Choose one out of paracrine signalling, endocrine signalling, autocrine signalling and

direct signalling and describe briefly the process by which this occurs.

Endocrine signals are between distant cells that originate from endocrine cells such as the

thyroid gland, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. The hormones are secreted by

specialized endocrine cells and travel via the bloodstream to the destination, it moves slow

but lasted for a longer period. (Clark et al., 2018). All this signaling is essential although it is

different, it enabled the body to coordinate and “communicate” to reach homeostasis.

Pick a representative signal molecule from the pathway you have chosen and indicate its
function, the type of cell in which it is made and the specific manner in which it acts as a
signalling molecule, including the receptor that it binds to.

Signal molecules are produced by signaling cells and the function of the signal molecule

functions as ligands to coordinate for cellular responses and attachment to the cell receptors

(Boundless, n.d.).

An example of a representative signal molecule is Dopamine. Dopamine is produced at the

different parts of the brain, substantial nigra, ventral tegmental area, and hypothalamus

(Mandal, 2019). Dopamine is categorized as a happy hormone, it played a very important role

in stabilize mood, these are the functions known: movement, memory, pleasurable reward,

behavior and cognition, attention, inhibition of prolactin production, sleep, mood, and

learning (Mandal, 2019).

Dopamine is water-soluble and cannot go through the plasma membrane, several major

dopamine pathways carry dopamine from the area that has the high concentration to other

parts in the brain, those pathways are mesostriatal or nigrostriatal, which stretches from the

substantia nigra to the striatum, the mesolimbic pathway, which stretches from the ventral
tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens and other limbic structures, and the mesocortical

pathway, which stretches from the ventral tegmental area throughout the cerebral cortex.

Dopamine acts at G-protein coupled receptors and there are at least 5 subtypes of the

dopamine receptor (Hameed, 2018). Five subtypes of dopamine receptors have been

identified that are divided into D1-like (D1 and D5) or D2-like (D2, D3, and D4) groups

(Neve, 2013).

References:

Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Biology. Lumen. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/signaling-molecules-and-
cellular-receptors/

Clark , M. A., Douglas, M., & Choi, J. (2018). Metabolism . In Biology 2E (pp. 227-243).
essay, OpenStax.

Mandal, A. (2019, April 9). Dopamine functions. News Medical Life Sciences. Retrieved
December 15, 2021, from https://www.news-medical.net/health/Dopamine-
Functions.aspx

Mandal, A. (2019, April 9). What is dopamine? News Medical Life Sciences. Retrieved
December 15, 2021, from https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-
Dopamine.aspx

Neuroscientifically Challenged. (2018). 2-Minute Neuroscience: Dopamine. Retrieved

December 15, 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wa8_nLwQIpg.

Neve, K. A. (2013). Dopamine receptors. Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry, 169–173.

https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-378630-2.00326-1

Open the KEGG PATHWAY Database homepage. On this page, you can browse various
types of pathways, including metabolic and signalling pathways or you can search for
terms and find the associated pathways.
Using the search box, search for the molecule you have discussed above by entering its
name.
KEGG may give you the choice between several pathways, choose one of these and click
on the link under the heading ‘entry’. (this will read something like map01578)
Read the description of the pathway and write down its name then click on the image of
the map.
If possible copy the image of the map and insert it into your written assignment, if this
does not work for you provide a URL so that the page can easily be accessed. The map
consists of a set of rectangles and circles which represent molecules, connected by lines
which indicate how these molecules interact or relate with each other.  To understand
how the information is organized on the map, click on the "Help" button at the top left
of the screen. You can explore the map by clicking on its individual elements and
investigate the kinds of information is available.
Try to identify your chosen molecule on the map and make a note of the number and
names of other molecules it directly interacts with in this pathway. If you are unable to
identify your molecule of choice see if you can find its receptor, which you identified
earlier in this assignment.
Click on the shape that contains your molecule of interest (or its receptor) (this will
redirect you to a page that lists the signalling pathways in which that molecule is
involved and any diseases associated with it)
Take a note of the names of at least three other pathways indicated on this page and
comment on whether your molecule is linked with any diseases. (If there is no disease
association there will be no entry in the table)

PATHWAY: map04728

URL for map04728: https://capture.dropbox.com/jEi8vwvJ2skDMCqn?src=ss

Image source: (KEGG Pathway, n.d.)

Diseases associated: Parkinson disease

Molecule of choice: is not stated in the image

Receptor: D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5

Dopamine Alternative Pathways ((Bridges, 2020):

Pathways Function Begin at Area stimulated

Mesolimbic Rewarding or Ventral tegmental Nucleus accumbens

pleasurable area (VTA) (NAc)

stimulating
Mesocortical highly involved in Ventral tegmental prefrontal cortex

cognition, working area (VTA) (PFC)

memory, and

decision making 

Nigrostriatal Motor planning Substantia nigra Caudate and putamen,

parts of the basal

(Contains around
ganglia
80% of the dopamine

in the brain)
Tuberoinfundibular Metabolism, Arcuate and Infundibular region of

sexual satisfaction, periventricular nuclei the hypothalamus

immune system of the hypothalamus

Review Endocrine Disruptors and provide a brief overview of the mechanism of action

of endocrine disruptors. Comment on some of the effects of known endocrine disruptors
and suggest some steps that can be taken to reduce the dangerous health effects posed
by chemicals of this nature

Endocrine Disruptors are chemicals that interact with human cells and disturb the signaling of
hormones and cause health issues. These chemicals' substances pretended to be your

hormone, and our body cells could not differential both and responded to the stimulation.

Endocrine Disruptors can be found in either chemical products or natural form

(Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.), this is the problematic part, those products labeled

as natural products are not as safe as we thought. 

Endocrine disruptors can be found in our daily items, there were nearly 85,000 chemicals

created in the lab (Endocrine Society, 2019). Not just humans but wildlife are also affected

and impacts of the exposure include: developmental malformations, reproduction system

affected, higher cancer rate, the immune and nervous system cannot function (U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.), in short, our body cannot maintain the

status of homeostasis.  

In history we have had two catastrophe incidents that involved Endocrine Disruptors:

Agent Orange: this was used from 1962 to 1971 by the US Army during the war with

Vietnam, Agent Orange has this substance called dioxin. Three million Vietnamese affected

by dioxin and at least 150,000 children are born with serious birth defects(The Aspen

Institute, n.d.). Up to 2017, in the areas where Agent Orange was released, the dioxin is two

to five times higher, and dioxins are passed down to babies through breast milk (Kido, 2017). 

Diethylstilbestrol (DES): this is a synthetic form of the female hormone estrogen, it was

prescribed to pregnant women between 1940 to 1978 to avoid miscarriage, not just it is

useless in protecting mother bearing a child but it caused cancer, birth defects, and other

developmental abnormalities, and it passed down to those using this drug before(National

Cancer Institute, n.d.). 

There are so many chemicals around us, started from limiting ourselves buying ready to eat

food that wrapped with plastic may be a good start and it can be troublesome for a period

because bread is usually wrapped with plastic, but we should be able to find an alternative

to Bisphenol A (BPA)(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.). Another action

we could do immediately is, In almost all kitchen we can find Perfluoroalkyl and

Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), it is very common as we all love our non-stick pan, time

to discard that and change your pan to stainless steel (U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, n.d.). 

References:

Bridges, N. (2020, February 18). The four major dopamine pathways. Sanesco Health.
Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://sanescohealth.com/blog/dopamine-
pathways/

Endocrine Society. (2019, November 20). Common edcs and where they are found.
Endocrine Society. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from
https://www.endocrine.org/topics/edc/what-edcs-are/common-edcs

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). What is Endocrine Disruption? EPA. Retrieved

December 15, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/what-endocrine-
disruption

KEGG Pathway. (n.d.). Dopaminergic synapse. KEGG Pathway. Retrieved December 15,
2021, from https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?pathway:map04728.

Kido, T. (2017). Science of The Total Environment. Agent Orange and Its Hormone
Disrupting Legacy. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment/news/agent-
orange-and-its-hormone-disrupting-legacy.

National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Diethylstilbestrol (DES) and cancer. National Cancer
Institute. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://www.cancer.gov/about-
cancer/causes-prevention/risk/hormones/des-fact-sheet
The Aspen Institute. (n.d.). What is agent orange? The Aspen Institute. Retrieved December
16, 2021, from https://www.aspeninstitute.org/programs/agent-orange-in-vietnam-
program/what-is-agent-orange/

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). Endocrine disruptors. National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm