Experimental Investigation of The Reacting Flow Field of a Radial-Radial Swirler Using

Particle Image Velocimetry

Abstract

For usage in power generation gas turbines, a pressure swirl injector was developed with the goal of generating
stable lean flames and optimizing the air fuel mixing process. To introduce the fuel to the system, the injector
used a radial-radial swirler with a unique porous tube injection approach. By expanding the contact area
between air and fuel, the porous tube was employed to improve fuel air mixing and fuel atomization. At
atmospheric pressure and in an unconfined environment, the flame structure was explored experimentally. The
pressure drop across the injector was kept at 4% relative to the ambient pressure, and natural gas was
employed as the fuel. The air preheat temperature was varied between 505 K (450°F) and 616 K (650°F). The
equivalence ratio of the flame was varied from the lean blow out limit (LBO) to just over the stoichiometric
ratio. Based on experimental trials, the lean blowout limit of the flame for various air preheat temperatures was
found out and plotted on a graph to study its variation across various conditions. The reacting flow field of the
turbulent natural gas flame from the injector was captured studied using a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
system. The velocity vector field images across various air preheat temperatures and equivalence ratios were
studied and compared. The PIV data was extracted and contour maps for the component velocities were plotted
and compared.

Keywords: Radial swirler; Equivalence ratio; LIBS; PIV; Lean flame

K Kelvin LDI Lean Direct Injection

° Degree μm Micrometer
F Farenheit SMD Sauter Mean Diameter
LBO Lean Burnout Limit T3 Air Preheat Temperature
PIV Particle Image Velocimetry CRZ Central Recirculation Zone
NOX Oxides of Nitrogen Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
ppm Parts Per Million FBS Fluidized Bed Seeder
C3H8 Propane nm Nanometer
Rms Root mean square mJ Millijoule
RQL Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn µs Microsecond
UHC Unburnt Hydrocarbon CCD Charge Coupled Device
CO Carbon Monoxide Φ Equivalence Ratio
LPM Lean Premixed
1. INTRODUCTION
Governments and regulatory authorities around the world have been working to reduce emissions from fossil
fuel combustion. Over the years, the emission limits have been lowered progressively. To meet the emission
standards while also improving upon the engine efficiency and power output, gas turbine manufacturers have
come up with different strategies over the years. Upon the introduction of NOX standards in the 1970s,
manufacturers came up with the strategy of injecting water in the combustion chamber to the concentration of
a few ppm [1]. As emission standards were lowered further, the water injection method was no longer feasible
without adversely affecting the life of parts. Hence, manufacturers came up with the Rich-Burn, Quick Mix,
Lean-Burn (RQL) combustor design to reduce emissions [2]. The RQL design of combustors consisted of three
zones, indicated by the three alphabets in the abbreviation. In RQL combustors, the fuel-air mixture is burnt at
a very rich equivalence ratio at the entrance of the combustor. Burning at a very rich equivalence ratio helps in
the stabilization of the flame due to production of hydrogen and hydrocarbon radicals and also prevent the
formation of NOX due to the low temperature and low concentration of oxygen containing radicals in the
mixture.

The products of this combustion contain high concentrations of partially oxidized hydrocarbon and hydrogen
species. These are hence the addition of large quantities of air to the mixture help provide oxygen complete the
reaction. Towards the end of the combustor length, the mixture is diluted further and leading to combustion at
a very lean equivalence ratio. The RQL design worked very well to meet emission standards of its time, lowering
NOX, unburnt hydrocarbon (UHCs) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions while on delivering performance.
With increasingly stringent norms, the RQL design fell short in lowering emissions NOX due to the presence of
the rich combustion zone. The rich combustion zone at the beginning of the combustor when diluted, leads to
the creation stoichiometric mixture pockets of high temperature which in turn led to the formation of thermal
NOX. It has been well studied that NOX

formation is dependent on the combustion temperature and residence time of the species in the combustor.
Hence, new generation combustor designs have sought to lower the combustion temperature by burning lean
while also reducing the length of the combustor to reduce the residence time [3]. The Lean Premixed (LPM)
combustor design emerged to overcome the shortcomings of the RQL design. As the name suggests, the fuel air
mixture is premixed before being burnt at an extremely lean equivalence ratio [8]. LPM combustors are
typically designed to operate close to the LBO limit, with the flame temperature lying between a narrow band
of 1700 K and 1900 K [4]. While the LPM combustor design has been very successful in lowering NOX emissions
and improving combustion efficiency, concerns of flashback and autoignition remain [5]. Also, the LPM
combustor design is prone to acoustic instabilities [5].

In recent years, one of the most promising solutions to overcome these issues has been the Lean Direct Injection
(LDI) combustor design. In the LDI combustor, the fuel and air are directly injected into the combustion
chamber, rapidly mixing both together. By injecting the fuel directly into the combustion chamber, the
possibility of flashback and autoignition is reduced. Mixing the fuel and air in the combustor at a rapid rate is
expected to reduce high temperature pocket formation and contribute to a more even temperature profile.
Studies have shown that the LDI combustor can match the low NOX performance of LPM combustors [5]. As the
fuel is directly injected into the combustor while simultaneously being mixed with air, fuel atomization
becomes a key factor in the performance of an LDI system. In this body of work, to maximize fuel atomization,
the fuel is introduced through a porous tube injector. The injector was manufactured using additive
manufacturing and it has a porosity of 7 μm [3].

Using multiple holes and porous injectors to inject fuel into a combustion system have been explored by Zhang
et al. and Reijders et al. [6] [7]. They observed much better fuel atomization and a more even distribution of the
Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of the fuel particles in their work. This method of fuel injection was seen to be
promising and hence incorporated in this research.
2. EXPERIMENTAL TEST SETUP
The experimental tests in this work were carried out at the Combustion and Fire Research Laboratory (CFRL)
at the University of Cincinnati. The injector was mounted on a vertical flame test rig with the flame being
studied at atmospheric pressure in an unconfined manner. The setup had an inline air heater to preheat the
incoming air to the injector. The preheat temperature (T3) of the incoming air was varied between 505 K and
616 K.

2.1. Injector Setup and Design

The injector used in this body of work, PAL-2, had been designed by Li et al. [3]. The injector was made of
stainless-steel using metal additive manufacturing. It consisted of a radial-radial swirler with the fuel being
introduced in the system via a porous tube system. The porous tube had a porosity of 0.7μm. Cold flow
measurements conducted by Li et al. on Pal-2 showed the presence of a central recirculation zone (CRZ). This
CRZ played an important role in anchoring the flame and preventing flame extinction. Views of the injector are
shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. Cross Sectional View of PAL-2 [3]

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Cross-sectional View of the Injector (a) and Isometric View of the Injector

2.2 Particle Image Velocimetry

A PIV system was used to the study the reacting flow field aerodynamics of the flame. A schematic diagram of
the experimental setup of the PIV system is shown in Figure 3. The PIV system used was a 2D system,
manufactured by LaVision. The PIV system used Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) as seeding particles to trace the path
of the fluid flow. The seeding particles were injected into the system using a fluidized bed seeder (FBS). The
FBS was connected to the airline, downstream of the heater. In this manner, a continuous flow of seeding
particles to the injector was ensured. The flow system was illuminated using a double pulsed Solo 120XT
(Nd:YAG) laser with the light wavelength being 532nm. The laser beam power was calibrated to 48mJ per pulse
with the time interval between 2 pulses being 5 µs. The laser pulse output was in the form of a sheet, that was
accomplished using a system of cylindrical lenses. This sheet of laser was aligned perpendicularly to the axis of
the camera while passing through the diametric axis of the fuel injector. This enabled the PIV system to capture
the entire cross section of the flame. A charge coupled device (CCD) camera, manufactured by LaVision was
used to capture images of the flame, illuminated by the laser. Davis 8 software was used to synchronize the
camera and laser. A manual shutter was installed to the camera and synchronized to the system using Davis 8.
For each case, 200 images over 120 seconds were captured and post processed using the proprietary software.
A Gaussian process filter was used to smoothen the images and remove background noise in the images. The
post processed images were obtained by averaging the 200 images taken for each case. A schematic explanation
of the PIV system is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup

Figure 4. Schematic Working of a PIV System [9]

 The PIV laser plane was adjusted to pass across the diameter of the injector exit. In this
configuration, the planar laser would be able to capture the entire cross section of the flame structure
in one plane. As shown in Figure 4, the blue line has been used to roughly retrace the path of the laser
that was used to study the flow field.

Figure 4 Top View of Injector with the Blue Line Indicating Path of PIV Laser
Figure 5 depicts the rough locations of the 3 radial axes along which the data was extracted.
The extracted data was post processed using excel and the variation in velocity for different
equivalence ratios for different temperatures (505 K, 561 K and 616 K) along each radial axis was
plotted. Apart from reacting flow, the same process of data collection and post processing along the
3 axes was done for non-reacting flow as well.

Figure 5 Approximate Location (Not to Scale) of Axes Along Which Data was Extracted
2.3 The Schlieren System

The Schlieren method is used in this analysis as seen in Figure 6. The Z-configuration was chosen due to space
constraints within the test cell. The setup consisted of a light source, 2 parabolic mirrors, a knife edge and a
Phantom V641 high speed camera. The 2 mirrors at the same height, were placed at an equal distance from
airbox, obliquely facing each other. The light source was positioned such that the light incident on the mirror
was at an acute angle to the normal of mirror. Finally, a knife edge was placed exactly at the focus of the second
parabolic mirror to provide the cutoff effect and the camera was placed behind the knife edge in the path of the
light. The source of illumination for the system was a 150W Xenon Arc lamp manufactured and sold by Aerolab.
The light source came with a 4-way adjustable manual rectangular aperture in front of the lens. The aperture
was fine-tuned manually to achieve a point source of light. The light source was mounted on a heavy-duty tripod
and placed at focal point of the first mirror. This resulted in the light reflected from the first mirror becoming
a parallel beam of light. Manufactured by Aerolab, the parabolic mirrors had a diameter of 25cm (10”) each and a
focal length of 200cm (80”). The mirrors were chosen based on the dimensions of flame to be studied and the test cell.
The posts were about 140cm (4’6”) high and had to be placed on a raised platform of 30cm (1’) to be in the same
horizontal plane as the flame. The horizontal level of the base of the posts was checked verified using a spirit level.
The incoming light from the light source was shone upon the first mirror. The light was reflected and made to travel
in such a way that the entire flame was captured on the mirror surface. The alignment of the 2 mirrors was adjusted
such that most of the light reflected from the first mirror, the shadow of the flame was shone on the second mirror and
minimizing any spillover of light. The second mirror was adjusted in such a way that the path of the reflected light
shone in the direction of the knife edge. The knife edge was manually adjusted and placed at the focal point of the
reflection of the image from the second mirror. The knife edge is critical to a Schlieren System as it provides the
cutoff. The cutoff was adjusted by moving the knife edge in the vertical direction and the optimum cutoff was arrived
at based on the quality of image captured by the camera. The Phantom V641 camera was mounted on a MOOG
Gibraltar heavy duty tripod and placed in the path of the light such that all the light reflected from the mirror fell on
the lens. The camera was setup and triggered using proprietary camera software. The exposure rate was set at 1μs with
the sampling rate at 2000 fps. The camera was triggered manually via the software with the capture time set to 3
seconds or a total of 6000 images with each trigger. Except for the light from the light source (Xenon Arc lamp), no
other light source was used in capturing the images.
 Figure.6. Schematic diagram for Schlieren set up.

4. RESULTS
4.1Test Conditions

The current study was conducted at atmospheric pressure, with the flame being unconfined and open to the
atmosphere. The pressure difference across the injector was maintained at 4%. Using the inline air heater, the
air was preheated, and the tests were conducted at 3 air preheat temperatures (T3). Natural gas was used to
investigate the injector reacting flow aerodynamics. The equivalence ratio (Φ) was varied from the LBO to a
slightly rich condition of 1.05. The LBO was the lowest equivalence ratio at which the flame would not just burn
but also sustain itself continually until the fuel flow was cutoff. Table 1 lists the various test conditions examined
and the LBO limit as well. The cases that were captured are highlighted in green and yellow (LBO) while the
cases highlighted in red indicate those that got extinguished.

Φ→
T3 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05
↓
505 K No No LBO Yes Yes Yes Yes
561 K No LBO Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

616 K LBO Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

4.2 Lean Blowout Limit (LBO)

The LBO of the injector for each value of the air preheated temperature T3 was experimentally obtained. For
each air preheat temperature T3 and at 4% pressure drop, the fuel and air mixture were ignited. As soon as,
flame reach the thermal stabilization stage, the fuel flow was reduced gradually until the flame extinguish. At
this condition, the observed fuel flow rate was used to calculate the corresponding LBO equivalence ratio. As
seen from Table1, it was observed that with the increase of air preheat temperature T3, the LBO moved further
towards leaner side.

Figure 7 plots the LBO graphically. It predicts the LBO limits on either side of the tested range using linear regression.
The graph shows a linear relation with a negative slope between the LBO limits and air preheating temperatures. This
relation is due to the increase in the flame temperature with higher preheating temperature which leads to increase in
the flame speed subsequently. This explains the shifting of the equivalence ratio to lower values with the increase of
the preheating temperature.

Figure 6. Lean Blowout Limit at Tested Values of T3

4.3 Velocity Vector Field Images

Using the Davis 8 software, the flow field images showing the resultant velocity vector were generated. In the captured
flow field, each alumina particle that was traced had two components of velocity – the radial and axial components.
In the vector field summation images, the resultant velocity vector direction was indicated by an arrow while its
magnitude was represented by the color gradient in the background. In the vector field images, across all conditions,
there was a CRZ at the exit of the flame which helped the flame to stabilize at the injector exit. The CRZ was identified
by the direction of the vector arrows. As the magnitude of the velocity is always positive, within the CRZ too, the
color gradient in the background is shown to have a positive magnitude. The injector under investigation is using a
radial-radial swirler to introduce the air into the injector flow field. This creates a strong shear layer that create a region
of low pressure at the middle of the injector exit which help flow recirculation and stabilization.

For brevity, in this paper, three equivalence ratios for each value of T3 are discussed, shown in Annex A (a) to (i).
The equivalence ratios being considered are the lean burnout limit for a given value of T3, Φ = 0.9 and Φ = 1.05. The
flow velocity at exit of injector in all cases was observed to be nearly the same. Downstream of the injector, the
differences in the flow patterns became more pronounced. The magnitude of velocity at a given point also increases
with increase in equivalence ratio for a given temperature.
 At Φ = LBO, across temperatures, it is observed that the degree of turbulence in the flame increases with increase
in air preheat temperature. This is because, with increase in T3, the LBO moves towards the leaner side. The CRZs are
observed to be the smallest for a given value of T3 at the LBO. However, across different temperatures, it is observed
that the CRZ decreases in size with increase in T3.
As seen in Annex A or Φ = 0.9, with increase in T3, the velocity contours appear to be move even and a decrease
in flame turbulence is observed. The CRZs are observed to be of more or less the same size across the different values
of T3.
For Φ = 1.05, the highest concentration of high velocity gradients along the outer edge of the flame are observed
for a given value of T3. Across values of T3, it is observed that high velocity gradients become more continuous and
pronounced for a given value of Φ.

Radial Component of Velocity

Using the velocity data from the PIV system, contour plots for the radial component of velocity were plotted for
different cases. For brevity, this study has restricted itself to the study and comparison of only 3 equivalence
ratios namely, the LBO for each air preheat temperature, Φ = 0.9 and Φ = 1.05, The contour plots for various
radial components can be found in Annex B. The radial component of velocity in all the cases is outward, away
from the injector radially at the exit of the injector. Due to the swirl motion of the injector, there is a region of
lowered pressure created in the area above the injector, the CRZ. Due to the lowpressure zone and the swirl
motion of the injector airflow, the radial component of velocity is accelerated in a radially inward direction. At
about 30mm downstream of the injector exit, the radial component of the velocity reverses direction.

For the different values of T3, at the LBO limit, it is observed that with increase in the value of air preheat
temperature, there is an increase in the number of high velocity pockets in the flow cross section. This could be
explained as follows, with increasing values of T3, the mixture is burning leaner. At lean mixtures, the flame
has reduced flame velocity and temperature. With the flame being studied being unconfined, atmospheric air
could be sucked into the flow due to the low-pressure zone created by the swirling motion of the injector flow.
With the flame temperature being low, the denser air from outside entering the flow wouldn’t have sufficient
time to get heated or mix with the rest the flow. This could lead to the creation of pockets of fuel air mixture,
leading to an increase in the presence of high velocity pockets at LBO with increase in T3.

For a given value of T3, it is observed that the number of high velocity pockets first reduce with increase in
equivalence ratio and then increase again. Comparing across cases for different values of T3, it is observed that
at the LBO there are significant number of isolated high velocity pockets which had been explained in the
paragraph above. With increase in equivalence ratio, the flame temperature and velocity also increase which
help in better mixing and heat transfer. Finally, in case of Φ = 1.05, the existence of high velocity pockets could
be attributed to the lack of proper mixing due to high fuel concentration in the mixture. It is also observed that
with increase in equivalence ratio for a given value of T3, the velocity contours get larger. This can be attributed
to the greater amount of energy available due to better combustion.
Axial Component of Velocity
Using the extracted data from the PIV system, contour plots of the axial component of velocity were plotted
using Tec plot. Ratios. For ease of understanding and brevity, this study restricts itself to three equivalence
ratios of all studied. They are being, the LBO for each individual T3, Φ = 0.9 and Φ = 1.05. The contour plots for
all the chosen cases can be found in Annex C of this paper.

Across all contours it is observed that along the circumferential edge of the injector exit, the flow has a high
axial velocity. This is partly due to the air flow rate as well. Towards the center of the injector, just after the exit
till about 40mm downstream, lies the CRZ. Due to the CRZ, the axial velocity in all cases in this zone is observed
to be negative.

Comparing cases for a given equivalence ratio, with increasing T3, the axial velocity contour of the LBO cases
shows greater unevenness and occurrences of high velocity pockets. When comparing the cases of T3 = 505 K
and 616 K, it is observed that the higher temperature has more discontinuous and jagged shaped contours. This
phenomenon can be attributed to the flame being burnt unconfined and the lower equivalence ratio of the
higher preheat temperature case as explained earlier for a similar phenomenon in the radial velocity contour.
For the other cases, with increase in air preheat temperature, the velocity contours become continuous. This
can be attributed to higher T3, which contributes towards better combustion and a higher heat release rate.
For a given air preheat temperature, with increasing equivalence ratio, it is observed that the higher velocity
contours get taller and more continuous. An increase in the size of the CRZ is also observed which can be
attributed to higher deceleration forces generated by the swirl motion and better combustion.

4.2 Flame Visualization Using High Speed Schlieren Imaging

Using the schlieren system setup discussed in the previous sections, high speed schlieren images
were taken for all the mentioned test cases in Table 3.1. The cutoff for the schlieren images was varied
manually and decided based on the quality of images obtained. The image sample rate was set to 2000pps
and with the exposure time being 1μs. The images were recorded using a v641 Phantom high-speed
camera and post processed using proprietary software of the camera manufacturer. Each image sequence
was roughly about 0.45 seconds and around 1500 were obtained for each case.
 The schlieren system depends on the optical density which is exaggerated and translated to
dark and bright areas of an image. In case of the high speed schlieren images for the test cases, it was
observed that close to the injector in areas of high turbulence, the dark and bright areas were very
small and close to each other. As the level of turbulence decreased upstream, the size of the areas
began to increase. Another important observation made was that as the schlieren system depends
solely on the optical density of the object (instead of luminescence in still photography), the
turbulence downstream in the form of hot air appeared prominently in the images. Hence, to
distinguish the flame front from the hot air around, it was important to closely look at the trends
across a sequence of few high-speed images taken and identify the flame outline. Shown below, in
Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 are the high-speed images of two cases of flames. The instantons flame
boundary has been outlined in red.
While in earlier chapters and sections, the various characteristics was based upon time
averaged imaging, the high speed schlieren images gave a glimpse into the instantaneous nature of
the flame as well as those of surrounding and downstream air flow structures.

Figure 4.4 Flame at 505 K and ϕ = 0.9 with the Approximate Flame Boundary Outlined in Red
Figure 4.5 Flame at 561 K and ϕ = 0.95 with the Approximate Flame Boundary Outlined in Red

Figure 4.5 Flame at 616K and ϕ = 1.05 with the Approximate Flame Boundary Outlined in Red
Conclusions
The reacting flow of the LDI injector being tested in an unconfined condition, burning natural gas as fuel
was captured using a PIV system. The air was preheated to enhance the combustion. The PIV system measured
the flow patterns and velocity of the reacting flow along a plane cutting across the cross section of the flow. The
lean burnout limit was experimentally found out and plotted. It was observed that the LBO decreased with
increase in air preheat temperature.

Velocity vector field plots were plotted to study the aerodynamic performance of the current injector. The
presence of a CRZ was observed and discussed. A 40-50 mm CRZ was measured at equivalence ratio of 0.85. It
was observed that with for a given air preheat temperature, the velocity at a definite point increased with
increase in the equivalence ratio. It was also observed that with the increase in equivalence ratio, the number
of high velocity pockets decreased for a given temperature. The component velocity contours of the fluid flow
were also plotted.

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