resort development schemes. On Okinawa Island
itself, some thirty-odd resort hotels and golf courses were built, some involving the
privatization of beaches and the creation of tourist ‘enclosures’ for the pleasure of
mainland visitors able to enjoy a resort lifestyle of conspicuous consumption.
Eventually the whole prefecture was declared a resort, eligible for various special
102 Gavan McCormack
concessions and breaks to give official support to accompanying development,
mostly of hotels, golf courses and marinas.
On the outlying islands, too, various plans were drawn up under the ‘Resort
Okinawa Masterplan’. On Miyako Island, between 1987 and 1996, the village of
Ueno (19 square km, 1997 population: 3,186) constructed its remarkable resort,
‘German Culture Village’ (Ueno Village 1997). It featured a faithful reproduction
of a medieval German castle (Marksburg), the ‘Fraternity Palace Resort Hotel’, a
golf course and other facilities including a fine fishing port, though it had no fishing
industry. There was no attempt to produce anything recognizably German, neither
bread, nor beer, nor wine nor cheese, nor (apart from some advice on medieval
thatching techniques) was there any significant German involvement in the planning
and building of the village. Built at the height of the ‘bubble’, 90 per cent of the costs
of the Culture Village were met by local ‘bonds’, i.e. advanced from the government
in Tokyo. The Culture Village now sits, grandly if rather incongruously, in its remote
rural surrounds, the local village authorities struggling to contain their losses on
operating expenses, hoping the capital costs will never be charged to them, and
waiting for the mass tourism that might one day make it economically viable.
Conclusion
The economy of post-reversion Okinawa rests on a tripod of kichi (bases), kōkyō jigyō
(public works) and kankō (tourism), ‘3 Ks’, each of which denotes an external
dependence. Okinawa’s budget is massively subsidized, and the strings attached
serve to deprive Okinawa of real choices about its future. As with drugs of
dependence so with the economy of dependence: the more the subject is hooked,
the more difficult it becomes to break free of the addiction, which in turn requires
higher and higher doses to maintain.
More than a decade after the end of the Cold War the prospect of Okinawa
achieving mainland-like status by demilitarizing is as remote as ever. Henoko village
becomes the very fraught and unstable centre of the US–Japan alliance. For the
Japanese state, caught between the desire to give full support to the American
108 Gavan McCormack
strategic design, on the one hand, and the inescapable consequence of having to ride
rough-shod over its Okinawan citizens, on the other, a quiet disposition of the
problem is as necessary as it proves difficult to accomplish. Governor Inamine, who
came to power in December 1998 promising to end the ‘recession due to prefectural
politics’ (namely, Ōta’s stubbornness) to revitalize the economy and offer hope to
Okinawa’s youth, presides in 2001 over an economy whose unemployment rate is
almost exactly the same as when he took office (8.7 per cent as of December 2000
under Inamine as against 9.2 per cent in August 1998 under Ōta).
It was Inamine who in 1998 first enunciated the two conditions – joint
civil–military use and a fifteen-year time limit – on the Henoko marine base which
provided the formula to get it accepted by Okinawan governments. Now, since
both conditions are plainly unacceptable to the Pentagon, and therefore to the
government in Tokyo, like Ōta in 1996–8 he faces escalating and contradictory
pressures.11 His references to Okinawa as a ‘magma’ continually threatening to
erupt bespeak deep anxiety.12 When Tokyo in due course publishes details of its
Henoko base plan, Inamine, torn between the pressures of Tokyo and Washington,
on the one hand, and his commitment to his constituents, on the other, will find
himself impaled on the horns of precisely the same dilemma that destroyed his
predecessor: to serve Tokyo or to serve Okinawa?
As Medoruma Shun, the novelist and passionate and prophetic Okinawan voice
from Nago, insists, it may be that things now seem to be going the way Tokyo wishes.
The ‘Okinawa Initiative’ may not have been successful, but SACO and the Okinawa
Policy Council and the Shimada Group in concert have pushed Okinawa a long
way. However, it would only take some new incident for the consensus to collapse
in disturbances of a scale not seen in Okinawa since the Koza ‘riots’ of 1970: ‘The
magma continues to build up’, he says (Medoruma 2000: 52–3). Since he wrote
that, it has been stretched further by fresh incidents of arson and indecent assault
by US troops, and by their commander General Earl Hailston’s angry and
contemptuous email reference to Okinawan leaders as ‘all nuts and a bunch of
wimps’ (Asahi Evening News, 9 February 2001). Early in 2001, prefectural, city, town
and village assemblies all adopted resolutions calling for US forces to be more tightly
controlled and their number slashed, and in February Governor Inamine told
Foreign Minister Kōno (Yōhei) that Okinawa ‘can no longer bear’ the burden of
hosting so much of the US military presence (Japan Times, 26 February 2001).
Whether in the end the magma can be contained by platitudes, promises, dollops
of money and insistence on the prerogatives of state power, is an open question.
However, reflecting the relatively short history of ‘Japanese-style’ economic
development in Okinawa, an uncritical faith in economic growth remains strong.
The ‘Okinawan problem’ is widely seen as exclusively one of bases, which must be
cut back and eventually eliminated, while ‘development’ is seen as something to be
welcomed, boosted and maximized. It is this faith that provides the leverage Tokyo
needs to manipulate and perhaps to achieve its will. After a much longer experience
of the doken kokka elsewhere in Japan, for instance at Isahaya in Kyushu, on the
Yoshino River in Tokushima and in entire prefectures such as Nagano whose
Governor Tanaka Yasuo has issued a frontal challenge to the system, the tide begins
Okinawa and the structure of dependence 109
to turn against it; but in Okinawa its fundamentally pathological character is grasped
only dimly.
The twentieth century has not been kind to Okinawa. In many ways its geography
determined its fate. Its importance to the rising nation-state of Japan in the first half
of the century, and to both Japan and the United States jointly in the second half,
was such that interventions to crush or diminish its subjectivity were constant. As
the twenty-first century opens, the pressures are no less and the urgency and the
stakes are, if anything, greater. By its history and its geography, as well as by its
distinctive marine, botanical and zoological endowment, Okinawa is central to the
large issues of our times: the accomplishment of a post-Cold War and post nation-
state-centred regional and global order, on the one hand, and the achievement of
an ecological modus vivendi between humanity and its natural environment, on the
other. Since reversion in 1972 Okinawa has made little progress in getting rid of
the bases, while from the industrial development projects of the 1970s and the resort
vision of the 1980s to the ‘cosmopolitan city’ formula of the 1990s, dependence has
been continually reproduced.
The pursuit of a ‘local’ Okinawa-centred development path and an Okinawan-
centred identity in the region would depend on the cultivation of Okinawan values
and identity. It was precisely such a shared sense of membership in Okinawa as a
moral community which informed the spontaneous, province-wide outbursts of
anger and grief over the 1995 child-rape incident, and likewise the Henoko anti-
heliport movement that erupted in 1996–7. If there is any lesson to be learned from
such experiences, it is likely to be that Okinawa’s ‘victimhood’ and its entrenched
dependence will be resolved and transcended only to the extent that a new
subjectivity is articulated, based on a consensus about the kind of society and the
kind of values Okinawan people wish to construct.
Notes
1 This chapter recapitulates some points from earlier papers, here brought up to date
and more sharply focused on the question of development and dependency. See earlier
works listed in the References (e.g. 1999, 1999a, 1999b).
2 For excellent photographs, see Kudaka in Nihon Yachō no Kai Yanbaru Shibu 1994,
also Taira and Itō (1997: 16–17) and Okinawa Kyōiku Bunka Sentā (1996: 18–20).
3 Note that the whole of Okinawa prefecture, all its islands, amounts to only one-seventh
the area of Hawaii.
4 For comparison, the average per capita daily consumption is 900 litres in the US and
30 litres in Africa (Larbi-Bouguerra 1997: 24–5).
5 Ōta (2000a) offers an authoritative account of these events. See also discussion in
Yonetani (2001).
6 Speech by Kyūma Fumio, Director-General of the Defence Agency, in Nago City,
13 December 1997.
7 Higashi Village, Okinawa City and Katsuren town (on Tsuten Island) vied with
Henoko for the right to house the relocated Futenma marine airbase; Kin City asked
for the Sobe Communications Facility when its present site is returned to Yomitan
village; Iemura volunteered to host parachute training exercises; and Urasoe Chamber
of Commerce and Industry called for the military port facilities to be moved there from
Naha (various media reports, 1999–2000).
110 Gavan McCormack
8 See the results of the Asahi Shimbun and Okinawa Taimusu survey of opinion, published in
the Okinawa Taimusu, 19 December, 1999.
9 Kamo (2000: 274–80) has called for a ‘Fundamental Law on Okinawan Autonomy’
(Okinawa Jichi Kihonhō).
10 On Yomitan, see Sasaki (2000) and Sasaki (1999).
11 Inamine did make one significant concession early in 2001, when he announced,
counter to his commitments of 1998, that the new airport could be built on an offshore
structure, not necessarily on land (Asahi Online. Asahi Shimbun, 9 March 2001).
12 In English, see Inamine (2000). And in February 2001: ‘Okinawa exists on magma. If
someone makes even a small hole, what is underneath will come out’ (Asahi Evening
News, 9 February 2001).
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7 Beyond hondo
Devolution and Okinawa
Ōta Masahide
With the passage of the Chihō Bunken Suishin Hō or the Decentralization Promotion
Law (DPL) in 1995, decentralization has gone forward to different degrees
throughout Japan, thereby moving from the debate stage to the implementation
stage. The central government has since then entrusted some measure of authority
to local governments in an attempt to respond to increasing demands for local
autonomy in the changing times of a globalized world. Yet decentralization in
Japan is still in its nascent stage, with a strong bureaucratic inclination on the
part of the national government to inhibit the process of decentralization. The
people, so long used to a highly centralized state and its efficient, yet arrogant,
bureaucrats, are now groping for ways to make their government work for their
own benefits.
On 20 December 1996, the Committee for the Promotion of Decentralization
(CPD) submitted its first report to then Prime Minister Hashimoto Ryūtaro,
followed by the second (8 July 1997), third (2 September 1997) and fourth (9 October
1997) reports. Thereafter, the government worked out a comprehensive plan,
incorporating a range of opinions concerning decentralization, and submitted it to
the regular session of the Diet in 1998. As stated by Barrett:
On 8 July 1999, the Japanese Diet passed amendments to 475 existing laws in
order to implement a set of measures designed to promote the decentralization
of power from central to local government. Decentralization (chihō bunken) is
viewed as a prescription for the ills facing contemporary Japanese governance.
The degree of decentralization that actually takes place will be a key indicator
by which to measure the relative success of the 1990s reform agenda.
(2000: 33)
The Ministry of Home Affairs (from January 2001 part of the Ministry of Public
Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications) issued a statement
explaining the reasons why decentralization was needed:
With regard to the challenges of a new age, Prime Minister Hashimoto said in
his policy speech to the 140th Diet on 20 January 1995: ‘We are now in an era
when the world is rapidly becoming integrated and when people, products, capital
and information flow freely and it is clear that the current framework is an obstacle
to the vigorous development of our country. Therefore, we must immediately create
an economic and social system that can lead the global trend.’ His successor, Obuchi
Keizō, in his policy speech to the 143rd Diet, also said that current administrative
reforms would result in a reduction in the number and size of central government
ministries and agencies (thus, 23 ministries and agencies were reduced to one
Cabinet Office and 12 ministries and agencies in January 2001), and would further
promote decentralization, deregulation, freedom of information, political reform
and improved ethics for the civil service.
The DPL set out three key aims for the implementation of decentralization:
First, the roles of central and local government need to be better clarified and
responsibilities divided accordingly. Second, measures should be developed to
promote revitalization of regional communities throughout Japan. Third,
effective measures should be developed to increase the independence and self-
reliance of local authorities. Under the DPL, central government was given
responsibility to comprehensively review the institutional changes required to
promote decentralization.
(Barrett 2000: 33–4)
the fate of many frontier territories too small and too poor to attract attention
in times of peace but doomed to rise to international prominence during crises
among the world powers . . . It cannot escape the consequences of wars and
revolutions in larger states nearby; the postwar ‘Okinawa Problem’ was
produced by events set in train long ago by accidents of geography and history.
(Kerr 1958: 3)
While such sentiments are understandable, it would not be correct to attribute the
Okinawa problem entirely to geography and history. For, after all, in many cases
problems arose due to human mistakes, political or otherwise. Former president of
Waseda University, Ōhama Nobumoto, who hails from Okinawa, made similar
remarks saying, the ‘Okinawa problem’ was partly due to political errors. Chalmers
Johnson, Chairman, Japan Policy Research Institute, claims that the Okinawan
situation is a result of bunichi, or a contempt for Japan ( Johnson 1997: 2). Likewise,
George Feifer, author of Tennozan, mounts the criticism that the Meiji government
seized Okinawa and offered to divide its archipelago and give half to China. He goes
on to say that ‘[t]he motive in 1945 remained the same: benefit to the Japanese
mainland’ (Feifer 2000).
Referring to the issue stemming from the American occupation of Okinawa since
1945 and the postwar development of the ‘Okinawa problem’ in international
affairs, Kerr points out:
At the very heart of these two subjects [the American occupation and the
postwar development of the ‘Okinawa Problem’ in international affairs] lies
the story of Okinawa’s traditional relationship with Japan, for it is difficult to
believe that the Japanese government would have signed a treaty of peace
which permitted unlimited, exclusive alien military occupation of any other
prefecture in the country. Why, then, Okinawa province?
(Kerr 1958: 10)
One partial answer is related to Article 3 of the Peace Treaty signed in 1951, which
states, ‘Japan will concur in any proposal of the United States to the United Nations
to place under its trusteeship system, with the United Sates as the sole administering
authority, Nansei Shoto south of 29 north latitude (including the Ryukyu Islands
and the Daito Islands) . . . Pending the making of such a proposal and affirmative
action thereon the United States will have the right to exercise all and any powers
of administration, legislation and jurisdiction over the territory and inhabitants of
these islands, including their territorial waters’. But as Kerr further states:
Okinawa was often described as the ‘tail of the lizard’ (expendable) or the pawn of
the Pacific, and it is a well-known fact that Okinawa’s reversion to Japan was
accomplished as a quid pro quo for the virtual free use of Okinawan bases by the
US military. Feifer comments on the fact that ‘[i]t is supported by the historical
evidence that foreign planning for Okinawa has always been for foreign interest, at
the island’s certain expense’ (Feifer 1992: 562). Okinawans sought to accomplish
three objectives by reversion: first, to restore national identity under the Japanese
constitution; second, to close the economic and social gaps between Okinawa and
the mainland; and third, to reduce in size and number the US military bases. The
first objective was achieved upon reversion (1972); the second has been achieved to
a considerable extent so far, but the third one remains unsolved. Even today, 75 per
cent of all the US military ‘facilities and areas’ in Japan are concentrated in the
limited land area of Okinawa. Besides, during the twenty-five years since reversion,
the US military facilities in mainland Japan were reduced by 60 per cent, whereas
the reduction rate in Okinawa during the same period amounted only to 16 per cent,
although the Diet passed a resolution at the time of reversion to continue to review
the base situation on Okinawa with the aim of gradual reduction. This situation has
not been much rectified to date, but it has been complicated by ‘other issues that
are poisoning Japan–American relations and that constitute particular grievances
for the Okinawans’ ( Johnson 2001: 27).
To prevent Okinawan resentment from boiling over, the Japanese government
has been using a ‘carrot-and-stick’ policy toward Okinawa, by promising economic
development projects, on the one hand, and by forcing Okinawans, on the other
hand, to accept the government’s plan to relocate, not reduce, military bases within
Okinawa and by expropriating private land for military use through stop-gap
legislative measures, which threatened to infringe upon private land ownership.
The property rights and the principles of local self-government were my main points
of contention at the hearings of the Japanese Supreme Court in 1996 against the
Japanese government’s charge that I had neglected my duties when I refused to
sign authorizations to allow it to expropriate private land for military use.
During the years of American occupation, Okinawans were subject to a number
of measures established by US military government authorities that were
questionable if judged by the standard of the human and civil rights guaranteed
under the Japanese constitution. Prominent among those injustices were cases of
forceful expropriation of privately-owned land by the US military in total disregard
of the property rights of Okinawans. The situation, in essence, has not changed
today, some thirty years after reversion, except that the Japanese government now
takes land under the façade of legality.
The revision to the SMLEUL was passed by an overwhelming majority (Lower
House by about 90 per cent, Upper House by about 80 per cent) in April 1997. The
bill was to revise the existing laws so that even if the leases expired before the PLEC
Beyond hondo 123
had finished surveying procedures, the US military could legally occupy the
land under Japanese law. This near unanimous vote by the Diet surprised and
angered many Okinawans, who interpreted it as a serious assault by the Japanese
government on the property rights of Okinawans. Moreover, the law transferred to
the national government the final authority to decide on the use of land for military
bases as a national government function, almost reducing the deliberative procedures
of the PLEC to a mere formality, and stripped the governor of his power to refuse
to sign the documents necessary to authorize the land use. And the law, it has been
pointed out, is intended to apply only to Okinawa, in violation of Article 14 of the
constitution – equality under the law. Article 29 of the Japanese constitution
guarantees private ownership of property, but this right is denied to those landowners
whose land was confiscated forcibly by the American authorities during the
occupation days and who therefore want their land returned to use it for their own
purposes. Aside from the land issue, another major point of concern is the relocation
of military bases and subsidies for economic development from the national
government. An article in the Mainichi Daily News on 7 September 1997 stated: ‘The
central government officially denies a direct connection between the transfer of
Futenma Air Station and the G-8 summit but there is no doubt that the government
hopes to use the summit as a lever to facilitate a solution to the Futenma problem.’
But the link between ‘the base problem’ and economic development is obvious. The
political role played by the governing party in Tokyo in exploiting Okinawa’s
dependence on central government funding can be illustrated concretely by the
economic benefits Okinawa received following the November 1998 prefectural
election. Shortly after the conservative candidate Inamine Keiichi defeated me in
the election, the Tokyo government immediately decided to appropriate a special
fund of 10 billion yen for the new governor to explore possibilities for further
development. This grant, a one-time payment, was double the amount made
available to my administration. At the same time, the government resumed its
Okinawa Development Programme, which had been suspended since I declared my
opposition to the construction of the marine air facility in the Henoko area of Nago
City, northern Okinawa, in February 1998. The programme was designed to help
Okinawa stand on its own feet through economic and social development. The
government also ear-marked a special appropriation of 100 billion yen to be used
in ten years for public works and non-public works projects in twelve municipalities
in northern Okinawa. Out of this fund, some 2.4 billion yen covering twenty-six
projects has already been requested for the fiscal year 2001.
In addition, the government by Cabinet decision has established four councils to
deliberate on Okinawa’s military base-related problems. The council members
include ministers, the governor of Okinawa, the mayor of Nago and the heads of
the municipalities where the military bases are already located. The establishment
of the councils, all set up to facilitate the solution of problems faced by these
municipalities of the use of land when or if the facilities are relocated, set in motion
preparations for the plan to construct the marine facility. Also, the Special Action
Committee on Okinawa (SACO), which announced in December 1996 the reloca-
tion of eleven US ‘facilities and areas’ (most of them, including Futenma airbase and
124 Ōta Masahide
Naha military port, are to be relocated within Okinawa), doles out special subsidies
to the municipalities which have agreed to accept the SACO accord. Likewise, the
Round Table for Consultation on the (problems of) the Municipalities with Military
Bases (also called the ‘Shimada Discussion Group’ after the Chairman, Professor
Shimada Haruo of Keio University) which was established as a private advisory
organ of the Chief Cabinet Secretary, makes recommendations for grants on social
and economic revitalization projects for those municipalities.
SACO, whose members include high-ranking US and Japanese military and
civilian officials, was established on 19 November 1995 to study the feasibility of the
withdrawal and relocation of military facilities in Okinawa after the huge 21 October
1995 protest rally over the rape of a 12-year-old school girl by three Marines
(4 September). The committee issued its final report on 2 December 1996, proposing
the relocation and withdrawal of eleven facilities and areas. Seven of them were to
be relocated within Okinawa, and the others, just unnecessary parts of existing
bases, were to be returned. The trouble is that while the Okinawan side demanded
the unconditional return of these facilities, the SACO report recommended
‘relocation within Okinawa’. This poses serious problems for land-scarce Okinawa,
where the majority of all US installations are already concentrated. This, together
with fifteen air spaces and twenty-nine sea zones exclusively used by the US forces,
‘hampers the expansion of transportation networks, the systematic development of
cities, reclamation of sea areas and the procurement of land for industrial use; in
effect, the overall industrial promotion of Okinawa is affected’ (Okinawa Prefectural
Government 1994: 1)
On 8 June 2001, the government proposed three construction methods and eight
possible sites for an alternate facility for Futenma in Henoko presenting the proposed
cost for each method depending on whether the facility would be built inside, outside
or on top of the coral reef off Henoko. Estimated costs for the 2,600-metre long air
station vary from 140 billion yen to 1 trillion yen, depending on the location, and it
would take six to eighteen and a-half years to build. The Ryūkyū Shimpō, an Okinawan
daily with a prefecture-wide circulation, stated in its 4 June 2001 editorial that the
crux of the military base problem lies in the fact that relocation plans are progressing
concurrently with economic development projects. It further argues that people
in northern Okinawa, especially Nago citizens, feel that the situation has reached
the point of no return and it seems no longer a choice between relocation and
development. In other words, residents think that although the base relocation
and economic development are separate issues as the government has repeatedly
emphasized, the two issues have been actually linked before they knew it, because
the government is proceeding with its plan for relocation as if it were a quid pro quo
for economic development. People object to the link because it is tantamount to
imposing the central government’s will (plans) on the prefectural people under the
pretext of economic development, and is detrimental to local autonomy.
Beyond hondo 125
Economic dependence
Okinawa, struggling to build a viable, self-sustainable economy, which is essential
for the autonomy of the prefecture, is handicapped by the obstacles mentioned
above. But to make the matter worse, there are those in Okinawa as well as in Japan
who welcome as much subsidy as possible for public works projects being carried
out or planned for Okinawa. In her working paper, Aurelia George Mulgan severely
criticizes the government for seeking to manipulate the economic self-interest of
local businesses hoping for greater patronage, but particularly local construction
contractors dependent on government-subsidized public works for a living. ‘The
decision to host the G-8 summit in Nago in July 2000 is yet another gesture to shore
up the prefectural economy and to appease Okinawan sentiment over the Futenma
relocation issue,’ wrote Mulgan (Mulgan 2000: 21).
The issue has sharply divided public opinion in Okinawa because it means the
construction of a new military base in a sea area which is abundant in marine life
and is an important feeding ground for an endangered species of dugongs. Yet there
is no denying the fact that, as many observers point out, subsidies and other material
incentives are a very blunt instrument for dealing with local protest over base issues,
and such subsidy politics exploits the economic weakness and dependence of
Okinawa on the central government because government subsidies and handouts
have become such a necessary prop to the prefectural economy. This economic
dependence works as a strong and effective tool by which to force Okinawa to accede
to the policy of the central government. According to the home page of the Finance
Section of the Okinawa prefectural government, the ratio of the prefectural tax
revenue in the fiscal year 2000 budget amounts to only 13.0 per cent, compared with
the average of 19.5 per cent for the seven prefectures of the Kyushu area (Okinawa
included), whereas the tax allocated to Okinawa prefecture (from the central
government) plus the national treasury disbursements add up to 67.9 per cent of
the budget in contrast to the 50.3 per cent average for the seven prefectures
(http://www.pref.okinawa.jp/bubetu.html).
Autonomy (jiritsu) is to break away from the cycle of dependence. There must
be a consensus which recognizes the difficulties faced along the hard road
towards this ‘autonomy’. [It continues to argue, that] while the legislation of
decentralization did include some devolution measures through the
abolishment of the ‘legally entrusted functions’ system, the amendments did not
include the transferal of financial or diplomatic powers exclusively held by the
national government. We see the necessity to enact further devolutionary
measures in order to establish a system wherein local regions can play a decisive
role in forming their own future. While much time and debate has been
Beyond hondo 127
expended on conceptualizing a system of devolution for the case of Okinawa,
we must look at the political, social, and conceptual conditions which have
impeded these plans from being implemented at the ground level.
( Jichirō 1998: 75)
In essence, this proposal for a ‘Special System of Autonomy within the Ryukyu
Islands’ calls for legislation in order to implement a system aimed at solving the
problems faced by Okinawa, both economically and in terms of the issue of US
military bases, and to foster respect for historical, cultural and social pluralism
( Jichirō 1998: 3). In other words, the proposal posits ‘one country, two systems’ for
the benefit of Okinawa. Certainly, observers such as Taira are no doubt right in
saying that Okinawa’s independence from Japan in the context of its continuing
dependence on the national government may sound utopian (Taira 1999). Never-
theless, it remains a reasonable topic for discussion, at least on a hypothetical level.
Conclusion
After the above examination of devolution in Japan through the case of Okinawa,
the conclusion must surely be that, while 475 pieces of legislation were enacted in
support of ‘devolution’, the end result does not live up to such a term. This is especially
so in the case of Okinawa, for the US–Japan Security Treaty poses a serious problem
for the island. The Japanese government has always claimed that the security treaty
is a mainstay in the US–Japan relationship because it guarantees the peace and
security of the nation and justifies the presence of the US forces in Japan.
If such is the case, then the government should divide the responsibility and
burden stemming from the security treaty as evenly as possible among the
prefectures and municipalities throughout all of Japan. But the government has
failed in this respect, placing an excessive burden on Okinawa alone, as evidenced
by the location of three-quarters of all US installations in Okinawa. This situation
clearly belies the nature of devolution because the peace and security of the
Okinawan people in their daily lives is imperiled as a result. In particular, the act
of imposing a ‘carrot-and-stick’ policy toward Okinawa, with the maintenance of
the US–Japan security system prioritized above all else, constitutes the exact
opposite of devolution. It is this point, above all others, that needs to be taken
cognizance of in examining the meaning of decentralization in Japan.
If the government continues to sacrifice the daily safety of about 1.32 million
inhabitants of Okinawa prefecture on the pretext of protecting the peace and
livelihood of all its people, then Okinawa remains a political pawn to be used in
trade-offs with the United States. Under such circumstances, local government and
national government cannot stand on an equal footing in the face of the DPL. Far
from enjoying the benefits of self-government based on the DPL, the existence of
local government itself is being threatened. As a result, local government amounts
to no more than a servant of the national government.
The nature of devolution in Japan thus poses many problems. Various reasons
may be cited for this, but of particular importance is the fact that the bureaucratic
128 Ōta Masahide
mentality prevalent in the centralized government of prewar Japan has not
significantly changed. This bureaucratic attitude is more or less the norm in
mainland Japan, but Okinawans take it as a great affront. Okinawan people, whose
human relationship is traditionally more horizontal than vertical (bureaucratic),
and who came into daily contact with Japanese bureaucrats only after reversion in
1972, find it difficult to understand the overbearing attitudes displayed by lower-
level bureaucrats, who condescend to listen to their petitions and have been known
to throw their legs over the table and ask what they had come such a long way for.
Those directors and deputy-directors of the branch officers of the national
government in Okinawa or those bureaucrats who visit Okinawa on duty continue
to wear their bureaucratic suits even after dark – in bars and cabarets where the
bureaucratic hierarchy is strictly maintained. This mentality, formed in more than
a century of governing a people subservient to authority, shows itself in the arrogant
attitude of central government officials toward prefectural and municipal officials
who go to Tokyo with petitions and requests. This is borne out by complaints local
officials divulge privately. As an illustration of this pervasive attitude, one bureaucrat
of ministerial rank who was posted to Okinawa as a special envoy of the national
government recently flared up in anger before a group of municipal officials who
came to his office in order to request him to convey their complaints to the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) about the US air force training over their town. ‘I don’t
have to listen to complaints like this’, he reportedly burst out when the head of the
group mentioned that Japan hardly merits the name of a sovereign state if it lets the
US air force conduct its training anywhere it likes without government consent. A
few days later he issued an official apology for his outburst.
No matter what great laws are enacted, if the mentality of those who apply these
laws does not change, not only will these laws not function, but the intention in
enacting the laws in the first place may come under question. According to the
DPL, the relationship between central and local governments is not hierarchical
but equal and cooperative in nature. Yet, among bureaucrats within the national
government, some act as if the heads of local authorities were in fact their
subordinates. Furthermore, when the head of a local authority requests something
of the national government, these bureaucrats do not respond in the spirit of
devolution, but merely display their own power and arrogant disdain.
One reason legal guarantees have failed to ensure decentralization in Japan is the
lack of democratization in Japan’s administrative and political system. Democratic
systems tend to lose their substance in a country such as Japan, which has been
completely centralized under the ‘Emperor System’ for a long period of time, and
which claims cultural, linguistic and ethnic homogeneity disregarding the fact that
Okinawans, Ainu and Japanese Koreans clearly have cultural differences from
the mainstream culture of Japan. So while the claim of such homogeneity is
unwarranted, the idea of mythical uniformity is still maintained in Japan by
excluding or ignoring these differences as if they did not actually exist. Democracy
is supposed to protect the rights and liberties of minority groups, but minorities
in Japan are structurally discriminated against, and Okinawa is merely one
such example. The over-concentration of military bases in Okinawa is a case in
Beyond hondo 129
point; the expropriation and use of land for the US military is another. This goes
against the spirit of devolution.
Taira fears that Okinawa may emerge from the current process of decen-
tralization with less power to govern itself. ‘Chihō jichi no honshi, or the principles of
local self-government, referred to in the constitution and paid lip service to in the
DPL, should empower local governments by disemboweling the central govern-
ment, whose power is excessively concentrated today’ (Taira 1999:180). At present,
he writes, ‘Japan’s national regulations reach down to the most minute aspects of
everyday life. The example popularized by former Prime Minister Hosokawa
Morihiro is that a town remote from Tokyo has to apply and secure approval from
the Ministry of Transportation before it can move a bus stop even one yard
from the previously approved spot’ (Taira 1999: 180).
On the other hand, many exist within local governments who not only contribute
to the central government’s mistaken policies, but derive benefits for themselves.
Such ‘structural corruption’ contradicts the principles of devolution. Consequently,
the conclusion must be that decentralization in Japan has no substance. The call for
autonomy and independence in Okinawa is but a reaction to this state of affairs. In
this situation it is essential that the principles laid down in the constitution be taken
to heart by each and every person before devolution can sink firm roots. In spite of
this, the current state of affairs seems to be moving in the opposite direction.
Needless to say, this is due to the increasingly vociferous calls for constitutional
revision among not only bureaucrats and politicians but also financial and media
circles. If this is any indication of the future, the realization of devolution will reflect
the situation in an ancient Chinese proverb, ‘waiting one hundred years for the
waters of the Yellow River to clear’.
References
Barrett, Brendan F. D. (2000) ‘Decentralization in Japan: negotiating the transfer of
authority’, Japanese Studies 20, 1: 33–48.
Feifer, George (1992) Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb, New York: Ticknor
and Fields.
—— (2000) ‘The rape of Okinawa’, World Policy Journal (http://www.worldpolicy.org/
journal/feifer.html), New York: World Policy Institute.
Jichirō [Zen-Nihon Jichidantai Rōdō Kumiai] Okinawa Project (ed.) (1998) Nijūisseiki ni
Muketa Okinawa Seisaku Teigen Pashiffiku Kurosurōdo (Okinawa as a Pacific Crossroads: A Policy
Proposal for the Twenty-first Century), Tokyo: Jichirō.
Johnson, Chalmers (1997) ‘Justice For Okinawa’, a copy of a speech made at The Japan
National Press Club.
—— (2001) Okinawa Between the United States and Japan, Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy Research
Institute.
Kerr, George H. (1958) Okinawa: The History of an Island People, New York: Tuttle.
Mulgan, Aurelia George (2000) ‘Managing the US base issue in Okinawa: a test for
Japanese democracy’, Working Paper 2000, 1, Canberra: Australian National University.
Okinawan Prefectural Government, Chiji Kōshitsu Kōhō Ka (1994) A Message from
Okinawa, Naha: Ōkinawan Prefectural Government.
130 Ōta Masahide
Ōyama, Chōjō (1997) Okinawa Dokuritsu Sengen (A Declaration of Okinawan Independence),
Okinawa: Gendai Shoin.
Taira, Kōji (1999) ‘Okinawa’s choice: independence or subordination’, in Chalmers
Johnson (ed.) Okinawa: Cold War Island, Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy Research Institute.
The Shoup Mission (1949) Report on Japanese Taxation Volume III, Tokyo: General
Headquarters.
Zaimushō [Ministry of Finance, Japan] (1998) Fiscal Investment and Loan Program Report,
Tokyo: Ōkurashō Insatsukyoku.
Part II
Subjectivity
8 Return to Uchinā
The politics of identity in
contemporary Okinawa1
Richard Siddle
It is natural and proper that the Okinawans should exercise their right of self-
determination to eliminate discrimination and protect and promote their
Return to Uchinā 141
human rights as an equal member of international society, according to Article
1 of the two International Covenants on human rights, the Declaration on
Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-
operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations,
and Part 1, paragraph 2 of the Vienna Declaration on Human Rights.
According to Principle 22 of the Rio Declaration, Chapter 26 of the Agenda
21, and Part 1, paragraph 20 of the Vienna Declaration which prescribe the
right of indigenous peoples to participate in negotiations, the Okinawans should
be represented in the negotiation over the removal of the military bases as one
of the parties concerned on an equal footing with the Japanese and US
governments.
(Matsushima 1996: 63)
Matsushima also distributed a position paper that fleshed out some of these
demands, beginning with the assertion that Okinawans retain sovereignty since the
annexation of Ryukyu was invalid, conflicting ‘with the spirit of Article 51 of
the Vienna convention on the Law of Treaties’. Other alleged infringements
of international law were then spelled out, ranging from discrimination against
Okinawan migrant workers in mainland Japan (‘violation of Article 8 of ILO
Convention No.50, which guarantees the right of indigenous workers to live and
work under ethnically comfortable conditions’); forced conscription during the
Battle of Okinawa (‘violated Articles 1, 11, and 25 of ILO Convention No.29 which
prohibited forced labour’); the lack of Okinawan participation in the reversion
process (‘violation of the right of self-determination which is guaranteed in Article
2, paragraph 2 of the United Nations Charter’); to the impact of the US bases
on human rights and the environment (variously violations of the Charter of
the Economic Rights and Duties of States, the Constitution of UNESCO, the
Declaration of the UN Conference of the Human Environment, and the Rio
Declaration). The 1995 rape against ‘an indigenous female child’ went against
‘Article 55, para c of the Charter of the United Nations, Article 2 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, Article 5 of the International Covenant on the Elimination of All
forms of Racial Discrimination, Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of
All forms of Discrimination against Women, and Articles 2 and 3 of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child’ (Shimin Gaikou Centre 1996). In a newspaper article
after his return (Okinawa Taimusu, 26 August 1996), Matsushima stated that he had
received positive responses and encouragement from other indigenous groups
opposed to NATO and US military bases in Canada and Hawaii. Response from
the representatives of the governments of Japan and the US was less forthcoming.
This remains the basic position of the Okinawan representatives who have been
attending the Working Group in subsequent years, though it has been elaborated
on with respect to the different themes addressed in different sessions. In 1997, for
instance, the statement by Uema Kyōko was presented under agenda item eight on
research into treaties, eliciting a response from Special Rapporteur Miguel Alphonso
Martinez of Cuba that the Okinawan case would be thereafter included in his
142 Richard Siddle
research (Okinawa Taimusu, 6 September 1997). In 1998, Izena Kasumi and Chinen
Hidenori presented a position paper to the 16th Session on ‘The rights of Okinawans
to Education and Languages’ (Shimin Gaikou Centre 1998). At the 17th Session in
1999, health was on the agenda, and that year’s statement by one of the four
Okinawan representatives (now attending as members of the Association of
Indigenous Peoples in the Ryukyus, AIPR) brought up base-related pollution
incidents, including high levels of PCB contamination at Kadena airbase (Izena, in
AIPR 1999). Recently, activity has widened to encompass other human rights bodies
within the UN. Information was presented as an NGO submission to the 58th
Session (March 2001) of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
(CERD) ‘Concerning the initial and second periodic report of the Japanese
government submitted to CERD’ (AIPR/OCIC/SGC 2000). The Okinawan
submission reiterated many of the claims of the Working Group sessions, this
time in relation to nine articles or paragraphs of the Convention. The Japanese
government’s response has been muted, although in the fourth of the periodic
reports to the Human Rights Committee that Japan is obliged to make having
ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1979, Okinawans
were discussed in the context of Article 27 on the rights of minorities, and the
‘government did not deny that Okinawans had rights as an ethnic minority’
(AIPR/OCIC/SGC 2000: 10, emphasis in original).
Given that history, rather than relative deprivation, is the primary factor in the self-
definition that indigenous peoples now have the right to articulate, the politicization
of the past is likely to remain a key strategy for Okinawans to gain access to
contemporary currents in international law and human rights legislation.
Conclusion
It is clear that the concept of uchinānchu as an indigenous people has yet to take root
in Okinawan society. It remains at present at the level of a political tool, one of a
number of interpretations of Okinawan identity that can be mobilized as a resource
in a particular political context. Rather than pre-existing notions of Okinawanness
shaping political action, it is participation in the political struggle itself that is creating
new categories of identity. It is unclear at this stage whether it will turn out to be a
successful strategy. Many Okinawans feel resistance to the notion of themselves as
‘non-Japanese’ even if they have some sympathy with the activists’ historical
narrative of oppression. Appeals to an indigenous identity will have to overcome a
deep-rooted historical antipathy among Okinawans to any linking with ‘backward’
peoples, typified by the Jinruikan incident, while appeals to newer stereotypes – a
‘cool’ reworking of the noble native as inherently peace-loving and the guardian of
mother earth – are likely to find little resonance with ordinary Okinawans concerned
with their livelihoods and the abuses of their military neighbours. Unlike many of
the indigenous representatives at the Working Group, the Okinawan activists are
not respected elders who command authority in their home communities, indeed,
it is unclear how many Okinawans even know about their campaign. This places
them in a clearly different position from the Ainu activists, who receive broad
(though by no means unanimous) support from a population who now clearly
perceive themselves in ethnic terms as the indigenous ‘Ainu people’. Ainu delegates
146 Richard Siddle
are usually also representatives of the Hokkaidō Utari Kyōkai (Ainu Association of
Hokkaido), the largest Ainu organization with a membership of some two-thirds
of Hokkaido Ainu. Without the legitimacy provided by broad support in their
communities, it is unlikely that the Okinawan activists will be able to accomplish
more than embarrassing the Japanese government in Geneva.
Finally, I would like to return to the caution made at the start of this chapter.
While this case study supports theories of ethnicity that stress the instrumental nature
of cultural identity as a resource for political action, it is important to stress that it
is only a small strand in a much larger reworking of identity that is occurring in
contemporary Okinawa. Just because some Okinawans practise identity politics
does not mean that ethnicity is only political in nature, in Okinawa or anywhere else.
Not only is the meaning of uchinānchu contested and multivalent, it is learned,
articulated and negotiated in a myriad of social and political contexts that render
it far too complex to be neatly captured in any reductionist social scientific analysis.
Note
1 The author would like to thank Uemura Hideaki for help with materials and the Japan
Foundation for supporting my research in Okinawa in 1999.
References
AIPR (Association of Indigenous Peoples in the Ryukyus) (1999) ‘Statements by AIPR
delegates, UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 17th Session, 26–30 July
1999’, unpublished.
AIPR/OCIC/SGC (2000) ‘Information on Okinawa concerning the initial and second
periodic report of the Japanese government submitted to CERD, Committee on the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 58th Session March 2001’, unpublished.
Arasaki, M. (1996) Okinawa Gendaishi (A Contemporary History of Okinawa), Tokyo: Iwanami
Shoten.
Christy, A. (1993) ‘The making of imperial subjects in Okinawa’, Positions 1, 3: 607–39.
Dietz, K. (1999) ‘Ainu in the international arena’, in W. Fitzhugh and C. Debreuil (eds)
Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, Washington: Smithsonian Institution and University of
Washington Press.
Dower, J. (1996) Japan in War and Peace, London: Fontana Press.
Eriksen, T. H. (1993) Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives, London: Pluto
Press.
Gekironkai [‘Okinawa Dokuritsu no Kanōsei o meguru Gekironkai’ Jikkō Iinkai] (eds)
(1997) Gekiron: Okinawa ‘Dokuristu’ no Kanōsei (Heated Debate: the Possibility of Okinawan
Independence), Tokyo: Shisuikai Shuppan.
Gray, A. (1995) ‘The indigenous movement in Asia’, in R. H. Barnes, A. Gray and
B. Kingsbury (eds) Indigenous Peoples of Asia, Ann Arbor: Association for Asian Studies.
Hein, L. (2001) ‘Introduction: the territory of identity and remembrance in Okinawa’,
Critical Asian Studies 33, 1: 31–6.
Hiyane, T. (1996) Kindai Okinawa no Seishinshi (History of the Spirit of Modern Okinawa), Tokyo:
Shakai Hyōronsha.
Hudson, M. (1998) Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands, Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Return to Uchinā 147
Jenkins, R. (1997) Rethinking Ethnicity: Arguments and Explorations, London: Sage.
Matsushima, Y. (1996) ‘Statement to the 14th Session of the UN Working Group on
Indigenous Populations’, in H. Uemura (ed.) Dai 14kai Kokuren Senjūmin Sagyō Bukai
Hōkokusho (Report on the 14th United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations), self-
published pamphlet, Tokyo: Shimin Gaikou Centre.
Nakachi, K. (1989) Ryukyu–US–Japan Relations 1945–1972, Quezon City: Abiva Publishing
House.
Oguma, E. (1998) Nihonjin no Kyōkai: The Boundaries of the Japanese, Tokyo: Shinyōsha.
Okinawa Kenritsu Toshokan Shiryō Henshū Shitsu (1995) Civil Affairs Handbook: Ryukyu
(Loochoo) Islands (OPNAV 13–31, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, 15
November 1944), Naha: Okinawa-ken Kyōiku Iinkai.
Ōyama, C. (1997) Okinawa Dokuritsu Sengen: Yamato wa kaeru beki ‘sokoku’ dewa nakatta
(Declaration of Okinawan Independence: Yamato was not the Ancestral Land to which We Should
Have Returned), Tokyo: Gendai Shorin.
Rabson, S. (1999) ‘Assimilation policy in Okinawa: promotion, resistance and “recon-
struction” ’, in C. Johnson (ed.) Okinawa: Cold War Island, Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy
Research Institute.
Shimin Gaikou Centre (1996) ‘A position paper on Okinawa and Okinawans as an
indigenous people, UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 14th Session July
29–August 2 1996’, unpublished.
—— (1998) ‘A position paper on the rights of the Okinawans to education and languages,
UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 16th Session, July 27–31 1998’,
unpublished.
Siddle, R. (1996) Race, Resistance and the Ainu of Japan, New York and London: Routledge.
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117–33.
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Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
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Taira, K. (1997) ‘Troubled national identity: the Ryukyuans/Okinawans’, in M. Weiner
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Uemura, H. (2001) Senjū Minzoku no Kindaishi (The Modern History of Indigenous Peoples), Tokyo:
Heibonsha.
9 ‘Mob rule’ or popular
activism?
The Koza riot of December 1970
and the Okinawan search for
citizenship
Christopher Aldous
For those responsible for governing the Ryukyu Islands – or Okinawa prefecture as
the reversion lobby preferred to call them – the riot that broke out in Koza during
the early hours of 20 December 1970 marked a dangerous escalation of the conflict
between occupier and occupied. Commentators agreed that the quarter-century of
American rule in Okinawa from 1945 to 1970 had not produced any explosion of
anger and frustration of the order or magnitude exhibited on this occasion. While
this outburst of anti-Americanism was unsurprising after so many years of foreign
occupation, it was puzzling that it came after Prime Minister Satō’s diplomatic
success of November 1969 when President Nixon had agreed to work towards
reversion of Okinawa to Japan during 1972. This sequence of events has indicated
to some that the Koza riot was motivated by opposition to reversion, testifying to a
deep sense of anxiety among Okinawans that their treatment by postwar Japanese
governments might be no less discriminatory than that handed out by their
prewar/wartime counterparts. Indeed, a study of the American occupation of
Okinawa by Nicholas Sarantakes claims that the riot exemplified ‘discontent with
reversion’ (2000: 176). This chapter challenges this assumption, arguing that the
Koza riot represented not the rejection of imminent reversion but rather its
affirmation in the sense that it expressed an aspiration for citizenship, for the rights,
liberties and guarantees of due process enshrined in the constitutions of Japan and
the US. So great was the head of steam that had built up against the abuses attending
American military rule that it was no longer capable of being contained. It burst
forth, not only destroying any pretence of amicable relations between the US and
Okinawa, but also serving as a warning to mainland Japan that Okinawans would
settle for nothing less than full citizenship – and all that came with it – when
reunification was finally accomplished.
This chapter will begin by examining the notion of citizenship, explaining why
this provides a useful analytical framework within which to view pre-reversion
Okinawa. It will then demonstrate how American military rule – even when poorly
disguised as a ‘civil administration’ – afforded Okinawans the lowly status of
‘subjects’ rather than ‘citizens’, denying them basic human rights and civil liberties
from the very outset, and ensuring that arguments in favour of reversion to Japan
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 149
were enthusiastically acknowledged while counter arguments highlighting the
economic benefits flowing from US occupation generally fell on deaf ears. Perhaps
the greatest abuse arising from American control, and the one that caused most
offence, was ‘extraterritoriality’, a jurisdictional set-up whereby American citizens
and their dependants were tried in courts operated by the US civil administration
or courts martial, so denying Okinawan victims of their crimes access to due process.
Regardless of the severity of the crime – it might be something as trivial as an
American soldier running off before he paid his taxi fare or something as serious as
a murder – the inability to see that justice was done infuriated Okinawans of all
political persuasions. Indeed, the principal cause of the Koza riot was the acquittal
of an American serviceman whose careless driving caused the death of an Okinawan
woman in Itoman on 18 September 1970.
Just as opposition to extraterritoriality or ‘consular jurisdiction’, so central to the
‘unequal treaties’, provided the ‘driving force . . . of Japan’s metamorphosis’ during
the second half of the nineteenth century (Perez 1997: 320), so too did anger at its
military counterpart in Okinawa a century later serve as a catalyst, speeding up
reactions that mobilized Okinawans against the occupation regime. Indeed, the
American academic Edwin Reischauer hinted at this parallel when he remarked in
1957 that ‘in time the nineteenth-century status of Okinawa will prove to be quite
untenable in the twentieth-century world’ (1957: 335).
The civil element is composed of the rights necessary for individual freedom –
liberty of the person, freedom of speech, thought and faith, the right to own
property and to conclude vital contracts, and the right to justice. The last is of
a different order from the others, because it is the right to defend and assert all
one’s rights on terms of equality with others and by due process of law.
(Marshall 1950: 10)
What he meant by the ‘political’ and ‘social’ elements was ‘the right to participate
in the exercise of power . . .’ and ‘the right to a modicum of economic welfare and
security . . .’ respectively (1950: 10–11). While the civil and political facets of
citizenship in relation to occupied Okinawa represent the chief focus of this chapter,
the socio-economic dimension falls largely outside its purview. In any case, the fact
that Marshall’s ideas forged a consensus that held sway until around 1980 (van
Gunsteren 1998: 13), suggests that they provide an appropriate and dependable
analytical framework within which to place Okinawans’ struggle for freedom,
democracy and citizenship between 1952 and 1972. Indeed, if we focus on the issue
of civil rights we find that American efforts to present military rule in Okinawa as
hedged in by democratic safeguards produced official statements and rhetoric that
150 Christopher Aldous
resonated with some of Marshall’s principal concerns. Section 12 of President
Eisenhower’s Executive Order 10713 ‘Providing for Administration of the Ryukyu
Islands’ (5 June 1957), the only policy statement that even approximated a
constitution for Okinawa, stated that the High Commissioner (the supreme
governing authority) ‘shall preserve to persons in the Ryukyu Islands the basic
liberties enjoyed by people in democratic countries, including freedom of speech,
assembly, petition, religion and press, and security from unreasonable searches
and seizures, and from deprivation of life, liberty or property without due process
of law’. Likewise, Section 2 of the Executive Order claimed that the Secretary of
Defence, to whom the High Commissioner reported via the Department of the
Army, ‘shall encourage the development of an effective and responsible Ryukyuan
Government, based on democratic principles . . .’. Interestingly, however, these
confident assurances of benevolent rule did not sit easily with the actual institutional
arrangements in place.
In terms of the political framework, there was a US Civil Administration of
the Ryukyu Islands (USCAR), the head of which was the High Commissioner, a
serving lieutenant general of the US Army. Directly beneath him was the Civil
Administrator, who was likewise a serving officer of the US armed forces until
President Kennedy amended Executive Order 10713 on 19 March 1962 and
designated him a ‘civilian official’. These two individuals, both responsible to the
US Department of the Army, were the key representatives of American rule,
the High Commissioner concerned above all with Okinawa’s pivotal role in the
defence of the ‘free world’, the Civil Administrator – particularly after 1962 –
symbolizing a concern with the welfare of the subject population. Coexisting with
the American civil administration was the Government of the Ryukyu Islands (GRI),
composed of a Chief Executive, a legislature and a system of courts. Established on
1 April 1952, the GRI was effectively a creature of USCAR – at least until the late
1960s. Nobody had any illusions about where power actually resided, given that
Article III of the San Francisco Peace Treaty between Japan and the US (effective
from 28 April 1952) stated that ‘the United States will have the right to exercise any
and all powers of administration, legislation and jurisdiction over the territory and
inhabitants of these islands’ (this was reiterated in the preamble of Executive Order
10713). Thus, the Chief Executive was appointed by the High Commissioner, the
only indication of even a semblance of democracy being the legislature, consisting
of a single house of 29 representatives (rising by 3 to 32 in November 1965) directly
elected by the people. However, as Higa Mikio explains, USCAR’s tight control
of the office of Chief Executive meant that ‘the party system in Okinawa [wa]s not
so much a reflection of the will of the people as an indirect creation of American
authority’ (Higa 1963: 34).
As for the judicial arrangements, these were set out in Section 10 of Executive
Order 10713, which distinguished between courts maintained by the GRI and those
operated by the civil administration. Whereas the former followed civil and criminal
procedures obtaining in Japan, operated without juries and conducted proceedings
in Japanese, the latter followed the US federal system, using English and providing
defendants with the right to trial by jury. These discrepancies might not have
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 151
mattered so much had the jurisdictions of the two court systems been more equally
and fairly apportioned. As well as making exceptions of members of US forces or
their civilian associates, employees of the US government who were US nationals
and the dependants of these groups, Section 10 of the Executive Order granted the
High Commissioner the power to move any case from a GRI court to its USCAR
counterpart when he deemed it to affect ‘the security, property, or interests of
the United States’ – an open-ended provision that effectively gave the High
Commissioner carte blanche to do as he wished with any legal case originating in an
Okinawan court. Apart from USCAR courts, however, there was another, more
controversial, legal system in operation, that of courts-martial. These received only
a passing mention in the Executive Order, confirming that military jurisdiction
under the Uniform Code of Military Justice could be waived only by the military
commander concerned.
‘Extraterritoriality’ as a rallying cry for opposition to American rule referred
above all to a closed military system of justice, which lacked transparency and
seemed to protect its own. In a number of cases where frustrations boiled over into
disturbances or even riots, it was not just the seeming lightness of sentences handed
down after closed trials that exercised onlookers but also the events leading up to
the arrest and detention of the defendant. This was an issue of policing, of
investigation and proper regard for the rights of the victim, and just as there was a
dual system of justice so too was there a binary structure of policing. According to
Civil Administration Ordinance Number 87 (Power of Apprehension of Ryukyuan
Civil Police, dated 23 October 1952), a member of the Department of Police of the
GRI could apprehend American soldiers or civilians committing crimes off-base,
but – and here was the rub – ‘immediately upon such apprehension [the policeman
shall] deliver the offender in person to the nearest Military or Air Police or Shore
Patrol of the US Armed Forces, together with complete statements of the facts and
circumstances surrounding the apprehension’. The perpetrator of the crime, which
most commonly involved assaults on taxi drivers, would then be returned to his
base, where his superiors would deal with the matter without reference to the
Okinawan authorities. It was very difficult for the latter to find out whether or not
the serviceman had been properly punished for his misconduct, and the victim of
the crime was effectively left without resort to legal redress. In short, it was not so
much the crimes and misdemeanours that caused such resentment and anger, but
rather the palpable sense that a crime committed against an Okinawan went
unpunished, that military justice meant no justice for Okinawans.
Provoking a riot
On 29 July 1970 High Commissioner Lampert reported a worrying development
to the Department of the Army, namely ‘unprecedented incidents . . . in which
Okinawans, sometimes in considerable number, gathered at the scene of vehicle
accidents involving US personnel with local nationals, preventing the police and
military authorities from doing their job and providing scenes of confrontation
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 155
between American personnel and Okinawans’ (OPA U84005671K: 29 July 1970).
This behaviour reflected a widespread concern among Okinawans that native and
American police agencies were not sufficiently diligent in their investigation of
accident and crime scenes, making it necessary for the public at large to register
a protest directly with the American drivers of vehicles involved in incidents. In the
face of ‘alleged GRI police impotence in handling US–Ryukyuan incidents’,
ordinary Okinawans felt strongly that they themselves must take charge of the
situation to guard against indulgent treatment of American offenders by US military
police. Only in this way, the argument went, could Okinawans’ rights be properly
protected.
Faced with this collapse of confidence in the effectiveness of law enforcement, the
US authorities set out to strengthen the powers of the Okinawan police, so sending
out the message that there was no need for the public to interfere in incidents
involving American vehicles, because they could rely on their police to protect their
interests. By promoting the Okinawan police in this way USCAR hoped to reduce
tension over the ‘crime issue’. Alternatively, it was acknowledged, this problem could
be tackled from another angle – educating US military police (MPs) to respect native
customs and attitudes might well bring about greater sensitivity on their part in their
dealings with Okinawans. Such an approach was favoured by Ambassador Takase
in a meeting with the High Commissioner on 21 August 1970, the ambassador
recalling ‘his personal experience in Manchuria/China where he had observed that
there had been minimal problems when military commanders gave their personal
attention to relations between troops and local inhabitants’. This direct comparison
between Japanese rule in Manchuria during the 1930s and US control of Okinawa
in 1970 presumably caused the High Commissioner some discomfort.
Returning to the specific issue of the status of the Okinawan police, Lampert
thanked Takase for unofficial suggestions that came indirectly from the government
of Japan (via the Kishi–Kaya paper presented to USCAR on 26 June), remarking
that they provided a good foundation ‘for discussions we were carrying on
with GRI on possible ways to improve US–GRI police co-operation’ (OPA
U84005671K: 21 August 1970). The changes recommended by Kishi (Director of
Obonta) and Kaya (a Japanese government member of the preparatory committee)
were as follows: (a) better ‘troop orientation to reduce friction’; (b) joint patrols
concerned with crime prevention as well as traffic problems; greater powers for
GRI police to enter US bases (c) to pursue and (d) apprehend American offenders
taking refuge in US installations; (e) facility for transfer of custody from GRI police
to US military authorities to take place at the GRI police box or station; (f) provision
of interim and final reports on cases involving Okinawan victims; (g) proper advance
notice of trials; (h) arrangements for simultaneous translation of trial proceedings
(from English to Japanese); (i) avoidance of ‘premature departure’ of US offenders
from Okinawa, creating the impression that they were escaping justice; and
(j) expeditious settlement of compensation claims made by Okinawan victims of US
crimes (OPA U84005671K: 27 June 1970).
The Kishi–Kaya paper is a very revealing document, encompassing as it does the
various problems and irritants subsumed under the term ‘extraterritoriality’. The
156 Christopher Aldous
subtext of the paper was that US–Okinawan relations would improve or deteriorate
in direct proportion to USCAR’s willingness to correct these deficiences in the
existing system of criminal justice. The US response to the paper was at first sight
constructive, even enthusiastic – proposals (a), (b), (f) and (g) were positively
welcomed, and rapid action on these points promised. Moreover, assurances were
made that defendants would not be allowed to return to the US until their cases had
been properly settled (i) and in relation to claims (j) attention was drawn to the
relevant legislation, the Foreign Claims Act. In all these cases – except in the last
where it was evasive – USCAR was happy to go along with Japanese requests.
Where the Kishi–Kaya paper called for substantive rather than cosmetic changes,
however, there was some resistance. Regarding the conduct of trial proceedings (h),
the US refused to provide simultaneous translation for the benefit of Okinawan
observers, recommending instead that bilingual reporters should attend trials and
interested parties should employ private interpreters. As far as removing American
suspects from crime scenes to local police boxes or stations was concerned (e),
USCAR officials saw no problem in permitting a more formal transfer of custody
in this way providing that there was no unnecessary delay in handing the suspect
over to the US authorities. On the really crucial issue of police powers vis-à-vis
American offenders, namely (c) and (d), the American response was to deny that
there was any need for Okinawan police to enter a base in pursuit of an offender,
because the relevant US authorities would deal with the matter (if necessary GRI
police ‘observers’ could be invited to observe the arrest). So the impression remained
that American servicemen who broke the law could escape justice by taking refuge
in their bases – it was little consolation to know that they might be punished by the
military authorities because in most cases this would be difficult to establish one
way or the other.
Despite its limitations the new policy on expanded cooperation between
Okinawan and American police agencies was proclaimed amidst much fanfare at
a news conference on 20 August (OPA U84004612K), the American side confident
that it had managed to ‘enhance GRI police image without compromising US
military authority’ (OPA U84005671K: 27 June 1970). In this way, it was hoped,
the sting had been removed from the issue of extraterritoriality and USCAR could
now look forward to a period of relative calm. Unfortunately, however, its hopes
were dashed when Petty Officer Tommy Ward knocked down and killed an
Okinawan woman, Kinjō Toyo, in a traffic accident in Itoman on 18 September
1970. The immediate repercussions of the accident evidenced the failure
of USCAR’s attempts to enlarge the profile of the native police with a view to
discouraging Okinawans from taking the law into their own hands. Ward was
speeding and may also have been under the influence of alcohol (Arasaki and
Nakano 1976: 211) and his vehicle veered across the road before it hit Mrs Kinjō
who was ‘well to the side of the road within the area normally reserved for pedestrian
traffic’ (OPA U84000745K: 4 January 1971).
Following the accident, a large, unruly crowd quickly gathered at the scene
and ‘held the accident vehicle by force for several days [until 24 September],
interfering with normal after-accident investigation’, their actions motivated by real
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 157
suspicions that the removal of the car would amount to loss of key evidence (OPA
U84000745K: 29 September 1970). When the Civil Administrator expressed his
concern at such behaviour to Yara, the latter remarked that the people’s anger was
understandable, given that this was the second accident that had occurred in the
Itoman area that day. He might also have added that onlookers were angered by
the manner in which ‘MPs at [the] accident scene had taken custody of [the] accused
before [an] adequate police investigation could be made’, so raising doubts about
the much-publicized close working relations between MPs and GRI police – a point
later made to the High Commissioner by Chibana Hideo, vice-chairman of the
legislature’s military relations committee (OPA U84005694K: 19 December 1970).
As one of the demands of the crowd was that the driver of the vehicle make a
‘condolence call’ on Mrs Kinjō’s family, it was decided that Ward’s wife and
Lieutenant David Rogers, Ward’s immediate supervisor, would go in his stead.
What then transpired revealed the raw emotions of those touched by the tragedy.
On leaving the Kinjō residence, Ward and Rogers found ‘the street . . . now jammed
with people’. As they drove away, taxis blocked their path at the scene of the
accident, the crowd engulfed the car, ‘beat[ing] on the windows with their hands
and pull[ing] on the doors’. As a result of this ordeal, Mrs Ward broke down
completely – ‘her sobbing seemed to calm those immediately about the car’ (OPA
U84000745K: 20 September 1970). The protests and demonstrations that followed
closely on the heels of this fatal accident were just the first act in a drama that would
continue for some months. The American authorities – as always in these cases –
waited for these initial disturbances to abate before bracing themselves for the court
martial and its aftermath.
On 4 December 1970 the press were informed that the court martial of Tommy
Ward, charged with involuntary manslaughter, would open on 7 December. In a
telling indicator of the meaning of an ‘open trial’, the press was advised that the
Naha airbase courtroom, where the court martial would take place, had a maximum
capacity of fifteen spectators. The trial ended in Ward’s acquittal on 11 December,
a verdict that seems to have surprised virtually everybody and one that represented
the very worst outcome for the health of US–Okinawan relations. Even within
USCAR circles it was admitted that the trial was seriously flawed, a report by
Richard McNealy, Director of the Legal Affairs Department, concluding that there
had been ‘a miscarriage of justice’. McNealy remarked on the incomprehension of
the US navy prosecutor at the court’s failure ‘to return at least a verdict of guilty
to negligent homicide, i.e. Ward’s failure to exercise ordinary due care’ (OPA
U84000745K: 4 January 1971). In short, the acquittal verdict was a disaster for all
concerned – with the exception of Ward, of course – because it seemed to confirm
the view of sceptics and critics that there could be no justice for Okinawans under
the present set-up, that USCAR’s assurances about the integrity of its judicial
arrangements were empty and that the only option now open to Okinawans was to
confront the American authorities on this issue.
Confrontation of an intensity not seen before was what duly followed. The spark
was two accidents involving American vehicles that occurred in the early hours of
20 December, these seemingly minor incidents (no one was seriously hurt) causing
158 Christopher Aldous
an explosion of dissent that rocked the very foundations of US military rule in
Okinawa. At 1.10 a.m. an Okinawan was slightly hurt when he was struck by an
American car in Koza, the military police being the first to arrive on the scene (OPA
U84005694K: 21 December 1970). The Washington Post reported on 21 December
that the ‘military policeman who showed up at the scene paid no attention to the
injured islander’. When the GRI police arrived they ‘took charge of the pedestrian
who was apparently intoxicated’ while the MPs interviewed the driver of the vehicle,
during which time a hostile crowd of around 100 strong gathered at the scene.
Alarmed at this turn of events the military police decided to retreat to Koza police
station, one of their number driving the accident vehicle away. ‘This act greatly
angered the . . . growing crowd’, presumably because it underlined the subordi-
nation of the native police – here again was evidence of US military police
apparently protecting their own. Although checkpoints were then set up to prevent
other American vehicles from entering the area, one in fact got through and collided
with an Okinawan car close to the scene of the original accident. By this time the
crowd had swelled to around 700, its mood now openly aggressive – attempts
were made to turn the accident vehicle over and bottles, rocks and other objects were
thrown at the military police. Following assurances from the Okinawan police that
‘they could handle the security of the occupants of the [accident] vehicle’, the
military police retreated in a hail of projectiles, at which time one of the MP vehicles
was turned over and set on fire. The military police then reformed and ‘moved into
the crowd on line’, only to be forced back again. Only when they fired shots into
the air did the crowd disperse, permitting the MPs to free the occupants of the
accident vehicle and attend to the driver who had been ‘pulled from the auto and
had been slightly injured’.
Shouting ‘no more acquittals’, ‘Yankee go home’ and ‘don’t insult Okinawans’,
the crowd, now numbering more than a thousand, split into two groups, one moving
south towards Moromi, overturning and setting fire to American vehicles in its path.
When it neared the Plaza US Military Housing Area it met a phalanx of GRI riot
police and American MPs, the latter resorting to the use of eight tear gas grenades,
authorized by the High Commissioner himself, ‘to prevent the crowd from breaking
through these lines and advancing on the . . . housing area’. The other group headed
for Gate 2 of Kadena airbase, likewise setting fire to American cars along the way,
and targeting the Ryukyuan Pass and Identification Office and an office of the Stars
and Stripes, both just outside Gate 2. A number of demonstrators forced their way
into the airbase, ‘igniting and destroying more vehicles and five classrooms of an
American children’s school’ (Okinawa Taimusu 2000: 305–10; OPA U84005694K:
20 December 1970).
Six hours of public disorder resulted in a scene of devastation, marked above all
by countless burnt-out American vehicles, a striking indicator of the chief cause of
the disturbance. The issue that seems to have been uppermost in rioters’ minds was
the acquittal of Ward nine days earlier, a travesty of justice which caused Okinawans
to be extraordinarily sensitive to the manner in which US military police handled
traffic accidents involving Americans. The act of setting fire to American vehicles
represented a serious escalation of the direct action taken by protesters in Itoman
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 159
in September, when they took possession of the accident vehicle to prevent its being
removed for investigation – in both cases participants signalled their determination
to take control of the situation, to dictate the outcome of the incident(s). The
principle was the same, the key difference between Itoman on 18 September and
Koza on 20 December being one of degree. Clearly the violence of the Koza rioters
was channelled in a particular direction – their chief purpose was to vent their anger
on the private vehicles of American servicemen, now so closely associated with
extraterritorial rights, rather than to lynch their drivers. In that sense they had
exercised some restraint, a point made by the Japan Times on 22 December: ‘Before
people start building the violence . . . into something more than it is, we should
consider what would have happened under the same circumstances, with the same
background of frustration and resentment, if the incident had occurred in the slums
of New York, or Chicago’.
Not surprisingly the American authorities did not see it in these terms. There
was great anger at the wilful destruction of seventy-three cars owned by American
servicemen, not to mention the fire damage attending the incursion into Kadena
airbase. Recriminations came thick and fast. In a statement broadcast on radio and
television stations High Commissioner Lampert stated that ‘public resentment over
the recent acquittal . . . of a US Navy Petty Officer’ (Ward) was no excuse for ‘rioting
in the streets, endangering of peaceful citizens and destruction of property. This is
the law of the jungle. It has no place in Okinawa nor in any civilized society’. Then,
in remarks that were considered by many to be ill-judged, he warned Okinawans
that the riot and its implications could delay removal of chemical weapons stored
in Okinawa and also hinder the process of reversion: ‘Public disturbances such as
occurred last night . . . are destructive, pure and simple, and, most of all, for the
Okinawan people themselves’ (OPA U84005694K: 20 December 1970).
Meeting with Yara on 21 December, Lampert disclosed that the ‘Koza
disturbance had shocked him deeply’, remarking that ‘although he understood some
of [the] reasons for [the] disturbances, mob violence [was] not the way to resolve
these problems’. Warning that ‘mob action could arouse strong resentment among
US servicemen’ and calling for the GRI to compensate those whose cars had been
destroyed, he affirmed his continuing commitment to improve relations between the
US military and the Okinawan community (OPA U84005694K: 22 December
1970). With reference to the immediate causes of the disturbance, he criticized the
Okinawan police for not reacting more quickly to the initial incident, pointing
out that the ‘U.S. Military Police arrived on [the] scene much more rapidly’, so
reinforcing the impression that GRI police were often left behind in accident cases
involving American personnel. Part of the reason for this hanging back or deference
on the part of the Okinawan police was their understandable reluctance to serve as
a buffer between Okinawans and Americans.
In a typically forthright response to Lampert’s comments, Yara identified
USCAR’s exercise of ‘extraterritoral rights’ as the chief cause of the riot, stating that
unless something was done ‘to allay anxieties over [the] poison gas removal issue
and make some form of compensation in [the] Itoman [Ward] case current attitudes
and situation on Okinawa will not improve’. Obviously alluding to widespread
160 Christopher Aldous
concerns about the integrity of courts martial, he added that ‘When no other
recourse [is] available, disturbances such as those occurring in Koza are [the] only
way [the] weak can express their feelings’. As for the strong, Yara cautioned that
they should act responsibly, accusing the High Commissioner of inflaming the
situation by the ‘high posture’ he adopted in his statement broadcast on television
and radio. In what was a robust exchange of views, Yara demonstrated on this
occasion – as on others – his determination to defend and advance the interests of
Okinawans and his unyielding approach to US military authority in this connection.
His bold leadership and open criticism of the High Commissioner can also be seen
as reflecting a shift of power away from USCAR towards the GRI (OPA
U84005694K: 22 December 1970).
While Yara viewed the riot as a ‘spontaneous outbreak of pent-up emotions . . .
without leaders and composed mostly of Koza residents’, others contended that it
was organized and orchestrated by anti-US agitators. American military sources
identified an initial stage when ‘violence began as a spontaneous emotional outburst’
followed by an anti-American riot ‘professionally agitated by members of leftist
elements and stimulated by individuals who were employed, either directly or
indirectly, with Koza businesses, especially those catering to the nightlife of US
servicemen’ (OPA U84005694K: 2 February 1971). Whereas these employees
clearly had scores to settle, their employers for the most part depended on American
custom and were quick to distance themselves from those who condoned the
riot. In a meeting with the High Commissioner on 22 December, two influential
business leaders from Koza – Sueyoshi Narinobu (President of Koza Chamber of
Commerce) and Fukuyama Toshio (President of Koza Livelihood Association) –
argued that the riot was ‘internally controlled and guided’ and that a high proportion
of participants were ‘outsiders’. Furthermore, many of the people drinking in bars
in Koza that night had attended a rally held earlier that day at Misato, a village lying
on the route along which chemical weapons would have to be moved prior to their
removal by ship. Although these observations suggested that the riot had been
orchestrated by political activists from outside Koza, no firm evidence to support
this case was advanced other than the claim that ‘rioters [were] observed
telephoning outside supporters to come into [the] area’ (OPA U84005694K:
23 December 1970). While this would at least help account for the rapidly swelling
crowd, there is in fact another, infinitely more convincing explanation. Journalists
of the Asahi Shimbun contended that ‘Taxis and their obliging drivers were the secret
behind the riot’ – they ‘relayed word of the trouble to surrounding residents’,
then ‘ferried men into Koza from neighboring towns in quick, efficent relays, and
charged them nothing for the ride’. Apparently the taxi drivers were motivated
by strong feelings of ‘distrust and animosity’ towards American servicemen, who
for years had been ‘stealing free rides or robbing them of their fares’ (Asahi
Shimbun 1972: 40–1). According to figures provided by the Asahi Shimbun, 9 out of
10 crimes committed by Americans against Okinawans victimized taxi drivers.
Seldom was justice seen to be done in these cases, the great majority of which
remained unsolved.
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 161
Reactions and aftermath
If the main aim of those who rioted in the early hours of 20 December was to draw
attention to the iniquities of American rule, then they succeeded beyond their wildest
expectations. Press coverage in Japan was universally sympathetic, the English-
language Daily Yomiuri stating on 22 December that ‘dissatisfaction and even anger
. . . accumulating for twenty-five years had reached boiling point’, the explosion
occurring as a result of ‘the abuse of human rights . . . spotlighted by the leniency
accorded US servicemen who have committed crimes against Okinawans’. Specific
reference was made to the Ward case, the article contending that ‘it is natural for
the people of Okinawa to be angered when their lives are treated of no account’.
Likewise, the conservative Tokyo Shimbun – regarded by the American embassy in
Tokyo as ‘unabashedly friendly to [the] US’ – maintained that the riot was the result
of ‘distrust and frustration by Okinawans at [the] US administration engendered
by [the] latter’s alleged disregard for basic human rights’ and claimed that
‘occupation psychology’ was still very much in evidence (by which was presumably
meant an arrogant, superior, sometimes racist attitude towards Okinawans). The
US embassy in Tokyo reported that overall the reaction in Japan indicated a ‘fairly
universal belief here that [the] Koza riot [is] explicable and perhaps even justifiable
because of alleged lack of attention to legitimate grievances of Okinawans’. It added
that ‘Racial overtones are particularly disturbing because grievances are explicitly
linked to [the] belief [that] Okinawans are treated like “animals” ’ (OPA
U84005694K: undated). To cap it all, Selig Harrison of the Washington Post charged
that ‘The GI who struck an Okinawan with his car and left the victim sprawling in
the street offered the crowning symbol of an arrogant “occupation mentality” to the
people of the pleasure city of Koza’.
On 9 January 1971 the High Commissioner reported ‘mixed’ reactions to the riot
in Okinawa, but admitted that generally attitudes corresponded to those in Japan.
Most Okinawans saw the disturbance as ‘the “natural” culmination of a series of
events all tending to demonstrate American “occupation mentality” and disregard
of Ryukyuan “human rights” ’ (OPA U84005694K: 9 January 1971). Echoing the
demands of the press in Okinawa and Japan, the Okinawan legislature, dominated
by conservatives (holding 18 of 32 seats), unanimously passed a resolution at an
extraordinary session on 25 December 1970 calling for the ‘transfer of power of
investigation and court jurisdiction’ vis-à-vis offences by US military and civilian
personnel to the Okinawan government. It also drew attention to lax military
discipline, and the need to punish offenders rigorously, to provide public access to
trial and court records and to compensate victims properly. The response of the US
military on Okinawa to these demands was essentially to play for time, to make
some tokenistic gestures that would hopefully avert any more major disturbances
in the short period that was left before reversion. In a meeting with Foreign Minister
Aichi Kiichi on 22 December, the American ambassador to Japan stressed the
‘extreme difficulty in [the] transfer of criminal jurisdiction to GRI courts’, adding
that the ‘US side [was] willing to look at any specific Japanese government non-
juridical [my italics] proposals for improving [the] situation’ in Okinawa. Given that
162 Christopher Aldous
everyone acknowledged that the problem was extraterritorial rights, that is to
say of a judicial nature, the Americans were asking rather a lot of the Japanese
government on this occasion.
Not everyone, however, was thinking about judicial arrangements. Business
interests in Koza, for example, had more pressing concerns, namely the adverse
effect of measures taken by the military in the aftermath of the riot. In a meeting with
Lampert that took place on 5 February 1971, Inamine Ichirō, a member of the
House of Councillors, and Ōyama Chōjō, mayor of Koza, among others stressed
the ‘deteriorating economic condition of Koza business establishments which
depend heavily on American patronage’. For example, ‘Condition Green’ –
prohibiting Americans from stopping in certain areas except when required to do
so by traffic regulations – was still operating in Koza from midnight to 6 a.m.
(admittedly this was a great improvement on 6 p.m. to 6 a.m., which had operated
until the end of 1970). In response, Lampert insisted that these restrictions would be
lifted as soon as possible, and advocated ‘increased deployment of GRI police and
greater use of joint US–GRI patrols’ to deter criminal activities (OPA U84005694K:
5 February 1971). The latter proposal may have been motivated by a noticeable
trend towards vigilante activities in Koza. Fukuyama Toshio (President of Koza
Livelihood Association) informed Lampert on 22 December 1970 that citizen patrols
had been organized to prevent any recurrence of the riotous behaviour of two days
earlier. A few days later, on 28 December, a senior military official cautioned that
‘A-Sign people [those running bars approved by and so patronized by the US
military] should be warned not to attempt to take over the GRI police role through
vigilante activities’ (OPA U84005694K: 28 December 1970).
The degree to which Okinawans had given up on the police and were increasingly
relying on their own solidarity and organization to deal with the problem of crime
was particularly evident among taxi drivers – that long-suffering group – during the
summer of 1971. In a memorandum for the Acting Chief of Staff, dated 24 August
1971, it was admitted that ‘assaults, robberies, damage to property and failure to
pay taxi fares by US Forces personnel have long been a source of irritation and
resentment’ and that ‘failure to apprehend many of the culprits and to notify the
victims and the general public of disciplinary actions taken . . . has increased this
resentment and has resulted in taxi drivers working out systems of signalling other
taxi drivers that help is needed’ (OPA U84006006K: 24 August 1971). This
determination by taxi drivers to protect and assist each other produced explosive
situations when they gathered in large numbers at the scene of a crime or accident.
One such incident occurred in Naha on 11 August when a taxi driver, Okuhira
Keiji, was ‘struck in the face by a rock thrown by a US serviceman’ (one Thomas
Robinson, who apparently intended it for his girlfriend). Angered by a derogatory
remark, Robinson ‘hit Okuhira with his fists’, by which time about thirty taxis had
converged on the scene. Following the removal of Robinson and Okuhira to Naha
central police station, between 100 and 150 taxi drivers congregated there at about
1.40 a.m., ‘demanding that Robinson be released to them and not to the custody
of the Ryukyuan/Armed Services police’. Then at about 3.30 a.m. the drivers
headed for the Naminoue area of Naha, where they ‘began moving down the streets
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 163
of the night-club district with the apparent intention of assaulting any US Forces
personnel they found’. In the event ‘two to five US servicemen reportedly were
injured by the crowd, and two privately owned vehicles carrying US Forces
registration were overturned and set afire’ (OPA U84006006K: 12 August 1971).
In a message to the American embassy in Tokyo, dispatched on 9 January 1971,
High Commissioner Lampert had expressed his view that the ‘Koza incident . . .
inaugurates [a] new and less propitious era in Ryukyuan–American relations which
will last at least until major reversion and base-related issues are settled and quite
possibly until the Government of Japan assumes administrative authority and SOFA
(Status of Forces Agreement) is put into effect’ (OPA U84005694K: 9 January 1971).
The disorder that marked the remaining sixteen months of US occupation proved
him right in this assessment. An air of resignation descended over senior American
officials, only too aware that the key source of conflict was extraterritoriality
(Lampert’s reference to SOFA is revealing in this regard), but unwilling to do
anything about it in the months that remained. Although a ‘trial observer system’
was unveiled with much fanfare by USCAR – in the hope that the six Okinawan
lawyers selected by Yara ‘would overcome Ryukyuan lack of understanding of US
court-martial procedures’ – the Deputy Chief Executive was absolutely right
to warn his USCAR counterpart that this would do little to silence public demands
for the complete transfer of jurisdiction to GRI courts (OPA U84005999K:
7 January 1971). Nobody was convinced by this tokenistic gesture, the issue of extra-
territoriality continuing to sour relations to the very end. As late as 18 February 1972
Yara was clashing with Robert Fearey, the Civil Administrator, over yet another
traffic accident involving an American driver and an Okinawan fatality. In response
to Yara’s claim that the death of Shiroma Kama – like that of Kinjō Toyo – was
‘nothing else but a murder case . . . caused [by] the neglect of [the] lives of the
people of Okinawa Prefecture on the part of the members of the US armed forces
. . . an act of barbarity which is never permissible’, Robert Fearey refused to accept
the Chief Executive’s ‘intemperate and discriminatory language’ (OPA
U84006012K: 25 February 1972). It seemed that the two sides, now accusing each
other of discrimination, were further apart than ever.
Conclusion
This article contends that the Koza riot was first and foremost a powerful
repudiation of American rule, fuelled by pervasive anger at the abuses that attended
it, most notably extraterritoriality. In that sense it reflected the growing politicization
of large numbers of Okinawans, now willing to engage in direct action with the
express purpose of articulating their anger and exposing the limits of American rule.
Whether it is best described as an ‘incident’, a ‘disturbance’ or a ‘riot’, this explosion
of discontent affirmed the need for reversion to Japan rather than denying it. What
lay at its heart was a quest for citizenship, a yearning for the ‘right to justice’ that
had been denied Okinawans for more than twenty-five years. It was this issue more
than any other that united opposition to American occupation (the base issue evoked
a much more mixed response), not least because the US military refused to give
164 Christopher Aldous
ground on it, insulating its servicemen from Okinawan justice right up to the date
of reversion. The violence of the last eighteen months of occupation testified to the
irreconcilable differences separating the two sides – on the one hand, the US
military’s determination not to compromise its military mission by giving up its
extraterritorial rights, on the other, the Okinawan government’s determination to
abolish this system of preferential justice that underlined the benefits of reunion
with Japan (ironically blessed with a progressive constitution largely written by
Americans). There was much truth in the claim made by Fukuchi Kōshō, an official
of the Okinawa Teachers’ Association, that after their long, uphill struggle to secure
constitutional rights and freedoms ‘Okinawans above all deserve to celebrate . . . the
[postwar Japanese] Constitution . . . on May 3 [Constitution Day]’ (Staff of Asahi
Shimbun 1970: 307).
References
Published works
Arasaki, M. and Nakano, Y. (1976) Okinawa Sengoshi (Postwar Okinawan History), Tokyo:
Iwanami Shoten.
Asahi Shimbun (1972) The Pacific Rivals: A Japanese View of Japanese–American Relations, Tokyo:
Weatherhill/Asahi.
Higa, M. (1963) Politics and Parties in Postwar Okinawa, Vancouver: British Colombia Press.
Klein, T. M. (1972) ‘The Ryukyus on the eve of reversion’, Pacific Affairs 45: 1–20.
Makise, T. (1971) Okinawa no rekishi 3 (The History of Okinawa, Vol. 3), Tokyo: Chōbunsha.
Marshall, T. H. (1950) Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Okinawa Taimusu (2000) Okinawa Sengo Seikatsushi (History of Ordinary Life in Postwar
Okinawa), Naha: Okinawa Taimusu Shaten.
Perez, L. G. (1997) ‘Revision of the unequal treaties and abolition of extraterritoriality’,
in H. Hardacre and A. L. Kern (eds) New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan, Leiden:
E. J. Brill Press.
Rabson, S. (1989) Okinawa: Two Postwar Novellas, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Reischauer, E. O. (1957) The United States and Japan, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Sarantakes, N. E. (2000) Keystone: The American Occupation of Okinawa and US–Japanese
Relations, Austin: Texas A and M University Press.
Staff of Asahi Shimbun (1970) ‘Reports from Okinawa’, The Japan Interpreter 6: 294–308.
Trends and Topics (1969) ‘Okinawa’s reformist chief executive’, Japan Quarterly 16: 7–11.
—— (1970) ‘Nerve gas’, Japan Quarterly 17: 365–9.
Van Gunsteren, H. (1998) A Theory of Citizenship, Boulder, CO: Westview.
Documentary sources
OPA – Okinawa Prefectural Archives. The codes below refer to files on microfilm as
classified by the OPA. Unless stated otherwise messages/memoranda listed below were
sent by the High Commissioner (HICOM) to the Department of the Army (DA).
‘Mob rule’ or popular activism? 165
Code U84000745K
6 June 1970, subject: CA (Civil Administrator)/CE (Chief Executive) meeting of 5 June
1970.
8 June 1970, subject: political assessment of 30 May Gushikawa incident.
13 June 1970, subject: CA/CE meeting of 13 June 1970.
14 August 1970, subject: local reaction to Smith trial.
12 September 1970, disposition form from William Clark, liaison department, to HICOM,
subject: commentary on Smith trial by conservative newspaper.
20 September 1970, memo for the record, subject: visit to Itoman, Saturday 19 September
1970.
29 September 1970, subject: CA/CE meeting of 28 September 1970.
4 January 1971, memo thru Acting CA, to HICOM, subject: interview with US navy
prosecutor – Itoman fatal traffic accident case.
Code U84004612K
20 August 1970, joint announcement – US forces and GRI police announce strengthened
cooperation.
Code U84005671K
27 June 1970, State for Finn, subject: GRI police role.
29 July 1970, subject: allegations on US crimes on Okinawa.
21 August 1970, from HICOM to C-in-C, Pacific (CINCPAC), subject: GRI police role,
HICOM meeting with Ambassador Takase, 21 August.
Code U84005694K
19 December 1970, no subject specified.
20 December 1970, statement delivered by High Commissioner James B. Lampert over
radio and television stations on Okinawa.
21 December 1970, memo addressed to CA, subject: report of initial incidents in Koza riot,
20 December 1970.
22 December 1970, subject: CA/CE meeting 21 December 1970.
23 December 1970, subject: HICOM meeting with Koza business leaders 22 December
1970.
28 December 1970, minutes of meeting involving Deputy CA and representatives of
departments concerned with law and order.
9 January 1971, message from HICOM to US embassy, Tokyo, subject: significance of
Koza incident.
2 February 1971, summary of information, preparing office: Directorate for Intelligence,
HQ, US Army Ryukyu Islands, subject: Koza riot.
5 February 1971, subject: HICOM/Inamine meeting, 5 February 71.
Undated, communication from US embassy, Tokyo, to HICOM, subject: Okinawa
incident/Japanese press reaction.
166 Christopher Aldous
Code U84005999K
7 January 1971, subject: ACA-DCE meeting on 5 Jan 71; GRI court observers and
chemical munitions removal.
Code U84006006K
12 August 1971, summary of information, preparing office: Directorate for Intelligence,
HQ US Army Ryukyu Islands, subject: anti-US violence by Ryukyuan taxi drivers.
24 August 1971, subject: input for meeting with HICOM, 24 August 1971 regarding cab
drivers.
Code U84006012K
25 February 1972, letter from CA to CE, 25 February 1972, no subject specified.
10 The dynamic trajectory of
the post-reversion
‘Okinawa Struggle’
Constitution, environment and
gender1
Miyume Tanji
We have seen Kakushin (‘progressive’) political figures that led opposition to the
bases and CTS construction in the end give in to the state and big companies.
Even ‘progressive’ governors Yara and Taira [1976–8] did not make any
difference. Being left-wing or right-wing is irrelevant. We local residents must
fight our own struggle to protect our ways of living.
(Asato 1981: 44)
176 Miyume Tanji
Sakihara Seishū, a local resident and former schoolteacher, was one of the most
active members of the Protection Group. He learned how important it was for the
local residents, in order to represent their own interests and ideas, to ‘organize and
do things themselves’ (interview, April 1999).
The anti-CTS movement foreshadowed the rise of community-based political
activism, which emphasizes the values of ‘traditional’ ways of daily living unique to
the community one lives in, rather than on achieving political or institutional goals
driven by a particular ideology. Still, the CTS project addressed an issue at the
heart of the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ in the post-reversion era, namely, how to overcome
Okinawa’s dependence on state-endorsed pollution-ridden industries and US bases
that redirect profits towards mainland Japan, thus exhausting local natural
resources.
Another important new dimension of the anti-CTS residents’ movement was the
discovery of a new local identity, which discarded the image of Okinawa as a
marginalized part of Japan. The anti-CTS activists promoted the use of the term
Ryūkyūko to describe the islands of the Ryukyu region and demarcate a new sphere
of solidarity. The idea of Ryūkyūko is based on Shimao Toshio’s writings on
‘Yaponesia’, which presented a new way of looking at Amami, Okinawa and other
islands (Shimao 1969, 1977). The anti-CTS activists in the region aimed at
developing solidarity among residents’ movements scattered through the Ryūkyūko
region. Ryūkyūko is an entity with an independent cultural sphere, connecting the
Japanese archipelago with other South Pacific islands such as Polynesia, Micronesia,
Melanesia and Indonesia. Many Okinawan critics drew on the idea of Yaponesia
to emphasize the importance of the region as an independent entity for resisting the
post-1972 process of assimilation of Okinawa into a homogeneous entity, ‘Japan’
(Gabriel 1999: 214–17).
In a similar way, the main actors of the Shiraho anti-airport movement were
Shiraho residents but with a wide external network of sympathetic citizens. Shiraho
is a small hamlet on the east coast of Ishigaki Island. After 1979, when a plan to
construct an airport on a coastal area next to the hamlet became public, this small,
sleepy place surrounded by coral reefs, with a population of a mere 2,000, became
the centre of vibrant political activism. As the cause grew from a local to a wider
environmental issue it attracted international attention. Scientists and specialists
from mainland Japan and overseas came to Shiraho and conducted voluntary
research on the socio-economic benefits of the New Ishigaki Airport and the
destructive impact on the environment, especially the coral. The Shiraho struggle
prevented the direct landfill of the coral reef area of Shiraho, demonstrating the
power of an informal network of citizens’ collective action when extended overseas.
The Shiraho struggle had many common features and overlapping memberships
with the anti-CTS movement. In the first several years, the Shiraho Community
Centre was the only organization that represented the residents’ protest against the
airport. The local Shiraho residents communicated with the Kin Bay Protection
Group, the Expand Anti-CTS Struggle Network and other members of the
residents’ and citizens’ movements in the Ryūkyūko region. Members of the Kin Bay
Protection Group visited Shiraho to encourage the local airport opponents not
The dynamic trajectory of the post-reversion ‘Okinawa Struggle’ 177
to repeat the fate of Kin Bay. Shiraho-born philosophy professor at Okinawa
University, Yonemori Yūji, who was the leading activist in the anti-airport move-
ment, recalls, ‘we deliberately distanced our activities from any political parties and
unions’ (interview, April 1999). Lawyer Ikemiyagi Toshio considers that the Shiraho
struggle was successful partly because ‘the political parties were not welcome
because they bring in their own egos, policies and strategies. There was a clear
consensus that the center of the movement was the Shiraho District Opposition
Committee of the Community Center and the Okinawan citizens’ supporting group
based in Naha’ (interview, May 1999). Yonemori pointed out that the organizational
structure independent from political parties and unions was a tradition passed on
from the Kin Bay struggle.
The Shiraho struggle also inherited from the Kin Bay struggle the confidence in
local identity based on the alternative conception of affluence. Journalists in various
media reported on the unique lifestyle of Shiraho, on how closely attached it is to
the natural environment, together with colourful photographs of the reef and marine
life. Gradually many locals came to express pride in their surroundings and way of
life. In a concrete way, the lifestyle in Shiraho embodied a different kind of
‘affluence’ from that defined by the mainland’s advanced infrastructure and cash.
The key strategy of the Shiraho struggle was the focus on the need for protection
of Shiraho’s valuable coral reefs as the common heritage of humanity, not just for
the locals. Yonemori explains that it was not easy for most Shiraho residents to see
the special value of the ocean that they saw everyday. Some local residents viewed
the ocean as nothing special; they were, after all, used to being in daily contact with
it. Initially, the main strategy for opposition to the airport was to protest against the
airplane noise. But Yonemori understood the potential of the Shiraho coral reefs
as a rare natural resource that the wildlife protectionists in big cities would value.
To the villagers he suggested ‘we won’t win by noise. We really need to focus on the
coral’ (interview, April 1999). In 1983, Yonemori and his colleagues launched an
advertisement in a local newspaper, Ryūkyū Shimpō, to appeal against the construc-
tion of the New Ishigaki Airport, using a vivid photograph of the colourful Shiraho
reef taken by a professional photographer. They produced posters with this picture
and an anti-airport message which were distributed throughout Okinawa. The
posters and the advertisement moved people in other parts of Okinawa and in
mainland Japan. Numerous people told the group how incredible it was that such
a beautiful ocean and coral reef existed (Yonemori, interview, April 1999).
This strategy encouraged other concerned citizens living outside Shiraho, in other
parts of Okinawa and in mainland Japan, to become involved in this environmental
struggle. In 1983, the members of Kin Bay Protection Group and others who had
been involved in various residents’ movements in the Ryūkyūko region established a
new organization, the Okinawa, Yaeyama and Shiraho’s Ocean and Life Protection
Group (Okinawa, Yaeyama, Shiraho no Umi to Kurashi o Mamoru Kai). In July 1983, several
opponents who lived in the Yaeyama region formed the Concerned Citizens’ Group
against the Airport (Kūkō Mondai o Kangaeru Shimin no Kai). In Tokyo, some fifty people
who had a strong attachment to the ocean in Shiraho formed the Yaeyama and
Shiraho Ocean Protection Group (Yaeyama Shiraho no Umi o Mamoru Kai). They
178 Miyume Tanji
included a prominent member of the Upper House, Minobe Ryōkichi, which
attracted publicity. In Osaka, sympathizers formed an anti-airport group (Ishigaki,
Shiraho no Umi ni Kūkō o Tsukurasenai Osaka no Kai). In Kobe and Kyoto, similar groups
sprang up. These groups jointly held rallies, handed out flyers and petitioned the
governor and the prefectural government in Okinawa, and the Ministry of Transport
and other government departments in Tokyo. The Minister of Transport, Ishihara
Shintarō, presently governor of Tokyo, was one of the sympathizers.
An American marine biologist Katherine Muzik joined with the local opposition
groups and played a crucial role in raising concerns to the outside world. Muzik was
living in northern Okinawa, researching the coral reefs all over Okinawa. As a
conscientious scientist her research in Okinawa was motivated by her personal grief
for the dying corals around the region, caused by post-reversion industrialization
projects since the 1975 Marine Exposition (Japan Times, 2 March 1983). She made
a speech at the first meeting of the Ishigaki’s Concerned Citizens’ Group against the
Airport, stressing the rare value of the Shiraho coral reefs from a scientist’s
perspective and the potential destructive effect of the airport project (Yaeyama Nippō,
11 July 1983). In April 1984 the Okinawa, Yaeyama and Shiraho’s Ocean and Life
Protection Group, Muzik, and Richard Murphy from the Jacques Cousteau Society
reported that the coral in Shiraho was exceptionally healthy compared to other
areas. This appealed to the public while the international prestige attached to the
Jacques Cousteau Society enhanced the credibility of the opposition (Yaeyama
Mainichi Shinbun, 21, 24 April 1984). In 1985, Muzik introduced the airport situation
in Shiraho and the rare value of the coral reefs at the 5th International Coral Reefs
Conference held in Tahiti. Later, in 1992, as president of the WWF (formerly the
World Wildlife Fund) the Duke of Edinburgh visited Shiraho as part of the campaign
to protect the coral.
Such support from intellectuals and famous figures from abroad exerted pressure
on the prefectural government to produce the official Environmental Impact
Assessment, which was attacked by scientists for its inaccuracy. In November 1987,
the World Conservation Union (IUCN) sent a delegation to investigate. Based on this,
the 17th General Meeting of the IUCN in San Jose, Costa Rica, passed in February
1988 a resolution on the Shiraho coral reefs. The resolution urged the Japanese
government to reconsider the airport construction project and to form a policy to
protect the coral in Shiraho, which the Union regarded as a world heritage site. The
IUCN resolution in Costa Rica damaged the legitimacy of the Japanese govern-
ment’s airport construction plan. Okinawan governor Ōta decided to move the plan
from Shiraho to Miyara Makinaka, further inland in Ishigaki Island, in 1991.
In the process of obtaining global support for the environmental struggle in such
a small community, the participants of the opposition movement strengthened a
sense of collective identity that was generated from pride in the unique living
environment of Shiraho, which was different from mainstream Japanese society.
This internally generated confidence independent of affiliation to Japanese national
identity appealed to external supporters, and to other critical citizens in Okinawa.
The experience and legacy of Shiraho were passed down to other struggles that
followed.
The dynamic trajectory of the post-reversion ‘Okinawa Struggle’ 179
Nevertheless, in March 2001, the Inamine prefectural government returned the
construction site of the New Ishigaki Airport to the Kara Mountain area, next to
Shiraho. Environmentalists are concerned by the effect on the Shiraho reefs if the
construction of a new airport goes ahead in this area. This may be an indication of
weakness in the Shiraho-style international campaigns dependent on informal
support of outsiders. While successful in the 1980s, such a strategy is temporary and
hard to reproduce. However, the Shiraho struggle would have appeared to close off
permanently the possibility of an airport being constructed directly on coral reefs.
From the experience of the Kin Bay struggle, local residents gained confidence
in creating their own political action, separate from that of left-wing political
organizations, parties and unions. The Shiraho struggle, particularly, opened doors
for the activists to obtain wider support in the regional, national and global
community of protest. Environmentalism added another dimension to the lineage
of citizens’ voluntary collective action, however, breaking free from the idea of the
‘Okinawa Struggle’ attached to the constitution. In the process of addressing their
identity to the outside world, the actors of the residents’ movements in Kin Bay and
Shiraho identified with the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ based on a traditional lifestyle
embedded in a particular natural environment which was also a source of pride.
Okinawan nationalists . . . did what some Philippine and South Korean anti-
bases nonfeminist nationalist activists had done: they perceived the sexual
exploitation of local women by foreign soldiers as one more reason to reject the
idea that military bases were the currency of development and diplomacy.
These nationalists thought about colonialism and neocolonialism. They
thought about militarism. Most of these nonfeminist anti-bases nationalists,
however, did not think about misogyny. They did not think about masculinity.
182 Miyume Tanji
They did not think about prostitution. They did not think about violence
against women in general.
(Enloe 2000: 114)
The ‘Okinawa Struggle’ is not, and never has been, a women’s struggle. On the
contrary, the tradition of protest and fight against the military and the state, since
the end of the Second World War has been predominantly a man’s world; the
community of protest is as patriarchal as the general community.
The ‘Okinawa Struggle’ itself is gendered. In the past, some male anti-base activists
criticized women activists for ‘trivializing’ the security issue as a women’s issue.
Today, women are welcomed and accepted into the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ with an
emphasis on their role as mothers and for their supposedly closer relationship to
nature. In 1999 in Okinawa I often heard comments from male activists that women
were the most ‘energetic’ forces of today’s Okinawan anti-base movement. The
Okinawan women activists and predominantly male actors maintain ‘Okinawan’
solidarity against the US military and the Japanese government, as long as the
underlying sphere of conflict, that is, patriarchy in Okinawan society, lies hidden
under the surface. This is perhaps why the women activists in Okinawa, even
feminists, often rely on the strategic use of the essentialist notions attached to
‘Okinawan women’. In many local communities in the Ryukyu Islands, women have
been traditionally entrusted with a role as masters of important religious rituals, for
their abilities to make contact with spiritual beings. As shamans at the local level, these
women have often functioned as guardians of the traditional patriarchal social order,
which is oppressive to women. For example, local shamans contributed to the survival
of totome, a Confucian-infused local tradition that prohibited female inheritance of
ancestry cards and entire family assets including land, laying the groundwork for the
local custom of privileging male children. The term ‘unai’, as used by contemporary
Okinawan feminists, embodies the power of goddesses that the ancient women in the
Ryukyus were believed to possess to protect the well-being of male siblings, and, by
extension, the entire local community (Shinzato 1994). The application of terms that
signify ‘Okinawan women’ entails the risk of supporting gender stereotypes in
a patriarchal community of protest in Okinawa. However, the intentional use of
the concept of ‘unai’ establishes solidarity among the Okinawan sisters through an
empowering irony; it also creates a healthy distance from the mainstream actors in
the ‘Okinawa Struggle’, which is not a women’s movement as such.
The gender division of labour within the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ is a tinderbox.
Enhanced participation of women and focus on gender in the ‘Okinawa Struggle’
is a source of greater diversity in perspectives, and of greater internal conflict
between activist groups. Bringing gender and human rights into the ‘Okinawa
Struggle’ as a major point of reference to be used against the US and Japan can
intensify conflicts inherent in the private realm of Okinawan society, bringing them
into the public realm. However, lively and open debate on gender issues, as well as
the awareness and capacity to negotiate with each other acquired in the process of
protests against militarism, is strengthening a new kind of definition of what it means
to be an Okinawan, and why to protest against militarism.
The dynamic trajectory of the post-reversion ‘Okinawa Struggle’ 183
Conclusion
This chapter has outlined selective features of three protest movements in the period
between the second- and third-wave of the ‘Okinawa Struggle’, in order to examine
one of the main questions of this book: how do Okinawans themselves actually
construct and articulate competing versions of Okinawanness?
The anti-war landowners established the basic structure for direct and open
opposition to the Japanese government over Okinawa’s marginalization within
Japan. The anti-war landowners and their supporting coalition kept a narrow focus
on the Okinawa-specific issue to do with land, while identifying with the pacifist
principle of the constitution. In postwar Japan, however, the constitution has been
unable to prevent the marginalization of Okinawa for national security policy, which
has been placed above basic human rights in importance.
Local residents’ environmentalist movements challenged the values attached to
the idea of affluence driven by yamato-style industrialization in Okinawa. In the
process, they developed self-confidence in the sense of an indigenous lifestyle tied
closely with nature. At the same time, community-based environmentalism found
more possibilities for obtaining support from activists engaged in similar movements.
This strategy has been a crucial addition to the ‘Okinawa Struggle’. Learning from
the Shiraho experience, the anti-heliport group in northeast Okinawa sent delegates
to the 2001 IUCN conference in Jordan in order to attract attention to the
plight of the dugongs, whose survival is threatened by the planned new heliport
construction off Nago City. The environmentalists express their ‘Okinawan’ identity
with confidence in their locality, endowed as it is with unique natural assets. This
confidence in their locality has had strong appeal to global supporters.
Okinawan women’s integration with the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ brought out the
gendered dimensions inherent in the structure of militarism. The focus on gender
and violence has turned the ‘Okinawa Struggle’ from a struggle to protect specific
local interests into a struggle to protect human rights. The campaign of Okinawan
women against war and violence coincides with recently emergent concerns over
gendered dimensions of violence in the military worldwide. The new level of
awareness of gender issues promises increased divisions and controversies, which is
characteristic of a society where people are capable of taking voluntary political
action. The Okinawan anti-base women activists have expressed their version
of ‘Okinawanness’ in terms of their energy and creativity, in order to open up a
space in their society for discussing political issues manifested in the private
realm.
Anti-base actors, then, present their ‘Okinawan’ subjectivity in differing ways.
The anti-war landowners and ‘progressive’ supporters demonstrated their definition
of ‘Okinawanness’ in terms of adherence to the image of an ideal, democratic and
constitutional nation-state, conceived during the reversion movement. In this sense,
‘Okinawa’ is defined in terms of its relation to the Japanese nation. The environ-
mentalists and anti-militarist women’s movements have detached their versions of
‘Okinawan’ identity from the preoccupations of the reversion movement by directly
communicating with the global civil society with new-found confidence in their
184 Miyume Tanji
locality’s importance and affluence. With this version of ‘Okinawan’ identity defined
as an independent ability to articulate their opinions globally outside the nation-
state, the anti-base movements are more powerful in their resilience against the
government’s measures to promote military buildup advertised in the name of
protecting ‘peace’.
The diversity in anti-base protest in Okinawa could be, for the conservative
Japanese elite, a dangerous seed of instability threatening postwar Japanese
democracy through the demonstration of a more self-confident identity. Self-
confident citizens who are able to articulate political requests embody the emerging
collective identity of the ‘Okinawa Struggle’. The confidence in taking collective
action to change society derives from strengthening strategy, arguments and beliefs
through constant discussions (and disagreements) with each other.
The coexistence of many forms of protest is also, however, a source of disagree-
ments and disunity within the ‘Okinawa Struggle’. Sympathizers of the anti-base
protest often wish to see a greater coherence in vision and action of the current anti-
base movement sector in Okinawa in cooperation with wider global civil society
(Hein 2001: 36). This chapter suggests that the lack of a coherent movement aimed
at one goal, which has generated a fragmentation of perspectives, has brought
a certain facility to the Okinawans’ collective action. Disunity is strength. By
contesting and refining arguments about what is really at stake for Okinawa and
what being Okinawan means, the anti-base activists have come increasingly not to
identify ‘Okinawans’ as a unity against yamato. ‘Okinawans’ in struggle live, in Vera
Mackie’s (2000) term, in a ‘community of protest’; they are capable of internal
debates, self-reflection, trial and failure.
Notes
1 I would like to thank David Brown, Garry Rodan, Fay Davidson, Sandra Wilson and
Patrick West for their support.
2 The Public Property Law (Kōyōchihō), passed on 31 December 1971, legalized the
continued use of all privately owned properties by the US military, for five years from
1972. Subsequently in 1977, the Japanese Cabinet enacted the Land Registration
Identification Law (Chiseki Meikakukahō), to identify land registrations within the military
bases in Okinawa. In response to the strong request from the landowners and the local
government, this law obligated the government to redraw the boundaries of those
properties now behind the fences whose ownership registrations were lost during the war
evacuation and subsequent military occupation. However, a subject clause of the Land
Registration Identification Law extended the period of the 1972 Public Property Law for
another five years until 1982 (Ahagon 1995: 97). In 1982, the government justified
further compulsory use of private properties by the US military, by resurrecting the US
Military Special Measures Law (Beigun Tokubetsu Sochihō), first enacted in 1952 to
legitimize the extension of the Tachikawa base near Tokyo but then left dormant. The
US Military Special Measures Law simplified the legal procedures required for the
government to restrict private ownership of land to enhance ‘public interest’, when
applied to the needs of the US military. The Land Expropriation Law (Tochi Shūyōhō)
enables the state’s restriction of private property ownership, with appropriate compen-
sation, when deemed necessary for the public interest. For the legal expropriation of
land for the use of the US military, the state (Naha Defense Facilities Bureau) makes a
The dynamic trajectory of the post-reversion ‘Okinawa Struggle’ 185
case for legal land expropriation to the Prefecture Land Expropriation Committee,
which is a semi-judicial body attached to each prefectural government. This Committee
has the authority to judge whether or not the compulsory use of the non-contract
landowners’ property by the US military is necessary for the ‘public interest’. The US
Military Special Measures Law makes no provision for regulating this Committee, and
its selection processes are unclear (Arasaki 1995: 158–9). Following Public Hearings in
1981, 1986 and 1997, the Committee approved the state’s right to sublet the military
land without the non-contract landowners’ consent.
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Broadbent, J. (1998) Environmental Politics in Japan: Networks of Power and Protest, Cambridge:
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Enloe, C. (2000) Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives, Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press.
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Gabriel, P. (1999) Mad Wives and Island Dreams, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
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RSPAS Working Paper 2000/1, Canberra, Australian National University.
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Critical Asian Studies 33, 1: 31–7.
Hook, G. and McCormack, G. (2001) The Japanese Constitution: Documents and Analysis,
London and New York: Routledge.
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Ishikawa, M. (1998) Hyuman Dokyumento Okinawa Kaijō Herikichi: kyohi to yūchi ni yureru machi
(Human Document of the Okinawan Offshore Heliport Base: A Town Torn between Rejection and
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Johnson, C. (ed.) (1999) Okinawa: Cold War Island, Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy Research
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11 Contested memories
Struggles over war and peace in
contemporary Okinawa1
Julia Yonetani
It was a struggle over history in multiple ways, with heated passions, with fever-
ish polemics . . . to all history clearly mattered. The question was, who would
shape it?
Barton J. Bernstein, Afterword, Judgment at the Smithsonian (Nobile 1995: 240)
As I stand in the sun, the voices locked in my skull from the dark museum room
burst out and release their agony into the air. In Mabuni, the wind over the
dazzling sea is heavy with the shrieks of the dying.
Norma Field, In the Realm of a Dying Emperor (1993: 86)
Like the blistering summer sun, the official day for consoling the spirits of the war
dead comes early to the archipelago of Okinawa, Japan’s southernmost prefecture.
On 23 June 1999, while the rest of Japan (except for Hokkaido) was still ensconced
in a particularly relentless rainy season, the recently elected governor of Okinawa
prefecture, Inamine Keiichi, attended ceremonies for the fifty-fourth anniversary
of the Battle of Okinawa. On this day each year – a prefectural public holiday known
as Irei no Hi, or the Day for Consoling the Spirits – commemorations are held at the
National Peace Memorial Park in Mabuni. Located at the southern tip of Okinawa’s
main island, Mabuni Hill was the scene of the last organized ground resistance by
Japanese forces during the Second World War.
On this day in 1999, in a ceremonial speech commemorating the war, Governor
Inamine issued a ‘Declaration of Peace for the Twenty-First Century’ in which he
reaffirmed Okinawa’s commitment to peace, and declared that the last G8 summit
of the millennium would be of ‘profound historical significance’. In April 1999, late
Japanese Prime Minister Obuchi Keizō had announced his decision to select Nago
City, Okinawa prefecture, jointly with Miyazaki Prefecture in Kyushu, as the
winning sites to host the summit in July 2000. The summit, Inamine emphasized,
would provide an opportunity to convey to the world ‘Okinawa’s spirit’ and the
Okinawan commitment to achieve ‘step by step . . . everlasting world peace’
(Okinawa Taimusu, evening edition, 23 June 1999).
As Laura Hein notes, ‘Okinawan encounters with both Japan and America have
never been framed as economic and military issues alone: explanations of Okinawa’s
Contested memories 189
“proper” place within both the Japanese and international orders have always been
couched in terms of the special characteristics of Okinawan culture and identity,
particularly in contrast to national Japanese identity’ (Hein 2001: 32). Following the
integration of Ryukyu as Okinawa prefecture within the Meiji state in 1879,
Okinawans were gradually mobilized for service throughout Japan’s expanding
empire (Yonetani 2000). Ever since, the contradictions within Japanese policy and
rhetoric – which forcefully assimilated Okinawans while concurrently discriminating
against them – have never been resolved (Christy 1999). Following the Second
World War, multiple and contradictory meanings of ‘Okinawa and ‘Japan’ have
been contested within, and against, US Cold War military policy and its claims to
legitimacy. As Hein observes,
[T]he distinctiveness of Okinawan customs and identity has been for over a
century – and remains – a highly politicized and contested issue. One of the
consequences of that history is that all expressions of culture are ‘always already’
politicized and all claims of Okinawan distinctiveness become part of this larger
debate over contemporary political identity.
(Hein 2001: 32)
Within this politics of identity the reverse also holds true; that is, not only are claims
to an Okinawan culture and history ‘always already’ politicized, but struggles over
Okinawa’s position in relation to Japan and against US military control and
presence on the islands have necessarily been historical and cultural struggles.
This is no more apparent than in issues over war and peace – as visions of a
collective past and an imagined future. Within apparently transparent references to
‘peace’ lie highly divergent memories, and motivations for remembrance (Yoneyama
1999). Contested ideologies of war and peace – as dialogues with the past and as
visions of the future – have haunted postwar Japan. In Okinawa, where close to one-
third of the local population were killed in the only ground war between US and
Japanese forces involving civilians fought on Japanese soil in 1945, the wounds of war
remain engraved on the landscape. They also take the form of a continued large-scale
US military presence on the islands, with close to 20 per cent of the main island
occupied by US bases (amounting to over 70 per cent of the existing US military
facilities in Japan). The promulgation of peace, as a ‘lesson of history’ learnt through
the horrors of war, is an essential creed of the Okinawan anti-base movement.
Nowhere are the tensions caused by Japan’s dependence on and complicity with
US-driven global military strategies and market forces as conspicuous, nor are the
contradictions within the Japanese nationalist historical narrative as acute, as in this
small southern archipelago. It is highly poignant that, two months after Inamine’s
commemorative speech at Mabuni and barely six months since he took office, his
administration found itself embroiled in controversy over how Okinawa’s martial past
should be represented in museum exhibits, as part of a fierce debate over what his
declared ‘desire for peace’ for the future in fact entailed.
Four years earlier, in 1995, then governor Ōta Masahide became the first
prefectural governor in Japan’s history to be the subject of a lawsuit filed by the
190 Julia Yonetani
Japanese Prime Minister after he refused to act as proxy in the signing of leases of
land utilized by the US military. More than any previous Okinawan governor, Ōta
drew connections between the base issue – or what he has repeatedly termed the
‘Okinawan Problem’ – and struggles over identity, autonomy and cultural diversity.
His stance and the swell of anti-base protest in Okinawa posed a direct challenge
to US and Japanese government attempts to reaffirm the US–Japan Security Treaty
and a global security ‘partnership’ between the two countries.
At the end of 1998 the anti-base pro-local autonomy administration of Ōta was
replaced by Liberal Democratic Party-aligned Governor Inamine (see Johnson 2001
for an analysis of Ōta’s defeat and the central government’s ‘power-of-money’
politics). After Inamine’s election victory, the central government pledged to renew
negotiations over large-scale economic stimulus packages for Japan’s poorest
prefecture. In return, Inamine was put under intense pressure to secure a site for
the building of a controversial new US military base in Nago (also site of the G8
summit) to take over the functions of the US Marine Corps air station at Futenma
(Ōta had officially declared his opposition to these plans in February 1998). The
museum controversy unfolded just as Inamine’s administration stepped up its
campaign to ostracize anti-base activists and secure Henoko village in the northeast
of Nago as the proposed site for the base.
The controversy arose over two different ‘peace memorial museums’ recently
constructed in Okinawa: the Yaeyama Peace Memorial Museum, which opened
in May 1999 on the southern island of Ishigaki, and the New Prefectural Peace
Memorial Museum, which finally opened one month later than scheduled on
1 April 2000 in the Peace Memorial Park, Mabuni. From August to October 1999,
a fierce political dispute arose over displays in the two museums. The prefectural
government’s alterations to displays at Yaeyama without the approval of the
committee overseeing the project served to highlight surreptitious attempts to
change the content of exhibits at Mabuni. The extent of attempted changes
gradually became known through extensive reporting in the local press.2
Earlier disputes in both Japan and the US over museum exhibits planned to
commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the Second World War
demonstrated the difficulties involved in reflecting on the historical implications
of war in a public setting. Ultimately, absences from the exhibit displaying the
shiny revamped body of the Enola Gay at the Smithsonian National Air and
Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, and within the polished glass showcases
of Tokyo’s Showa Museum bore testimony to missing historical complexities
(Nobile 1995; Yui 1995; Linenthal and Engelhardt 1996; Hein and Selden 1997).
Since 1995, peace museums have increasingly become the target of criticism and
at times outright intimidation from a growing ‘historical revisionist’ movement
in Japan.3 It was within this climate, and in the midst of the Futenma relocation
issue, that attempted changes to the new Yaeyama and Mabuni museum exhibits
took place. The attempts hinted at a concerted attempt on the part of Inamine’s
administration to rearticulate an Okinawan historical and political position more
in concert with US–Japan security strategy and Japanese national government
policy.
Contested memories 191
In the summer of 1999, the political stakes involved in representations of peace
and the past seemed only to increase with the heat, as a battle of a different kind
began to rage over the cliffs of Mabuni. Journalists, intellectuals, war survivors, anti-
base peace groups and museum committee members mobilized in opposition to
the prefectural administration, and struggles over history, the war, memory and
the US bases became increasingly interfused. This chapter traces contests over the
representation of Okinawa’s past and notions of peace focusing on the museum
issue. As historical and political struggles intertwined, the ensuing dispute had
serious implications for the democratic process in Japan and for Okinawa’s search
for local political, historical, cultural and economic autonomy. It also raised
pertinent questions concerning the commemoration and memorialization of the
past. History was in the making. Who would shape it?
The gun on the footsoldier at the entrance to the cave is not pointed towards
any one person in particular, but towards all the civilian refugees. The gun
symbolizes the rationale of the military, which holds the power of life or death
over the civilians. At any moment, the civilians may be murdered, they may
commit mass suicide, or they may be blasted by flame throwers from the US
army’s indiscriminate onslaught. An extreme situation, where you have no idea
what is going to happen next – this is what we reenacted in the gama display.
(Ōshiro 1999: 35)
Work on the diorama ceased after the alterations became publicly known. Following
Deputy Ishikawa’s apology, the museum planning committee ordered that the gun
be restored but agreed to slightly lower its position so that it did not point directly
at the mother. A month later, the Bereaved Families Association, trustees of the
Break of Dawn Monument, met Inamine to submit a formal complaint about the
soldier display and its potential to ‘discourage national sentiment’ (Ryūkyū Shimpō,
11 November 1999).
Of the readers’ contributions on the peace memorial issue, the one which most
succinctly avoided a ‘traffic accident’ version of war (that which made out that no
one wanted it and that everyone was a victim)6 was a letter to the Okinawa Taimusu
(‘Opinion’, 29 September 1999) submitted by a construction worker from Urasoe
City, Okinawa. The letter directly associated the obscuring of responsibility for
the war in Japan, the object of criticism by other countries in Asia, with the
institutionalization of unaccountability in domestic politics – a system to which
the people of Japan seem oblivious. The contributor concluded that the prefectural
government should take responsibility for having attempted changes to museum
exhibits, as a step towards breaking free of this system.
Much of the protest centred on the Inamine administration’s attempts to curry
favour with the Japanese government. For many this was the most alarming aspect
of a dispute – the symbol of a historical and political Rubicon which Okinawa
seemed on the brink of crossing. At the end of December 1999, under pressure from
Inamine and the national government and after a nineteen-hour marathon debate,
the Nago City Assembly and Mayor Kishimoto Tateo agreed to accept relocation
of Futenma base to Camp Schwab, adjacent to Henoko village on the northeast
coast of Okinawa. For the first time in the history of Okinawa, the prefecture’s head
and local elected representatives had actually requested the construction of a new
base on the island.
Notes
1 An earlier lengthier version of this chapter appeared as ‘On the battlefield of Mabuni:
struggles over peace and the past in contemporary Okinawa’, East Asian History 20
(December 2000): 145–168.
2 From August to October 1999, over 400 news articles and numerous editorials
concerning the museum displays appeared in Okinawa Taimusu and Ryūkyū Shimpō.
3 In 1996, plans to include exhibits on Japanese military aggression in Asia within the
Nagasaki Atom Bomb Museum were denounced by the Nagasaki City branch of
the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and other right-wing and nationalist groups.
As a result, several hundred revisions of content were made following the museum’s
reopening. Similar campaigns have been launched against the Sakai City Peace and
Human Rights Museum, and the Osaka International Peace Center. In October 1996,
an LDP Parliamentary Committee report on the exhibit content of local peace
museums, ordered by the then Prime Minister Hashimoto Ryūtarō, criticized the Sakai
and Osaka sites, the original Okinawa Prefectural Peace Museum at Mabuni, and
various other local museums as promoting a ‘biased ideology’ (Ueyama 1999; Nakakita
2000; Okinawa Ken Rekishi Kyōikusha Kyōgikai 1999).
4 The Okinawa Relief Committee for Forcefully Expelled Malaria Victims was founded
in 1988 to seek compensation from the central government for the bereaved families of
malaria victims. Eight years later, while unsuccessful in their claim, the committee
agreed to accept a concession that the government allocate 300 million yen to the
construction of a monument and a museum in remembrance of the victims.
5 On the collective suicide issue, see for example Aniya (1989); Koji Taira (1999). Norma
Field (1993: 67) suggests instead the phrase ‘compulsory suicide’ as reflecting the ‘dark
inmixing of coercion and consent, of aggression and victimization at work in the story of
the caves’.
6 Brian Ladd citing a comment made by historian Reinhart Koselleck in relation to
controversies over the building of the Neue Wache memorial in Berlin (Ladd 1999: 221).
7 See Aaron Gerow (2000) on how Japanese nationalist discourse has been reconstructed
in a form conducive to the desires of postmodern consumption.
8 The connection between central government compensation policies and the Okinawa
Initiative are detailed in Yonetani (forthcoming).
9 See Young (2000) for an analysis of similar issues in relation to war memorials in
Germany.
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kogeki no ugoki’ (The Peace Museum controversy and recent attacks against critical
exhibits throughout Japan), Keeshi Kaji 25 (December): 48–50.
Yonetani, J. (2000) ‘Ambiguous traces and the politics of sameness: placing Okinawa in
Meiji Japan’, Japanese Studies 20, 1: 15–32.
—— (forthcoming) ‘Future “assets”, but at what price? The Okinawa Initiative debate’, in
L. Hein and M. Selden (eds) Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and
American Power, New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
Yoneyama, L. (1999) Hiroshima Traces: Time, Space and the Dialectics of Memory, Berkeley, Los
Angeles and London: University of California Press.
Young, J. E. (2000) At Memory’s Edge: After-images of the Holocaust in Contemporary Art and
Architecture, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Yui, D. (1995) Nichibei Sensōkan no Sōkoku (Discrepancies in the Perception of War between the US and
Japan), Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
12 Nuchi nu Sūji
Comedy and everyday life in
postwar Okinawa1
Christopher T. Nelson
Our campaign slogan must be: reform of consciousness, not through dogma, but
through the analysis of that mystical consciousness which has not yet become clear
to itself. It will then turn out that the world has long dreamt of that which it had
only to form a clear idea of in order to really possess it. It will turn out that it is
not a question of any conceptual rupture with between past and future, but rather
the completion of the thoughts of the past.
Marx, Letter to Ruge
It was the autumn of 1945. The Battle of Okinawa had ended. Their villages
destroyed, their farms confiscated, thousands of Okinawans remained confined in
resettlement camps. During the day, people gathered in the muddy streets between
the ramshackle tents and shacks in which they were forced to live. Shocked,
saddened, bored, they struggled to piece together the fragments of their everyday
lives. One day the dentist and comedian Onaha Buten joined them, laughing
impishly.
I know that things have been terrible for you, but you can’t go on this way.
Here’s what I’ll do. All of you gather around and I’ll tell some stories, and
maybe we can sing a few songs. Now I know that times are tough, but I need
to survive too. So, I’ll just put my hat down in the middle here. Everyone will
close their eyes and pitch in whatever they can afford. That way, someone
without much money won’t be embarrassed. Once everyone has put some
money in, I’ll give a signal. Open your eyes and I’ll go on with the show.
They all agreed that this was a good idea. Buten put down his hat and told his
audience to close their eyes. Everyone dug into their pockets and threw money into
his hat. After a few minutes, Buten shouted, ‘Open your eyes!’ When they looked
around, Buten had taken the hat and gone. Laughing, he waved to them from his
bike as he raced away down the street. ‘Don’t you ever learn?’2
In the spring of 1997, the Japanese Diet acted with extraordinary – almost
unprecedented – dispatch, passing a special law compelling landowners in Okinawa
to once again lease their land for use by the American military. With this decision,
Nuchi nu Sūji 209
the exuberance and determination of the preceding months came to an abrupt and
shocking halt. This unsatisfying resolution followed months of seething activity
throughout the island. Nearly two years before, in 1995, the prefecture erupted in
anger over the rape of an Okinawan child by American soldiers – the latest in a series
of attacks visited upon young women by American servicemen. Since that incident,
there had been a prefectural referendum on the future of the bases, a series of public
hearings on the renewal of leases and several massive demonstrations. A tremendous
amount of critical effort had been directed at reconsidering the Okinawan past,
and not merely the history of American military occupation. Essays in newspapers
and journals, public discussions and private conversations debated Okinawa’s
history of Japanese colonialism, wartime genocide, modernization and incor-
poration into the Japanese nation-state. Questions of Okinawa’s subjection to
nativist analysis and cultural commodification were aired in the mass media. Angry
commentators and politicians revisited Okinawa’s history of discrimination at the
hands of both the American and Japanese states. Calls were heard for greater
regional autonomy, for recognition of Okinawa’s unique status in the Japanese
nation, even for independence. Commentators on both the right and the left urged
Okinawans to seize this opportunity to determine their future; of course, the choices
that these commentators enjoined their fellow Okinawans to make were radically
different. In the midst of all of this, complex negotiations with the Japanese national
government and American authorities continued. Ultimately, Governor Ōta
Masahide refused to compel landowners to renew the leases held by the Japanese
government, leases that allowed the American military to continue to occupy the
bases that they had held since the Pacific War. When the Diet enacted special
legislation overriding Ōta’s deference to the base landowners, Okinawans were
amazed to find once again their claims so summarily dismissed.
An editorial in the journal Keeshi Kaji explored the deep emotions that swept
through Okinawa following the Diet’s stunning actions. The author described how
a feeling of chirudai, a kind of dreamy state of disappointment and loss, pervaded
everyday life (Miyazato 1997: 18–24). Politicians, activists and critics were soon to
reorganize, faced with the announcement of plans to build a new US helicopter
base in Nago (Inoue 2000). However, the humorist and essayist Fujiki Hayato had
already organised a different sort of response. In a series of performances throughout
Okinawa – at the Terurinkan in Okinawa City, at Ryubo Hall in Naha and at
the Nakamurake in Kitanakagusuku – Fujiki sought to transform the state of
despondency noted in the Keeshi Kaji essay. Through performances that evoked the
work of Teruya Rinsuke and the aforementioned Onaha Buten, two seminal
musicians and humorists in postwar Okinawa, Fujiki attempted to both transform
the state of chirudai and provide a critique of everyday life in contemporary
Okinawa.3
‘One does not have to be a resentful reactionary to be horrified by the fact that
the desire for the new represses duration.’ Theodor Adorno wrote these words in a
critique of modern art; however, at this historical conjuncture it would be impossible
to separate the cultural from the economic, the aesthetic from the quotidian (Adorno
1984: 41). The modern era has been characterized by a kind of ceaseless impulse
210 Christopher T. Nelson
towards change. In the case of Japan, postwar economic growth was driven by a
relentless mobilization of resources directed towards domestic development.
During the period of rapid GNP growth Japanese cities and industrial areas
were virtual war zones. ‘Scrap and build’ was the phrase the Japanese
themselves used to describe the situation. The particular development strategy
of government and business was reminiscent of the wartime strategy of resource
mobilisation . . . During the war the Japanese were made to work selflessly in
the attempt to win. After the war similar sacrifices were evidently expected in
the interest of GNP growth.
(Taira 1993: 171)
It’s precisely because it is a time like this! Of course it’s true that many people
died during this war. Unless those of us left alive celebrate and get on with our
lives, the spirits of the dead will never be raised. It may be true that one in four
have died, but doesn’t that also mean that three are left alive? Come on now,
let’s celebrate our lives with passion. Those left alive have an obligation to the
dead to live joyously.
(Teruya 1998: 13–16)
Buten uses the shock of everyday practices redeployed at a time when daily life has
been thrown into chaos in order to forge a new continuity. Walter Benjamin
observed that ‘to become part of the community of the story, we must be able to
reproduce the story’ (Benjamin 1988). Buten’s insight is that reproducing the story
is perhaps a step towards recreating the community. In the aftermath of the war,
the sequence of events to which traditions such as the iwai belong has been shattered.
Reassembling these practices could not recreate the prewar form of Okinawan
society; however it could begin the process of reintegrating survivors into
relationships with their ancestral spirits, and re-establishing a productive sense of
community in what had become a mere contiguous collection of households and
individuals. Following Terurin and Buten’s innovative practices, Fujiki appropriates
these forms to produce a spiritual transformation adequate to addressing the
problems of everyday life in contemporary Okinawa.
Fujiki is a recognizable figure in Okinawan popular culture. He hosts several
weekly programmes on at least two local radio stations, appears regularly in local
television shows and theatrical performances, publishes his own weekly newspaper,
occasionally records and releases music CDs, and is an almost ubiquitous presence
in Okinawan advertising. In addition, he has appeared in a number of Japanese
films, performed comedy routines in mainland Japanese venues and appeared in the
2001 NHK television series, Churasan (Beautiful).
Although Fujiki has published an anthology of his earlier sketches, he presents
only live performances of his Hitori Yuntaku Shibai. Given the intensity of his
Nuchi nu Sūji 215
participation in radio, television and recording, it cannot be that he has a general
aversion to these media. Instead, he seems to have made an effort to bracket these
performances from the rest of his work. As I noted above, the Hitori Yuntaku Shibai
evokes the forms of certain practices coded as traditional. It also triggers associations
with the popular theatre, in particular the uchinā shibai (Okinawan theatre) and
kominkan (community centre), parties that had been – and remain – popular
throughout central Okinawa. Of course, they also call forth associations with a host
of televised comedy reviews, not the least of which would be Fujiki’s own roles in
Tamaki Mitsuru’s productions (Ota 1997: 145–70).
Fujiki draws on his own experiences of growing up in Nakanomachi – the bar
district of Koza during the American occupation. His mother was born on the tiny,
outlying island of Ihei, the birthplace of the founder of the final Okinawan dynasty.
Fujiki’s father immigrated to Okinawa from Amami Ōshima, opening a cabaret
catering to American GIs. After a stint as a mailman, Fujiki began apprenticeship
to his craft in earnest as a member of both Teruya Rinken’s eponymous band and
Tamaki Mitsuru’s comedy troupe.
Many Okinawans fondly recall Fujiki’s wildly improvisational manzai-style
routines with Gakiya Yoshimitsu. However, by his own account, he was neither a
gifted comedian nor a talented musician; he began as a roadie with the Rinken
Band and jokes that he had been a singer for some time before his microphone
was even turned on. Still, Tamaki Mitsuru described him as a tremendously
focused student, and he spent long hours studying Okinawan history, folklore
and conversational patterns as well as honing his skills as a singer, drummer and
comedian. His studies were eclectic; his teachers Tamaki, the seminal humorist
and musician Teruya Rinsuke, the distinguished Okinawan historian Takara
Kurayoshi and the famous rakugoka and television personality Tachikawa
Shinnosuke. By the time he began his solo career in 1993, he had appeared on
several Rinken Band albums, completed a world tour with an omnibus of ‘world
music’ artists and starred in Owarai Pō Pō,15 a successful television series featuring
Tamaki’s troupe in an improvised review.
Once the guests were seated at the Nakamurake, Fujiki shifted positions once again
– from considerate host to performer. At the same time, the guests were invited to
assume the role of his hosts seated in the villa – and also as interlocutors in his
conversations. Fujiki spoke casually, touching on current events and his recent
experiences travelling around Japan; songs, jokes and brief anecdotes – sometimes
the kernel of as-yet undeveloped stories. Then, the lights were dimmed for a
moment. When the lights rose, Fujiki was again standing stock-still in the centre of
the courtyard. This time, he had assumed the role of an old man. His hair silvered,
his face lined. He wore a sort of short-sleeved white jacket, khaki trousers. He
appeared stiff and weary, his hands clasping and reclasping absently as he struggled
with some kind of inner conflict. At last, he began speaking to an unseen companion:
‘Kazubō! Your grandfather has seen ghosts. And I’ve seen our ancestral spirits
too . . . Anybody who’s tried as hard to die as I did during the war can’t help
but see them.’
216 Christopher T. Nelson
An old man was standing on a beach with his grandson on one of the Kerama
islands, just off the coast of Naha. He began to tell the boy a story about his
experiences during the war, when he was the same age as his grandson. As the
American forces approached Okinawa, regular soldiers and conscripted
civilians struggled to prepare for the inevitable invasion. As a young man he
was filled with admiration for the brave Japanese soldiers, and begged the
commander of the local garrison to allow him to become a cadet. His wish was
granted and he joined the daily routine of constructing field fortifications and
training for combat.
During the course of preparations, he was praised by the garrison
commander for proclaiming his willingness to die in defence of Japan – to kill
ten American soldiers before sacrificing his own life for the emperor. This
willingness to die was a constant part of their everyday lives and every soldier
and cadet carried a manual to study in their spare moments: the numbers one
and ten were even the challenge and password for night patrols. Yet his
satisfaction at this accomplishment was short lived: when he returned to his
quarters, Lieutenant Someya (his immediate superior) furiously upbraided him
for his ridiculous response, for regurgitating a stock answer without even
considering its implications:
‘Death is not what you think it is. Keep going for as long as you can – don’t
throw away this precious life that you received from your father.’
The lieutenant gave him a second book – a pocket dictionary – telling him
to make sure that he was clear on the meaning of all orders, to take nothing for
granted. This was a disorienting experience for the young man who admired
the dedicated Japanese soldiers and desired the approbation of both the
garrison commander and Lieutenant Someya.
The invasion began and the young cadet begged Lieutenant Someya to allow
him to join in the attack against the Americans coming ashore. But his unit was
pinned down by a savage bombardment and arrived on the battlefield after the
skirmish had ended. Here, in his familiar village, he confronted the horror of
war. The bodies of villagers and soldiers were scattered everywhere.
‘The carnage was horrific – I got sick and vomited. Pigs wandered about,
rooting in the rotted decomposing bodies of the dead, their entrails strewn
everywhere.’
Renewed bombardment scattered the soldiers and they fled to the mountains.
The Lieutenant was lost.
There was a pause in the assault and an unnerving calm settled on the island.
Each morning an American patrol boat passed the shore, urging the villagers
to surrender. Before returning to the American position on Zamami, the boat
landed, leaving supplies for the starving villagers. Still, the Japanese garrison
was relentless in its defence. An elderly couple from the village was found with
American supplies and executed as spies. American efforts to force a surrender
continued, and his mentor, Lieutenant Someya appeared in the company of
the Americans, urging the garrison to give up its futile resistance. American
Nuchi nu Sūji 217
reconnaissance patrols landed openly on the beach and Japanese sentries,
terrified of reprisals, ignored their presence.
Finally, the American patrol boat returned, this time carrying the
commander of another garrison in the Keramas. He called out to the young
cadet’s garrison commander, and the American ship landed a small party on
the shore. The boat withdrew and the soldiers were assembled by their
commanding officer. Convinced that they were about to receive orders to
commit suicide, the young cadet made his final preparations. However, the
soldiers were simply told to gather on the beach. The American patrol boat
returned, this time carrying a meal for the islanders. Everyone – Japanese and
American soldiers, Okinawan villagers, sat together and voraciously consumed
the feast of sliced pork and canned rations. With gestures and a few halting
words, the soldiers tried to speak to each other as they ate.
The meal ended and the soldiers stood. Before anything could happen, an
American chaplain offered up a prayer for peace, a prayer that was translated
by a Nisei interpreter. Then, the Americans returned to their boat and the
Japanese soldiers to their fortifications.
The effect of the education in tennōsei [the imperial system] that I had in those
days was profound. What was tennōsei? It seemed like whenever the least thing
happened, we’d all shout, ‘Tennō Heika, Banzai! Ten thousand years life to the
emperor!’
[Caught up in his recollections, the old man tries to throw up his arms as he shouts. He stops
abruptly, grimacing in pain.]
Ah! I can’t raise my arm any higher than my shoulder! When I go to the doctor,
he tells me that it’s just old age. Kind of strange, don’t you think? If it’s just age,
my left and right arms are both the same, aren’t they? Then why is it that my
left arm is fine? These days, it’s getting to be that you can’t even believe doctors!
Ouch!
As he reminisces about the war years, the old man cannot simply explain the
imperial system to his grandson. Even after the passage of so many years, his account
becomes more immediate and he cannot help but give physical expression to the
cry of ‘Tennō Heika Banzai!’ The interlude becomes an opportunity for a manzai-
style joke about ageing – an interlude that actually serves to highlight the gravity of
the moment. Yet, for Fujiki, this continued physical embodiment of commitment
to the emperor is also accompanied by persistent pain. Fujiki’s concern with the
moments of inscription is also interesting and complex. Though he shares
Tomiyama’s interest in the ongoing effects of discipline, Fujiki also wants to direct
attention to the already existing subject onto whom these technologies were
inscribed and to the irresolvable tensions that this inscription produces.
Unlike many commentators, Fujiki avoids a facile reduction of Okinawan culture
to some functional principle by which practices are structured – for example, by
Okinawan yasashisa or gentleness. In fact, he goes to great lengths to show that his
character embraces militarization, that he is driven by his own desire to become a
soldier. An existent Okinawan subject is not simply overwritten by Japanese military
discipline; instead, there is a profoundly important element of enjoyment to the
process of transformation. In the person of the young Okinawan cadet, Fujiki recalls
Nuchi nu Sūji 219
the earnest admiration and longing that characterized prewar songs like Tsuyoi
Nihonjin (The Strong Japanese) and Hadashi Kinshi (No Going Barefoot), a feeling for
affect that is missing from their ironic performances today.
At the same time, Fujiki points to the impossibility of finalizing these networks of
practices of producing a totalized imperial subject. Tomiyama draws a similar
conclusion, with the exception that this imperfect transformation continues to
motivate subjects’ commitment to the imperial project. For Fujiki, Okinawan
culture – the same culture that somehow articulated with Japanese militarization
– also empowers the recognition of the peril of becoming Japanese. Neither
Lieutenant Someya’s rational argumentation nor physical intimidation could
convince the cadet of the profound flaws in the imperial project. It was the cadet’s
participation in the counterattack against the American landing force that
foregrounded these contradictions. The Okinawan cadet was not simply brought
around by the horrors of war – he had, after all, already seen his own neighbours
executed for accepting food from an American patrol. Rather, it was the specificity
of the carnage in his village that shocked him. There, among the wreckage of his
neighbours’ houses, he saw pigs tearing at the bodies of the dead. In a rural
Okinawan community, this would have been the ultimate inversion of the accepted
life cycle. It is man who eats the entrails of pigs on festive occasions, not pigs who
are to feast on the entrails of man (Sakima 1982: 475–84).
In one expertly constructed image, the contradictions of the entire project of
Japanification are revealed. The prohibition of quartering pigs in outdoor privies,
an important tenet of Okinawan seikatsu kaizen (lifestyle reforms), was more than an
attempt to subject Okinawans to Japanese hygienic regimes. It was an intervention
that interrupted the recovery of that portion of residents’ mabui – spirit – that was
traditionally thought to be discharged along with excrement. If not recovered by
the household’s pigs, this spirit could not be returned to the household through the
periodic consumption of the pigs’ flesh. Over time, this spirit would be lost. In
Fujiki’s narrative, these practices lead not so much to the production of a Japanese
subject but to the destruction of an Okinawan one. Tomiyama argued that many
Japanese soldiers believed that the sacrifice of their own lives could lead to the
becoming Japanese of subsequent generations; in Fujiki’s narrative, becoming
Japanese requires this sacrifice. It is a process that yields the extinction of the
Okinawan way of life, not its transformation.
Insofar as Fujiki’s performance presents a critique of the destruction of a
traditional way of life, it does so through a narrative that is profoundly influenced
by traditional forms. In Okinawa, there are a host of myths that deal with the human
mediation of the relationship between the autochthonous deities of sea and land.
This mediation often involves the efforts of the islanders to eke out a living in an
environment where neither the land nor the sea can, by itself, sustain life. Perhaps
the most often cited of these myths was recorded on Kudaka Island, several
kilometres off the coast of the Okinawan mainland.
A young islander on the Eastern Shore of Kudaka sees a ceramic urn carried
along by the waves just beyond the surf zone. Frustrated in his attempts to catch it
in his fishing net, he walks to one of the sacred groves. His prayers to the deity of
220 Christopher T. Nelson
the grove are answered and he is given detailed instructions that must be followed
exactly if he is to catch the floating object. He returns to the beach and hurries
through the prayers before again trying to catch the urn. But he has been careless
in his recitation and fails once again. A second time he returns to the grove, a second
time he fails to correctly perform the ritual, a second time he fails to catch the urn.
Finally, he returns to the grove for a third time, pays careful attention to the
instructions of the deity, correctly performs the required prayers and succeeds in
catching the crock. He drags it up on the beach and cracks it open. Inside are the
grains – barley, millet and wild rice – that will allow him to begin to cultivate
the sandy soil of Kudaka. In this myth and in most of the others, the act of mediation
is complex, difficult and fraught with dangers. If the required tasks are not
performed, the mediation can only fail. And if the mediation succeeds, it does so
only on a contingent basis – it only provides the possibility of survival for now.17
Fujiki’s narrative unfolds in precisely these terms. The young cadet’s survival
depends on the successful mediation of the relationship between the Japanese
entrenched in their inland fortifications and the American patrols arriving from the
sea to the east. Again and again, the islanders try to successfully negotiate these two
poles. In this case, the failure to correctly mediate the relationship produces
catastrophe; when the food that the Americans unload on the beach is eaten, the
villagers are executed by the Japanese soldiers. Even the commensal meeting of
the Japanese (who come down from their fortifications) and the Americans (who
come up from the sea) yields only a temporary respite; shortly thereafter, the battle
resumes. It is at this point that the difference between Fujiki’s narrative and the
mythic narrative begins to emerge. In the case of the Kudaka myth, the young man
learns that correct performance of the necessary rituals earns the beneficence of the
deities of land and sea. In Fujiki’s narrative, the young man learns that it is
impossible to mediate the relationship between the Americans and the Japanese
with absolute success; and yet, to fail to attempt this mediation will lead to more
immediate destruction. What Fujiki’s performance does is to shift emphasis from
the correct performance of mediation to the absolute necessity for subjects to
undertake action.
The structural identification in Fujiki’s narrative of the Americans and the
Japanese with deities of sea and land, of east and west, also serves to highlight their
mutual incommensurability. This is the work of Fujiki’s performance – to recover
the content once signified by Okinawa deities and to contrast it with that signified
by the Japanese state. Rather than implying their authenticity, the equation of
Japanese and American forces with these autochthonous deities immediately
foregrounds the constructedness of their status. In the case of the Japanese state, it
also emphasizes the role of the Okinawan people in its construction. Here, Fujiki’s
image of Okinawan volunteers energetically excavating Japanese fortifications is
particularly poignant; it is Okinawan labour, Okinawan practice that has
constructed the Japanese state in Okinawan social space. While Fujiki’s narrative
shows the possibility of an everyday in which one can mediate the relationship
between humans and deities, it also shows an everyday in which the objectified
structures of society are turned against the very labourers who produced them. The
Nuchi nu Sūji 221
Japanese garrison, entrenched in Okinawa by Okinawan labour, proceeds to
mobilize these same Okinawan volunteers and lead them to their destruction.
At the same time, Fujiki’s work is not simply a nostalgic meditation. In many
of his performances we are shown a relationship between the destruction of a
traditional way of life and the production of the idea of tradition, a tradition that
becomes suffused with a sense of longing and loss. Yet we also see that the Okinawan
past has not yet been resolved to the totalizing practices of the modern Japanese
state. At the same time, Okinawa is not shown as an authentic, utopian alternative
to Japanese social organization. For Fujiki’s Okinawa is not only at odds with the
modern Japanese present, but is itself marked by inherent contradictions and
conflicts that can no longer be resolved, that have had their future progress
obstructed. The disquieting experience of these differing temporalities enabled the
cadet to recognize the contradictions in his everyday life.
And yet, the ambiguities of this recognition made it difficult to resolve his choices
to one form or another. He aspires to be a brave Japanese soldier, but he stops short
of sacrificing his own life. He admires the ambiguous militarized generosity of
the Americans, but he does not follow Lieutenant Someya’s defection. He sees the
possibility of a resolution of conflict through traditional commensal practices, but
he returns to military discipline. It is this emphasis on choice – even in the form of
failed choices or the failure to choose – that is essential to understanding Fujiki’s
project. This is what the grandfather tries to impart to his grandson on the beach
in Kerama. Individuals do not simply instantiate cultural forms, they are not merely
interpellated into social structures. It is the action of individuals that reproduces
these forms, and Fujiki’s performance demonstrates that there are points at which
the action of individuals have the capacity to transform them.
Fujiki’s careful explication of the cadet’s narrative resonates with his listeners’
understandings of their own history, their memories, their experiences of the
everyday. It opens a space to engage the contradictions that have been enacted, to
work through them in a critical manner, completing rather than sublating the
possibilities of the past. In this critical space, the possibility remains that their
potential of everyday practices can still be recovered. Fujiki’s own argument remains
open. His guests are encouraged to explore for themselves the possibilities of
traditional practices; they are not provided with traditional answers to modern
problems. Still, he is clear in the nature of his own choices. His performances are,
as I have discussed above, critical interventions. They are also, in their own right,
productive acts that transfer value – karî – to the audience, attempting to reconfigure
traditional praxis in a manner adequate to the crises of the everyday. Where once
karî enabled farmers and fishermen to persevere through the hardships of their daily
lives, it is now imparted to Fujiki’s audience so that they can struggle through life
in the modern world. In this sense, Fujiki’s performances are profoundly political,
articulating an ethical practice configured around a politics of hope, hope in the
transformative powers of the past.
222 Christopher T. Nelson
Notes
1 An earlier version of this essay appeared in Postcolonial Studies as Nelson (2001). The
editors are grateful for permission to reprint it here.
2 My thanks to Gakiya Yoshimitsu for this anecdote.
3 My analysis of these performances is based on recordings and transcriptions that I
made during my fieldwork in Okinawa from 1996 to 1998, and again in 1999. Versions
of some of Fujiki’s performances also appear in print (Fujiki 1996).
4 One-man Dialogue would be an apt translation.
5 Hotels that provide discreet space for short-term assignations. Love hotels are often
architecturally fanciful, evoking riverboats, rocket ships or Aladdin’s palace. Also
known as Fashion hotels.
6 The Lord of Nakagusuku castle during the fifteenth century. When unjustly accused of
treason, he committed suicide rather than take up arms against the king. Gosamaru is
often depicted as a paragon of loyalty and virtue in Okinawan drama and song.
7 This stream gives its name to the most popular of the melodies performed during Obon,
the Festival of the Dead (Smith 1974: 15–22), and is a metaphor for the ceaseless flow
of good fortune to the faithful (Okinawa Zentō Eisā Matsuri Jikkō Iinkai 1998: 334–5).
8 A general introduction to the spatial organization of the Okinawan household is
provided in Mabuchi (1980: 1–19). Further consideration of the situation of household
deities can be found in Akamine (1998). For a critique of Mabuchi’s work, see Ota
(1987). An interesting study of the postwar reconstruction of household space can be
found in Ogura (1995). An analysis of the symbolic construction of urban space can
be found in Teruya (1990) and Yoshikawa (1989).
9 The intellectual historian Gregory Smits discusses the work of the eighteenth-century
Ryukyuan writer Heshikiya Chō bin who viewed the night as the authentic site of
counterhegemonic practices: ‘Heshikiya . . . stress[es] the oppressive nature of the
day’s dawning. At night, out of society’s gaze, the aji [feudal lord] and the prostitute
enjoy themselves as nature intended. In the oppressive light of day, however, the aji
must sneak back to his residence’ (Smits 1999: 121).
10 Karî could be defined as happiness or good fortune.
11 A genre of performances enacted in the nā or courtyard of the Okinawan house.
12 Chondarā is the Okinawan reading of the term Kyōtarō, which refers to a young man
from the capital. In practice, Chondarā indicates a number of different kinds of
performers and performances, including itinerant practitioners who use hand-held
puppets to perform household purification rituals, local groups whose dances depict
mounted noblemen from the capital and the clowns dressed in peasant garb that
accompany eisā dancers (Ikemiya 1990: 13–20).
13 Community dances during Obon to welcome, entertain and send off the spirits of the
dead (Hori 1983: 83–139).
14 This phrase is given as Inochi no Oiwai in standard Japanese, and translated as
‘Celebration of Life’.
15 A pō pō is an Okinawan crêpe. The title could be translated as ‘A Confection of Laughter’.
16 Tomiyama quotes this excerpt (1995: 8) from a letter written by an Okinawan soldier
in the Japanese army at Bougainville to his son, originally published in Kinjō (1975:
116–17).
17 I recorded a detailed version of this myth during a visit to Kudaka in March 1997.
Slightly differing versions have also been noted (Higa 1971: 15).
References
Adorno, T. (1984) Aesthetic Theory, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Akamine, M. (1998) Shima no Miru Yume: Okinawa minzokugaku sanpo (Island Dreams: The Path
of Okinawan Folklore Studies), Naha: Bōda Inku.
Nuchi nu Sūji 223
Benjamin, W. (1988) ‘The storyteller: reflections on the works of Nikolai Leskov’, in
H. Arendt (ed.) Illuminations: Essays and Reflections, New York: Random House.
Fujiki, H. (1996) Uchinā Mōsō Kenbunroku: Fujiki Hayato no rabirinsu wārudo (A Record of Okinawan
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224 Christopher T. Nelson
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Taimususha.
13 Arakawa Akira
The thought and poetry of an
iconoclast1
Michael Molasky
Kerr’s influence, in turn, can be detected in a more recent book, George Feifer’s
Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb, which claims that ‘the majority
[of Okinawans] remain largely as they were before the battle, easygoing and
amiable’ (Feifer 1992: xiv).
If one had to choose a single public figure who most defies this stereotype of the
gentle and compliant Okinawan – in other words, of the ideal colonial subject
– Arakawa Akira would be a safe bet.2 Arakawa (b. 1931) is an original, even
iconoclastic thinker and a combative critic who relishes unbridled debate. Although
he may seem atypical to readers conditioned by English-language accounts of
Okinawans such as those above, Arakawa has been at the centre of many of the
region’s most significant cultural and intellectual developments during the past half-
century. This chapter begins with a brief introduction to Arakawa’s life and thought,
followed by a discussion of two of his early poems, both written in the mid-1950s.
This was a time of particular turmoil in Okinawa, as protests mounted against the
land seizures by American occupation authorities in their effort to expand US
military bases on the islands. Arakawa was still unknown at the time except to a small
group of Okinawan writers and intellectuals, but by the late 1960s and early 1970s
he was publishing provocative essays in leading magazines from mainland Japan,
through which he gained more widespread attention for his outspoken opposition
226 Michael Molasky
to Okinawa’s impending ‘reversion’ to Japanese prefectural status. As we will see
below, despite his iconoclastic, uncompromising and often recondite intellectual
positions, Arakawa went on to become one of the most influential voices in postwar
Okinawan thought, not only through his published social criticism but through his
institutional clout at the magazine Shin Okinawa Bungaku (New Okinawan Literature)
and especially at the Okinawa Taimusu newspaper. Arakawa’s early poetry has
received comparatively little attention from scholars, but this chapter attempts to
show how both his poetry and personal experiences inform the ‘anti-reversionist’
position for which he later became known.
In short, no matter how much they advocate ‘the Japan that should be’, as long
as the reversionists fail to philosophically overcome their Japan-oriented
nationalism, they will simply be running in circles because ‘reversion’ is rooted
in the desire to assimilate to Japan and is nothing more than the dissolving of
Arakawa Akira 229
Okinawa and Japan into an undifferentiated nation. It is nothing other than
the earnest hope on the part of Okinawans to be granted a citizenship that is
equal to, and indistinguishable from, that of the Japanese.8
(Arakawa 1990: 64–5)
The passage appearing in small print at the beginning of the poem situates the
ensuing events, thoughts and dialogues in time. It identifies the present (1955)
through reference to the battle that destroyed the island a decade earlier, explicitly
stating that ‘ten years have passed’. In addition, the perfective tense in the passage
(koko ni wa hakai dake ga ikite ita/kotogotoku no shunkan wa ‘shi’ no tame ni nomi atta) relegates
this realm of ‘death’ to the past. (The word ‘shi’ – ‘death’ – repeatedly appears in
quotation marks, perhaps in an attempt to distance it from the present.) After
relegating the world of death and destruction to the past, however, this introductory
descriptive passage concludes with an ambiguous tense marker: ‘Wisps of smoke
from explosions float through the air’ (ussura to shōen ga nagareru). Note that in contrast
to the perfective tense in the preceding lines, here a simple present tense (nagareru)
is used, which can be construed as bringing the past (embodied in the Battle of
Okinawa) into the present (where smoke from the occupation forces’ weapons
continues to float through the air).
232 Michael Molasky
In the ensuing soliloquy ‘the young man’ articulates his sense of loss, bemoaning
the absence of ‘depth’ from both the social and physical landscape. Arakawa
would later try to eliminate from his writing all traces of sentimentality or nostalgia,
but they are evident here as well as in his best-known poem, ‘I See Japan’ (Nihon ga
mieru), published in 1960.12 The standard, allegorical reading of ‘An Orphan’s
Song’ identifies Okinawa itself as the eponymous ‘orphan’, abandoned at the war’s
end by the motherland, Japan. Yet Arakawa’s attempt to articulate the young man’s
sense of loss through a language of lyricism – one that occasionally borders on
romanticism – hints at private, personal emotions as well and calls for a more
probing interpretation worthy of the poem’s heterogeneity.
Indeed it is the coexistence of seemingly contradictory modes of expression that
should make ‘An Orphan’s Song’ of special interest to students of Arakawa’s later
essays on reversion, nationalism and the emperor system. While Arakawa would
eventually become one of Okinawa’s best known and most articulate opponents of
reversion, he was strongly committed to the cause during the mid-1950s, partly as
a way to resist the American occupation. Clearly, this poem exudes a longing for
‘the motherland’. But longing is always a complex emotion, not least of all for
Arakawa, who was raised on a remote Okinawan island by a Japanese mother and
by an Okinawan father who died when Akira was still a young boy. Given his
personal background, the very notion of ‘motherland’ (bokoku) or ‘ancestral land’
(sokoku) invariably assumes a contradictory meaning for Arakawa, and it is no
surprise that these conflicts find their way into the language of his poetry. These two
Japanese terms are usually understood as being synonymous. Yet for Arakawa bokoku
would, literally speaking, signify ‘Japan’ (since ‘bo’ is written with the character for
‘mother’) while sokoku (understood in the conventional patriarchal sense of ‘ancestral
land’) would signify ‘Okinawa’ or ‘the Ryukyus’.
In the poetic text, the resulting ambivalence is manifested through the different,
sometimes conflicting modes of representation. First, there are the different voices
and typefaces that make for the multi-layered structure of ‘An Orphan’s Song’.
Less apparent are the different poetic ‘languages’ that vie with one another in the
poem. For many readers, these conflicting elements may detract from the poem’s
aesthetic cohesiveness, but the resulting stylistic heterogeneity offers a glimpse of the
poet’s own intense, unresolved conflicts. This results, I wish to argue, in poetry that
is tempting to read as simple ‘national allegory’ (in the sense proposed by Frederic
Jameson) but that, on closer scrutiny, comprises not a facile conflation of the public
and private, the poetic and political, nor a subordination of the former to the latter,
but rather an uneasy, unresolved coexistence between the two.13
‘An Orphan’s Song’ ends with the passage below, in which the young man’s voice
joins that of the chorus, followed (as in the opening passage) by a separate stanza,
set off by indentation and a semi-omniscient voice:
The few published discussions of ‘An Orphan’s Song’ have focused on the poem’s
spirit of resistance as manifested in the couplet that appears in bold print toward
the poem’s end:
‘No’ – to all forms of oppression! [non – issai no appaku ni tai suru kotae]
‘No’ – to all sources of power! [non – issai no kenryoku ni tai suru kyoji]14
In their comments on the poem, Kano Masanao and Takara Ben focus on the above
couplet, for it seems to embody the blunt and direct nature of Arakawa’s poetry.
Takara also quotes the preceding lines, ‘Why is our land disappearing?’ (which
clearly refers to the land seizures of the mid-1950s), and ‘Why are our minds
crammed with lies?’ (which presumably refers to propaganda systematically aimed
at Okinawans by the American occupation government). Given the sheer force and
bludgeoning directness of these political facets of Arakawa’s early poetry, Kano,
Takara, and others can be forgiven for treating ‘An Orphan’s Song’ as little more
than an allegorical example of the ‘resistance literature’ or ‘socialist realism’ to
which the student writers at Ryūdai Bungaku aspired.
Yet ‘An Orphan’s Song’ is not merely a political statement but a poem. The
results may appear amateurish (in part, no doubt, because of this translator’s own
limitations), but the work also contains formalistic elements that are clearly intended
to seem ‘poetic’ (in the neo-modernist mould of contemporary Japanese free verse).
The poetic character of ‘An Orphan’s Song’ begins with the intricate and varied
visual arrangement of the lines on the page: the careful and unconventional use of
indentation, of several different typefaces, and the relative eschewal of punctuation
typical of contemporary Japanese poetry. Arakawa employs parallelism and
repetition, especially in the semi-omniscient descriptive passages, while avoiding
the strict prosodic constraints of traditional Japanese or Ryukyuan poetic forms. He
attempts, albeit with limited success, to ‘defamiliarize’ language and to devise fresh
expressions that challenge the imagination (i.e. to ‘look at the smell’ of the wind).
Finally, and perhaps most striking because of its very incongruity with those passages
frequently cited by scholars, is the poem’s lyricism – beginning with the title itself.
Lyricism is especially evident in those descriptive passages interspersed in small
print throughout the poem. Significantly, these passages are rarely discussed by
commentators on Arakawa’s poetry. But as the saying goes, one must ‘read the
fine print’. After all, the opening and final lines of ‘An Orphan’s Song’ appear in
234 Michael Molasky
fine print and thereby frame the poem as a whole. They not only provide structural
symmetry and closure but infuse the poem with a sense of rhythm, which is further
maintained through the abovementioned use of parallelism and repetition, espe-
cially in the descriptive passages. Perhaps most unusual in this poem is Arakawa’s
attempt to incorporate elements of dramatic forms into a free-verse poem. The use
of ‘The Chorus’, for example, is evocative of Noh drama or a Greek chorus (although
it is unclear whether Arakawa intended this), and the placement in bold print of each
speaker’s name before his or her ‘spoken lines’ recalls the format conventionally used
in dramatic texts.
By drawing attention to these formalistic elements, I do not wish to imply that
Arakawa is necessarily a subtle or accomplished poet (a difficult argument to make);
I simply wish to emphasize that ‘An Orphan’s Song’ is more than an unabashed
critique of the American occupiers or a naive attempt to ‘reflect’ contemporary
social issues through literature. It is also an ambitious, if flawed, experiment with
the language(s) of poetic form. It further reveals an ambivalence toward Japan that
Arakawa strove to expunge from his subsequent thought and published criticism.
A similar ambivalence can be detected in a poem Arakawa published in Ryūdai
Bungaku the following year, ‘The Coloured Race’. Of course, the US occupation
censors were less interested in Arakawa’s poetic aspirations or personal ambivalence
than in the ‘content’ of his message, based on a facile reading of his work. In the case
of ‘An Orphan’s Song’, the message appears to have threatened the Americans
enough to prompt them to recall that particular issue of Ryūdai Bungaku. ‘The
Coloured Race’ evoked an even stronger response, perhaps because it was published
just as a protest movement against the American occupation forces was gaining
steam. The movement, known as the shimagurumi tōsō (the struggle linking the
islands), involved a broad coalition of Okinawans opposed to the seizure of private
land by the occupation forces. Not surprisingly, Arakawa, his cohorts and many of
their successors who edited Ryūdai Bungaku were actively involved.15
When the opening lines describe ‘our skin’ as the rugged product of a distinctly
tropical landscape, it seems to assert a difference not only from the racial
appellation ‘yellow’, but also from the Japanese to the north. Are we to interpret
the call for unity between black and yellow as including the Japanese? If so, what
does this imply about Okinawa’s wartime relationship to Japan? The Japanese,
after all, were allies of Hitler and Mussolini, who are singled out in the poem
to mock white presumptions of racial superiority. If Okinawans are seen as not
having contributed to Japan’s war effort, does the poem then imply that the
relationship between Japanese and Okinawans mirrors that between white and
black Americans – in other words, as peoples subjugated within their own
society and conscripted to fight for the forces that oppress them? Finally, ‘The
Colored Race’ describes the skin of both Okinawans and African-Americans
in shades of brown. Does this imply that Okinawans can claim a greater affinity
with blacks than can Japanese? Are there, in other words, different shades
of yellow?
(Molasky 1999: 98–9)
Considered together with ‘An Orphan’s Song’, these questions hint at Arakawa’s
ambivalence during the 1950s about Okinawa’s proper relationship to Japan.
‘The Coloured Race’ is a spirited protest poem that clearly disturbed the
American authorities, and it was the sharp response of occupation censors that
confirmed the claims of Arakawa and his cohorts that ‘political literature’ can indeed
exert an impact on contemporary society. This poem is also significant for being
among the first public attempts to discuss the occupation in terms of racism,
explicitly linking racial discrimination within American society to that directed at
Okinawa’s occupied populace. As noted earlier, Arakawa was a strong advocate of
reversion during the 1950s. In fact, to many Okinawans at the time, reversion
seemed the most natural and desirable alternative to American occupation. Yet this
poem’s call for a coalition based on skin colour that overrides national affiliations
anticipates Arakawa’s vehement opposition to nationalism – and to the nation-state
itself – which would later form the core of his most important ideas. Arakawa would
Arakawa Akira 237
not fully develop these ideas until the 1970s, but the seeds of his later thought can
be detected in the ambivalence that permeates his early poetry.
Whether assuming the role of poet, social critic or journalist, Arakawa has
remained an iconoclast throughout his career. Uncompromising when asserting
his ideas, tenacious when defending his ideals, Arakawa Akira stands as the antithesis
of the stereotypical ‘gentle and compliant’ Okinawan. Although Arakawa’s poetry
has been largely forgotten (and even when discussed, its lyricism is typically
overlooked), his incisive and outspoken opposition to reversion in the early 1970s
continues to inform contemporary debates about Okinawan autonomy. Today,
several years into his ‘retirement’, Arakawa continues to write with the searing
intensity that first brought him to the attention of both American censors and fellow
poets nearly a half-century ago.
Notes
1 Research for this chapter was made possible through the generosity of a Fulbright
Senior Scholar Research Grant.
2 I do not wish to suggest that Arakawa is an unpleasant or mean-spirited person; on the
contrary, my own limited contact with him indicates that he is perfectly friendly. Some
have hinted that he has mellowed in his later years, but a quick perusal of his recent
essays (contained in his latest book, Okinawa: Tōgō to Hangyaku, Arakawa 2000) attests
that, at least when it comes to writing, Arakawa still wields the fiery rhetoric that first
brought him to the attention of his contemporaries.
3 In his many publications, Arakawa rarely mentions his childhood, but he does touch
on it briefly in a 1985 published dialogue with historian and social activist, Arasaki
Moriteru (Arakawa and Arasaki 1985), especially pp. 48–9.
4 Among his co-editors at the magazine were Kawamitsu Shinichi and Okamoto
Keitoku, both of whom would become lifelong cohorts as well as distinguished thinkers
and writers. Kawamitsu worked closely with Arakawa throughout his career. He, too,
published poetry (and in fact is, arguably, the more talented poet), wrote social
criticism that garnered respect of influential mainland Japanese intellectuals and rose
through the ranks of the Okinawa Taimusu together with Arakawa. Okamoto went on to
become a leading scholar and critic of modern Okinawan literature and a professor at
the University of the Ryukyus until retiring in the late 1990s, when he moved to
Okinawa University.
5 The most dramatic accident occurred on 5 February 1968 when a US airforce B-52
bomber exploded shortly after take-off from Kadena airbase in Koza. Arakawa
provides a succinct summary of the turbulent years of 1968–71 in Arakawa (2000:
120–2). For a more thorough historical overview of key events in postwar Okinawan
history through the early aftermath of reversion, see Nakano and Arasaki (1990
[1976]); and Arasaki (1976). On the Koza riots, see Chapter 9 by Christopher Aldous
in the present volume.
6 Several of Arakawa’s key anti-reversion essays are collected in his book, Han Kokka no
Kyōku, which was reissued in an expanded version in 1996. The best guides to his
critical writings are his recent memoir (Arakawa 2000), Oguma Eiji (1998), Kano
Masanao (1987) and Natomi Kaori (1997).
7 In the original text the quotation reads, ‘Okinawa ga hondo e fukki suru no dewa naku,
Okinawa to hondo ga dōji ni “arubeki Nihon” e fukki suru no de nakerebanaranai’. Quoted in
Arakawa (1990: 64).
8 All translations in this chapter are my own.
9 Although Arakawa has insisted that it was Kawamitsu and not himself who was
238 Michael Molasky
particularly engrossed in Yoshimoto’s ideas around the time of reversion, Arakawa
does appear to be indebted to the rhetoric as well as the ideas contained in ‘The logic
of ethnic difference’. Yoshimoto stresses the value of Okinawa/Ryukyu as the preserve
of a pre-Yamato culture. He claims that Ryukyuan culture dates back to the Jomon
period or even earlier, and he seeks to overturn the primacy of ‘the Japanese imperial
state’ which, he argues, emerged with the rice cultivating society of the Yayoi period.
At this time, according to Yoshimoto, the Yamato conquered the surrounding peoples
and unified them into a tribal, agrarian state with an emperor at the head. His central
point and one that Arakawa invokes throughout his own essay is that the Ryukyu
Islands contain, by virtue of their very existence and history, the potential to ‘relativize’
(sōtaika suru) Japan’s dominant historical narrative, a narrative that locates the Yamato
kingship at the centre of the emergent tribal state. See Yoshimoto (1969).
10 Arakawa does, it should be noted, criticize Yoshimoto for his disparaging assessment of
the Omoro sōshi, the collection of classical Ryukyuan poetry that Okinawans are fond of
comparing to Japan’s Manyōshū. See Arakawa (1974: 23–4).
11 The most thorough study of Ryūdai Bungaku, chapter 2 of Kano Masanao’s book, Sengo
Okinawa no Shisō-zō (A Portrait of Postwar Okinawan Thought), reprints part of these
poems and offers a critical history of the magazine (Kano 1987: 113–60). Regarding
the censorship of Arakawa’s work, there is no hard evidence that Arakawa’s poems
alone prompted occupation authorities to single out those issues of the magazine, but
it seems a safe assumption. See Arakawa (2000: 161–2). On Ryūdai Bungaku see Ōe
(1981: 29–33), Takara (1991: 374–7), Okamoto (1981a: 113–26), Okamoto (1981b:
57–61).
12 Although the complete text of ‘The Coloured Race’ has never, to my knowledge, been
reprinted after first appearing in Ryūdai Bungaku, both ‘An Orphan’s Song’ and ‘I See
Japan’ appear in Volume 2 of Okinawa Bungaku Zenshū.
13 I have discussed Jameson’s theory of national allegory in specific reference to occupied
Okinawa in Molasky (1999: 43–4).
14 The term ‘non’ is Arakawa’s katakana gloss for the character ‘hi’ (as in ‘hitei suru’ – ‘to
reject’ or ‘to refute’). Kano Masanao takes this word for the title of his chapter on
Ryūdai Bungaku in his study of postwar Okinawan thought. He uses the above couplet as
an epigraph to that chapter and cites it again in his brief discussion of the poem later in
the chapter (Kano 1987: 113, 145). Poet Takara Ben, in his commentary on the poem
in Okinawa Bungaku Zenshū 2 (Complete Works of Okinawan Literature, Vol. 2), also cites this
final passage, although his citation continues through the line, ‘Covering the entire
surface of this land’ (Takara 1991: 374).
15 For a discussion of the shimagurumi tōsō in English and its relation to Ryūdai Bungaku, see
Molasky (1999: 93–4). In Japanese, see Arakawa’s own account (Arakawa 2000:
158–62).
16 A complete translation of the first poem and fuller translations of the others, together
with a more detailed analysis and footnotes, can be found in Molasky (1999: 96–101).
17 ‘Honest John’ was a mobile surface-to-surface artillery rocket capable of carrying both
chemical and nuclear warheads.
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242–50.
14 Conclusion
Both structure and subjectivity
Glenn D. Hook and Richard Siddle
What, after all, does a combined focus on structure and subjectivity tell us about
Okinawa, not evident in an approach limited to just one or the other? While
integrating the two parts of this book into one is not the purpose of this Conclusion,
we do wish to draw attention to how the complex relationship between the two
continues to be forged in global, regional and national structures where Okinawan
subjectivity remains contested. So even though the structures of constraint and the
opportunities of agency are historically contingent, one consistent message these
pages convey is of a modern Okinawa whose people have been tossed, buffeted and
turned by the stormy winds of global, regional and national transformations, making
the charting of their own course and the creation of their own identity fraught with
difficulty. Okinawa was stamped with the chrysanthemum emblem during the
prewar period, girded with steel by the men and machines of the US military in
the early postwar period, and concreted with the largesse of the ‘construction state’
ever since reversion in 1972. Only brief economic respite has been provided for
Okinawa in recent years by flocks of Japanese tourists heading for the ‘tropical
island paradise’.
Political and economic subordination have historically been paralleled by
powerful ideological and discursive formations within which ‘Okinawans’ were
produced as subjects; discourses, for instance, of modernity, progress and building
the nation ‘Japan’. For many Okinawans, in the past as now, acceptance and
rationalization of their dependency has made them collaborators in their own
subordination. This is one side of the coin, not to be denied, that underlines the
importance of dealing with both structure and subjectivity in the same volume. It
is not the total picture, however. For the people of these islands have sustained and,
indeed, developed a multitude of vibrant cultural practices that breathe continuing
life into the meaning of being Okinawan and inform their social and political
responses to these constraints. Okinawans retain the capacity as agents to carve out
a life and inscribe their cultural practices, despite bearing the costs as well as reaping
the benefits of their precarious place in the structure and consciousness of the
Japanese state, the region and the world.
The intertwining of structure and subjectivity raises uncomfortable issues of cost
and benefit, complicity and struggle. Not to consider them is to fail to do justice to
the complexity of Okinawa, in both the modern and contemporary eras. While
Conclusion 241
nobody can gainsay the indelible imprint left by the US military bases on the islands,
as if the land has been scarred by the gigantic boots of America’s military might,
rents and other material benefits feed Okinawan families. The ‘construction state’
subordinates Okinawa within a structure of public works dependency, but this
structure offers life chances to the many Okinawans who rely on employment in the
small, medium and occasionally large firms contracted to cement over land and
waterways. These external and internal forms of dependency not only undergird
the life of the people, enabling them to sustain a material life much better than in
other parts of East Asia, if not in mainland Japan, but also generate many of the
impulses at the core of their cultural identity, whether manifest in popular protest
or in the pursuit of a range of cultural activities. It is the complex interplay between
these external and internal forces which calls for the use of a wide range of analytical
tools to deepen our understanding of both structure and subjectivity in Okinawa.
Thus, many of these chapters provide deep insight into the complex, overlapping
and entangled ways in which Okinawans have refused and resisted these impositions,
or accepted and complied with them on their own terms. They highlight in particular
the diverse ways in which Okinawans, as subjective agents, participate in making their
own reality and in charting their own destiny, taking advantage of the contradictory
opportunities inherent in the structural constraints upon their lives. From the
hardened campaigners of the anti-war landowners through to the ordinary
Okinawans who vented their anger or voiced their concern through the protests and
plebiscites of the late 1990s, from the intellectual guardians of Okinawa’s conscience
to the local performers making and shaping popular culture, the vitality of Okinawan
men and women in the face of injustice and adversity shines through the structures
encrusting them at the specific historical juncture of their actions. To understand
contemporary Okinawa these voices must be heard.
For those viewing Okinawa from the outside, this subjectivity is often hidden,
buried beneath the structure of subordination within the Japanese state. It surfaces
most saliently as a ‘problem’, when agency is given voice in a process of contestation
within the structure of the Japanese state. Yet history reveals that Okinawa becomes
a ‘problem’ precisely when the Japanese state itself is undergoing a period of
transition, as at the moment. Faced with the end of the certainties of Cold War
international politics, reproduced on the domestic political landscape in the long
stand-off between the conservative and progressive forces, the leaders of Japan are
struggling to find an answer to the question Okinawans themselves repeatedly
ask – what is our destiny? The latest manifestation of the ‘Okinawa problem’ for the
mainland’s policy-making elite is a symptom of the contradictions inherent in
the continuation of Cold War politics in a post-Cold War world; Okinawa remains
divided, between the bases and itself, between the Japanese state and the Okinawan
people, and between the past and the future. In the contemporary era, the US
military presence on the islands remains as the clearest manifestation of the
continuity of Cold War structures in Okinawa, despite the changes in the world
the term ‘post-Cold War’ signifies. For those political forces in favour of their
continued presence, this calls for renewed efforts to make the bases an acceptable
part of Okinawan life.
242 Glenn D. Hook and Richard Siddle
All of the chapters touch, in one way or another, on the presence of the US
military bases as a ‘problem’ for Okinawa and the Okinawans, not as a ‘problem’
for those seeking to legitimize their continued existence, even if downsized, located
on coral reefs off the coast, or filled with soldiers other than the marines. The
existence of the bases is clearly the central political problem facing Okinawans
today, or at least those of the main island, and the issue that has sparked the recent
boom in the study of Okinawa, including this volume. But it is important not to let
this focus obscure other aspects of Okinawa that deserve scholarly attention.
Okinawa is more than just a base issue; through the case studies collected here we
are able to gain insights into the interplay between politics and identity, the nature
of the Japanese state, the dynamics of regionalism and globalization, and, not least,
the analytical tools we deploy to understand them. Thus, while focused on the
geographically inscribed space ‘Okinawa’, the chapters in this volume are much
more than just case studies of marginal relevance to the study of Japan, or, more
widely, the social sciences in general. They resonate with wider concerns that look
likely to shape the new century in fundamental ways.
September 11
The end of the global Cold War removed the pillars of legitimacy built at the time
of the signing of the US–Japan Security Treaty in 1951 and used ever since to
support the US–Japan security alliance. In the wake of the Cold War’s ending the
Okinawan bases appeared as an explosive legacy, a soon-to-emerge ‘problem’, not
as an essential bastion for the protection of the Japanese people from the Soviet
threat and wider communist forces. The tension erupted in 1995 in the wave of
protests following the rape of a schoolgirl. The Taepodong missile crisis was used
to prop up the wobbly edifice in 1998, but the threat of a North Korean attack on
Japan seemed a long way away given the combined military strength of the US and
South Korea. Other threats, as with the intrusion into Japanese waters of ‘mysterious
spy ships’, presumably from North Korea, continued to heighten the popular sense
of Japanese vulnerability at the beginning of the new century, but the difficulty
North Korea faces in maintaining a ready military as it struggles to feed its own
population did not seem to offer the same prop of legitimacy to the Okinawan bases
as the presence of Soviet forces in the seas around Japan provided during the Cold
War. In a fundamental way, the normative framework of understanding deployed
to legitimize the US–Japan alliance was for a time tottering, if not entirely in danger
of collapse.
The events of 11 September 2001 have profoundly altered the way the military
bases in Okinawa are now seen. While the US use of Okinawan bases in the ‘war
against terror’ illustrates the global reach of what, in the perspective of conventional
Western academic work, often appear as obscure, marginal islands in the far-flung
corners of East Asia, the need to combat terror in its manifest forms offers new
ammunition for those fighting to keep the bases. As elsewhere in the world in the
wake of this catastrophe, the ‘war against terror’ serves as a means to legitimize
the ongoing US military presence and to impose restrictions on the actions of
Conclusion 243
citizenry opposed to a military solution to human problems. In Okinawa, more
than anywhere else in Japan, the attachment to Article 9 of the 1947 constitution
and the appeal of Japan as a peace state remain strong. This is precisely because ever
since the US occupied, and the central government supported, the separation of
Okinawa from the mainland as part of the postwar settlement, Okinawa has been
the ‘war prefecture’ in Japan as Japan has been the ‘peace state’ in the world. Its
people, as fervent supporters of the constitution, are at times quite prepared to
mount a challenge to the means for war-making in the prefecture, as the develop-
ment of the anti-base and wider peace movements illustrate, but they are also
committed to building the defences of peace ‘in the minds of men’, as seen in the
preservation of memory through the peace museum exhibits. The gap between a
focus on peace and the constitution in Okinawa and interpreting the constitution
in a way to support the US militarily on the mainland was starkly revealed after the
September 11 terrorist attacks.
Thus, in order to support the US in the war against terror, the Koizumi
government has come closer than any previous government in moving the SDF
towards participating in collective self-defence, despite Article 9 of the constitution
being interpreted as prohibiting anything but self-defence. The Anti-Terrorism
Special Measures Bill, which passed the Diet in November 2001, permits the SDF
to take part in military operations, so long as these are restricted to non-combat
zones; conduct fuel and supply operations; transport by sea, but not over land,
supplies of weapons and ammunition; offer medical help to wounded combatants;
and, finally, help refugees of the conflict. The decision to provide logistical support
for the US war in Afghanistan following the bill’s passage marked the first time the
SDF have been despatched overseas during hostilities. The government views this
action as part of Japan’s ‘international contribution’. However, given that the US
has legitimized its military actions based on the general right of self-defence, rather
than on any specific UN security council resolution, Japan’s support can be seen in
essence as backing US unilateral, not international, action; as President George W.
Bush said in his September 2001 address to Congress ‘either you are with us, or you
are with the terrorists’. In this sense, the Koizumi government is clearly with the
Americans, but this support of the US’s action can be seen more pertinently as part
of a longer term trend of Japan fulfilling greater military obligations under the
US–Japan alliance system.
The implications for Okinawa are still hard to identify. While many in Okinawa
support the US’s response to the terrorist attacks, many others see the closer military
links now developing between Japan and the US as symbolic of the continuing
vulnerability of Okinawa in the face of decisions made by Washington and Tokyo.
Although in theory the Japanese government could refuse the US use of Okinawan
bases, the Okinawans have no control whatsoever over how they are used. With
Japan’s closer identification with US military goals as seen in the war against
terrorism, not only are US bases in Okinawa playing a crucial role in the fighting
in Afghanistan, but they may also be called upon to play a wider role over the
coming years. Thus, with North Korea seen as part of President Bush’s ‘axis of evil’,
the possibility for US bases in Okinawa being put to use in an expanded war against
244 Glenn D. Hook and Richard Siddle
terrorism, whether in North Korea, Iraq or further afield, cannot be ruled out. If
the bases are to function in this way, then the tension between Japan as a peace state
and Okinawa as a war prefecture is bound to mount, with popular demands for the
costs of the bases located in Okinawa to be shared more equally throughout Japan,
if not for the bases to be completely removed. It seems likely, given the ongoing
threat from terrorism, that Okinawa will re-emerge as a ‘problem’ for both the
Japanese and US governments at some point in the future.
The terrorist attacks have also laid bare the continuing dependency, fragility and
underlying vulnerability of the Okinawan economy. Ironically, Okinawa is perhaps
now even more dependent on the US and the largesse of the state since tourism has
collapsed in the wake of fears that, in the present climate, these very military bases
may become the target of terrorist attacks. Whether this is only a temporary
phenomenon or not, the unwilling incorporation of Okinawa into a larger world
order continues to provide a bleak outlook for the aspirations of ordinary Okinawans
for peaceful and prosperous lives. Whatever the hopes for the future, the terrorist
attacks have starkly revealed that, despite the costs to the environment, tourism
offered a modicum of hope to reduce the economy’s dependency on the central
government, but even this is clearly subject to the existence of the bases being viewed
as an income-generating benefit, or at worst an environmental and human hazard,
not the potential target for terrorists. In this way, while the need for specific types
of deployments in Okinawa may change, with perhaps a reduced role for the
marines, the military cooperation offered by Japan, the build up in the US defence
budget and the possible extension of the war against terrorism beyond Afghanistan
points to the continuing vulnerability of Okinawa in the post-September 11 world.
It is such vulnerability, more than anything else, that highlights the way the world,
the region and Japan impinge on the peace and security of Okinawa and its people.
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Index
uchinānchu identity 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, Yaeyama and Shiraho Ocean Protection
142–6 Group 177
Uema Kyōko 141 Yaeyama islands 12, 28
Uemura Hideaki 137 Yaeyama Peace Memorial Museum 190,
Ui Jun 106 196
UN Declaration on the Rights of Yanaihara Tadao 136
Indigenous Peoples 139, 140 Yara Chōbyō 95, 152, 157, 159, 160, 175
UN International Decade of Indigenous Yellow Sea Economic Zone 50, 52
Peoples 140 yen exchange rate 44
UN Women’s Conference, (1995) Yokosuka Naval base 63
(Takazato) 180 Yokota Air Force Base, Tokyo 63
UN Working Group on Indigenous Yomitan village 107
Populations 140, 144 Yonemori Yūji 177
Unai Festival 180 Yoshida Doctrine 59
unemployment rate 4, 8, 43–5 Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister 191
Unger, High Commissioner 152 Yoshimoro Takaaki: ‘Izoku no ronri’ 229
United States and Japan, The 56–7 youth unemployment 8, 43