Propulsion and Power Research 2015;4(3):123–131

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Propulsion and Power Research

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Experimental and numerical investigations

of the dry-low-NOx hydrogen micromix
combustion chamber of an industrial gas turbine
A. Haj Ayeda,n, K. Kusterera, H.H.-W. Funkeb, J. Keinzb,
C. Strieganb, D. Bohnc

a
B&B-AGEMA GmbH, Jülicher Str. 338, Aachen 52070, Germany
b
FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Hohenstaufenallee 6, Aachen 52064, Germany
c
RWTH Aachen University, Templergraben 55, Aachen 52062, Germany

Received 17 October 2014; accepted 2 April 2015

Available online 1 October 2015

KEYWORDS Abstract Combined with the use of renewable energy sources for its production, hydrogen
represents a possible alternative gas turbine fuel within future low emission power generation.
Micromix combustion;
Hydrogen gas turbine; Due to the large difference in the physical properties of hydrogen compared to other fuels such as
Dry-low-NOx (DLN) natural gas, well established gas turbine combustion systems cannot be directly applied for dry-
combustion; low-NOx (DLN) hydrogen combustion. Thus, the development of DLN combustion technologies
Hydrogen combustion; is an essential and challenging task for the future of hydrogen fuelled gas turbines.
High hydrogen The DLN micromix combustion principle for hydrogen fuel has been developed to significantly
combustion reduce NOx emissions. This combustion principle is based on cross-flow mixing of air and
gaseous hydrogen which reacts in multiple miniaturized diffusion-type flames. The major
advantages of this combustion principle are the inherent safety against flash-back and the low
NOx emissions due to a very short residence time of reactants in the flame region of the micro-
flames.
The micromix combustion technology has been already proven experimentally and numerically
for pure hydrogen fuel operation at different energy density levels. The aim of the present study is
to apply and compare different combustion models for the characterization of the micromix flame
structure, its interaction with the flow field and its NOx emissions.
The study reveals great potential for the successful application of numerical flow simulation to
predict flame structure and NOx emission level of micromix hydrogen combustion, help
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 241 5687830.
E-mail address: ayed@bub-agema.de (A. Haj Ayed).
Peer review under responsibility of National Laboratory for Aeronautics and Astronautics, China.

2212-540X & 2015 National Laboratory for Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jppr.2015.07.005
124 A. Haj Ayed et al.

understanding the flow phenomena related with the micromixing, reaction zone and NOx
formation and support further optimization of the burner performance.
& 2015 National Laboratory for Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction shown that the combustion process has to be modified and

Aviation and power generation industry has need of
efficient, reliable, safe and low-pollution energy conversion
systems in the future. Gas turbines will play a decisive role
in long-term high power application scenarios, and hydro-
gen has great potential as renewable and sustainable energy
source derived from wind- or solar power and gasification
of biomass substituting the limited resources of fossil fuels
[1]. Hydrogen impacts the operation of common gas turbine
systems due to its high reactivity requiring combustion
chamber modifications to guarantee efficient, stable, safe
and low NOx combustion. Besides optimized combustion
technology and related exhaust gas emissions, modifications
of the gas turbine control and fuel metering system have to
be applied to guarantee safe, rapid and precise changes of
the engine power settings [2–7]. Against this background
the Gas Turbine Section of the Department of Aerospace
Engineering at Aachen University of Applied Sciences
(AcUAS) works in the research field of low-emission
combustion chamber technologies for hydrogen gas tur-
bines and related topics investigating the complete system
integration of combustion chamber, fuel system, engine
control software and emission reduction technologies. The
hydrogen gas turbine research at AcUAS started during the
European projects EQHHPP [8] and CRYOPLANE [9]
where the low NOx micromix hydrogen combustion prin-
ciple was invented. When hydrogen is burned as fuel with
air, only NOx emissions occur, but Refs. [2,3,10,11] have
optimized in order to achieve low NOx emissions. Because
of the large difference in the physical properties of
hydrogen compared to other fuels such as kerosene and
natural gas, well established gas turbine combustion sys-
tems cannot be directly applied for dry-low-NOx (DLN)
combustion. Thus, the development of DLN hydrogen
combustion technologies is an essential and challenging
task. The DLN micromix combustion principle for hydro-
gen is being developed and optimized for years to sig-
nificantly reduce NOx emissions by miniaturizing the
combustion zone, reducing the residence time of reactants
in the combustion zone, and enhancing the mixing process
using a jet in cross-flow design. A review of the previous
research activities at AcUAS is presented in Ref. [12].
Especially the flame anchoring - mostly dominated by the
resulting recirculation zones and vortices within the micro-
mix burner geometry [10] and by the momentum flux ratio
of the jet in cross-flow [11] - is most essential to the
micromix low NOx characteristics. Based on previous
investigations a micromix combustion chamber with about
1600 miniature injectors (Figure 1) was designed for a small
size Auxiliary Power Unit APU GTCP 36–300 and
successfully tested [13].
The GTCP 36-300 requires about 1.6 MW thermal
energy converted to shaft power generating electrical and
pneumatic power up to 335 kW. The combustion section
consists of an annular reverse flow combustion chamber in
which the micromix combustor is to be integrated.

Figure 1 Micromix prototype combustor for gas turbine Honeywell/Garrett Auxiliary Power Unit APU GTCP 36-300.
Experimental and numerical investigations of the DLN 125

Nomenclature
Greek letters
A area (unit: mm2)
BR blockage ratio Φ equivalence ratio
d diameter/inner diameter (unit: mm2) ν kinematic viscosity (unit: m2/s)
D outer diameter (unit: mm2)
ED energy density (unit: MW/(m2  bar))
Subscripts
ṁ mass flow (unit: kg/s)
p pressure (unit: bar)
3 combustor inlet
T temperature (unit: K)
4 combustor outlet
u friction velocity (unit: m/s)
AGP air guiding panel
y wall distance (unit: m)
crit critical
yþ dimensionless wall distance
fuel fuel/hydrogen
H2-seg hydrogen burner

The micromix hydrogen combustion research is done using
an interactive optimization cycle including experimental and
numerical studies on test burners, full scale combustion
chamber investigations and the feasibility is proven in real
gas turbine operation (Figure 2).
Based on these studies the impact of different geometric
parameters on flow field, flame structure and NOx formation
are identified and the micromix combustion principle is
continuously optimized.
Within the present study, 3 different combustion models
have been applied within a simplified numerical approach to
simulate the flow, the combustion reaction and the thermal
NO emission inside the micromix test burner. The compar-
ison of the different combustion models should support
identification of well suited models for the accurate
simulation of the micromix combustion principle and NO
emission behavior.
2. Micromix hydrogen combustion
2.1. Micromix description
Gaseous hydrogen is injected through miniaturized injec-
tors perpendicularly into an air cross-flow through small air
guiding panel (AGP) structures. This leads to a fast and
intense mixing, which takes place simultaneously to the
combustion process. As a result, miniaturized micro flames
develop and anchor at the burner segment edge downstream
of the injector nozzle. Multiple micro flames instead of
large scale flames lower the residence time of the NOx
forming reactants and consequently the averaged molar
fraction of NOx can be reduced significantly as has been
shown in Ref. [6]. The main influence on the low NOx
characteristic can be ascribed to the key design parameters
blockage ratio BR of the air guiding panel AGP (Figures 3

Figure 2 Interactive optimization cycle of micromix combustor research and development for APU GTCP 36-300.
126
Figure 3 (a) Aerodynamic flame stabilization principle and (b)
hydrogen injection depth definition.
Figure 4 Experimental results of test burners APU 030 ED 6.7.
Figure 5 Computational domain.
A. Haj Ayed et al.
and 4) and injection depth y of the fuel into the oxidizer
cross-flow (Figure 3(b)). The blockage ratio BR represents
the ratio between the air guiding height and the height of
the air guiding panel (both indicated in the Figure 3).
The blockage ratio influences shape, position and size of the
flame stabilizing vortices downstream of the air guiding panel
and the burner segment. The jet-in-cross-flow mixing of fuel
and air stabilizes the low NOx emission characteristics of the
combustion principle as long as the injection depth y (Figure 3
(b)) is not penetrating the shear layer of the AGP-Vortex
(critical injection depth ycrit). A recirculation of the fuel/air
mixture into the AGP vortex leads to raised NOx emissions
Ref. [13].
2.2. Test burner configuration for numerical study
The presented numerical study investigates the computa-
tional model of the atmospheric test burner APU H2 030 ED
6.7. The test burner is designed and scaled for the APU
GTCP 36–300 and has hydrogen injector nozzles with a
diameter dH2 ¼ 0.30 mm. The normalized energy density of
the burner is ED ¼ 6.7 MW/(m2  bar).
As mentioned above, the test burner operation pressure is
atmospheric. The burner inlet air is preheated to the gas
turbine inlet temperature of 560 K.
The experimental NOx characteristic of this test burner
and the observed flame structure is shown in Figure 4.
The corrected NOx emissions (@ 15% O2) obtained in the
experiment are given against the equivalence ratio Φ. Figure 4
reveals that the NOx emissions of the test burner APU 030 ED
6.7 is in a range below 2 ppmV NOx at its design full load
operation point. At the design equivalence ratio of Φ¼ 0.4 the
NOx emission is found approx. 1.3 ppmv @ 15% O2, which
proves the low NOx ability of the micromix test burner.
3. Numerical investigation
For the numerical evaluation of the burner geometry in terms
of flame stabilization and NO emission level a simplified
numerical approach has been applied. The numerical approach
includes the 3D numerical simulation of the flow field within
the burner and combustion chamber based on a RANS solver,
three different combustion models and a simplified thermal NO
formation model. The comparison of 3 different combustion
models will show the sensitivity of the micromix flame
simulation to model selection and will support the selection
of an appropriate model for the further numerical investigation
of micromix burners.
In this section of the paper the simplified numerical
approach is described and its application to calculate the
reactive flow in the burner configuration is presented.
3.1. Computational domain
The numerical analysis has been carried out using a
commercial CFD code [14] and has been based on a
Experimental and numerical investigations of the DLN 127

Table 1 Calculated thermal NO emissions. The Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC) model also combines
turbulent mixing effects with chemical kinetics. In each volume
EDM ED-FR EDC Measurement cell the space is divided into two zones: the fine structure and
the bulk gas zone. All the chemical reactions are assumed to
NO emission 6 0.65 1.02 1.3
[ppmv @ 15% O2] occur in the fine structures which represent the smallest
turbulence scales, where all turbulence energy is dissipated into
heat. The reactions are neglected in the bulk gas zone, and the
mass transfer exchanges the reactant and product gases between
the fine structures and the bulk zone. The reaction is driven by
simplified geometric model derived from the test burner
the residence time of each species in the fine structured zone.
configuration APU 030 ED 6.7. The geometric model is
Therefore the mass exchange rate between the fine structures
shown in Figure 5 and covers a longitudinal burner slice,
and the bulk gas as well as the mass fraction of the fine
which makes use of the symmetric nature of the burner in
structures in every cell is calculated by the turbulence dissipa-
both lateral and vertical directions. The symmetric bound-
tion and kinematic viscosity information.
aries along the lateral direction are set on the cross section
The calculation of reaction rates and species consump-
through the center of one hydrogen injection hole and on
tion/formation is achieved by the use of the DARS-CFD
the cross section between two hydrogen injection holes,
library provided within the CFD code. DARS-CFD pro-
respectively. Along the vertical direction the symmetry
vides a detailed hydrogen reaction mechanism including 19
planes are set on the center section through one air guiding
reversible reaction rates and 9 species (see Table 1) and
panel and on the center section through one hydrogen
calculates the reaction rates based on detailed chemistry
segment. Thus, the slice model contains one half of a
Ref. [14]. Thereby, it makes use of the ISAT tabulation
hydrogen injection hole and one half of an air guiding gate.
(in situ adaptive tabulation), which approximates computa-
3D steady RANS calculations have been performed. The
tionally expensive functions based on previously calculated
realizable k, ε turbulence model with all yþ wall treatment
and stored solutions instead of solving them in every
has been applied. The wall treatment is decided depending
calculation step, hence, reducing the calculation effort
on the local dimensionless wall distance yþ, which is
and time.
calculated from the wall distance y, the friction velocity u
The 19 reactions forming the detailed hydrogen reaction
and the kinemativ viscosity ν:
mechanism are listed as follows:
yþ ¼ y  u=ν

For high yþ values the wall function approach is used. For

low yþ values (below or not much larger than 1) no wall
function is required, since the boundary layer is well
discretized by the numerical mesh. The hydrogen combustion
process has been simulated based on three combustion
models: the EDM, the ED-FR and the EDC model. The
EDM (Eddy Dissipation Model) and the ED-FR (Eddy
dissipation – Finite rate) models are based on a reduced
hydrogen combustion reaction model including one step
hydrogen combustion reaction, where the reaction rate of the
EDM model is calculated based on the “mixed is burnt”
principle, which means that the reaction is only controlled by
turbulent mixing and the chemical reaction time is consider-
ing negligible. The ED-FR model combines the turbulent
mixing driven reaction rate and the chemical kinetic reaction
rate (finite chemistry). The turbulent mixing driven reaction
rate is calculated via the EDM combustion model formula-
tion, which assumes that reactants are directly burnt after
mixing as explained above. The chemical kinetic rate is
calculated based on the Arrhenius formulation given in
Ref. [11] and considers the chemical time scale needed to
burn reactants when they are fully mixed. By application of
the ED-FR approach both reaction rates (turbulent mixing
driven rate and chemical kinetic rate) are calculated and
compared. The smallest rate is considered as reaction Since the diffusivity of all involved species is calculated
limiting. separately based on Schmidt number and specie's viscosity,
128 A. Haj Ayed et al.

Figure 6 Computational domain, close up to fuel injection region.

Figure 7 Recirculation and vortex structure of the micromix burning

principle.

the species transport and mixing calculation accounts for

the high diffusivity of hydrogen into the combustion air.
Thermal NO formation has been considered by application of
the extended Zeldovich NO formation mechanism [15]. A
corresponding numerical model is provided by the applied
CFD code.
The spatial discretization has been performed using the
STAR-CCMþ surface remesher and polyhedral mesher result-
ing in an unstructured polyhedral mesh. The polyhedral cell
shape is especially advantageous as it helps minimizing the total
number of cells while maintaining mesh resolution quality and
thus, helps saving calculation time and cost. Progressive mesh
refinement has been performed along the reaction and hot gas
zone starting from the hydrogen injection surrounding. There
the smallest volume cell size has been selected to get a
sufficient resolution inside the mixing and the reaction zone.
The refinement process has been performed iteratively within a
reference calculation until a mesh independent solution could be
obtained. The final mesh includes approx. 420,000 volume cells
in total.
3.2. Boundary conditions
The fuel and the air jet are introduced separately into the
burner model via two inlet boundaries as shown in Figure 6.
The inlet boundaries are set far enough from the air guiding
panel and the fuel injection hole in order to avoid any
Figure 8 Calculated flow field and stabilization vortices.
boundary influence on the key flow phenomena in the mixing
and combustion regions. No-slip wall boundaries represent
the air guiding panel and the hydrogen segment walls.
Since contact with hot gas is limited to the front surface
of the H2 segment and the surfaces surrounding the reaction
and exhaust gas zone are symmetry planes, heat transfer
from the hot gas into the burner wall has been neglected and
has not been considered within the numerical simulations
for all burner configurations.
The air and fuel inlet parameters have been defined
according to the experimental conditions for the test burner
configuration. The air inlet pressure is 1 bar according to the
test rig design. The inlet air is preheated to 560 K to simulate
the APU inlet condition. The fuel inlet temperature is 300 K.
The fuel mass flow has been selected according to the
design operating point (Φ ¼ 0.4).
Experimental and numerical investigations of the DLN 129

Figure 9 Calculated temperature distribution. Figure 10 Calculated temperature distribution (modified color scale).

3.3. Numerical results

The micromix burning principle is characterized by

distinct reaction zones, anchoring near the edge of the H2
segment and stabilized by the inner and the outer vortex
pairs as shown in Figure 7. The inner vortex pair results
from the air recirculation downstream the air guiding panel
after contraction in the air gate. The outer vortex pair is
created by recirculating hot gas downstream the H2
segment. Due to the axial shift in the position of the H2
segment front face and the air guiding panel, an inclined
shear layer is established in-between the vortices and
combustion reaction takes place and is stabilized along this
inter-vortex shear layer.
The structure and orientation of the micromix flame is
depending on the structure of the mentioned shear layer,
which is in turn defined by the size, position and intensity
of the stabilization vortices.
Figure 8 shows the flow field and recirculation zones
resulting from the 3 different combustion model calcula-
tions. Although same burner geometry and boundary
conditions apply for all calculations, differences are found
in the flow and vortex structure as marked in Figure 8.
Thereby, the axial length of the inner and outer vortex pairs
is found smaller in the EDM calculation, compared to the
ED-FR and the EDC calculations, which show comparable Figure 11 Calculated reaction rates in comparison to visual flame
structure.
results. Despite the flow field differences, all three calcula-
tions confirm the presence of the typical micromix stabili-
zation vortices. The EDM calculation shows higher peak temperatures in the
Figure 9 shows the temperature distribution in a meridional reaction zone, which is found to take place earlier and faster
section through the hydrogen injectors for all three calculations. compared with the ED-FR and the EDC calculations, leading to
130
a higher temperature of the outer vortex pair as marked in
Figure 9. The ED-FR and the EDC calculations provide more
similar temperature distribution and flame structure. The ED-FR
model provides slightly higher temperatures along the micromix
flame, whereas the EDC model provides slightly higher
temperature inside the outer cortex pair. The maximum
temperature level is found below 1700 1C for both models.
Significantly higher peak temperatures are reached with the
EDM calculation. These exceed 2000 1C in the reaction zone
and result from fast reaction that leads to concentrated local heat
release.
Figure 10 shows the temperature distributions with
modified color scale (1200 1C to 2000 1C), which confirm
the significant differences in the temperatures calculated in
the EDM calculation compared to the ED-FR and the EDC
calculations. The figure also confirms similarity of the ED-
FR and the EDC results.
The different reaction speed resulting from different
combustion models is shown by comparison of the reaction
rates for all three calculations.
Figure 11 shows the distribution of the production rate of
H2O in the burner, which also stands for the reaction rate, in
comparison to the experimentally captured visual flame
appearance. Highest reaction rates are found in the EDM
calculation. Thereby, the reaction starts to take place just
downstream the hydrogen injector, indicating fast and early
heat release. Further, most of the heat release takes place in
a short distance downstream the hydrogen injector, which
explains the higher temperature in the outer vortex pair.
Contrarily, the reaction rates calculated by the ED-FR
and the EDC models show that the reaction mainly starts at
the typical micromix flame anchoring point, which is at the
edge of the hydrogen segment, and the reaction zone is
thinner and takes place within a longer axial distance
compared to the EDM calculation, which explains more
homogenous temperature distribution inside the combustion
chamber and lower peak temperatures. The position and
structure of the micromix flames calculated by the ED-FR
and the EDC model show good agreement with the visual
flame appearance captured during experimental testing,
whereas the flame structure resulting from the EDM model
shows significant deviations as shown in Figure 11.
The thermal NO emission has been calculated separately
for each combustion model based on the extended Zeldo-
vich mechanism as explained above. The required concen-
tration of O and OH radicals is calculated based on the
Warnatz approach [16] as these are not directly provided by
the EDM and the ED-FR models.
Table 1 shows the calculated thermal NO emissions for
all three calculations and the measured NOx emission
(corrected to 15% O2). Due to the higher temperatures in
the reaction zone, the EDM model provides the highest
thermal NO emission of approx. 6 ppmv @ 15% O2. The
ED-FR and the EDC models provide lower thermal NO
emission with approx. 0.65 and 1.02 ppmv @ 15% O2,
respectively. Thereby, the result of the EDC model is found
closest to the measurement value of 1.3 ppmv @ 15% O2.
A. Haj Ayed et al.
Considering that the numerical result only includes
thermal NO and excludes any other possible NO formation
routes, e.g. the NNH formation route, the numerical result
of the EDC model shows very good agreement with the
experimental findings and can be considered as reliable
CFD model for the proper modeling of the micromix flames
and prediction of their NOx emission behavior.
4. Conclusion
The micromix test burner with an injector diameter of
0.3 mm has been tested successfully under atmospheric
conditions and has proven its dry low NOx ability over a
wide operating range. Numerical investigations with differ-
ent combustion models revealed the ability of the applied
numerical approach to simulate the micromix combustion
and to capture the typical micromix flame anchoring and
structure. The comparison of different combustion models
has shown that the results obtained with the EDC model
based on the DARS-CFD detailed chemistry model of the
CFD code STAR-CCMþ show better agreement compared
to the EDM and the ED-FR model results. A further
validation of the EDC model regarding the prediction of
NOx emissions along the combustor operation range will be
investigated within a next research step, in order to establish
an efficient numerical method for the systematic optimiza-
tion of the micromix combustion principle.
Acknowledgements
The numerical flow and combustion simulations pre-
sented in this paper have been carried out with the STAR-
CCMþ Software of CD-adapco. Their support is gratefully
acknowledged.
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