E1 Dynamic Earth WS 8.1-8.7 ANS


Part 8 Dynamic Earth
Dynamic Earth—The building of Hong Kong
What is the earth system? What is the overall physical

8.1
landscape of Hong Kong?
Focus of this unit:
 Earth system  Physical landscape of Hong Kong
 Structure of the earth and the related internal
processes
A What is the earth system? Textbook pp. 5–6
1 Figure 1 shows the earth system. Answer the questions that follow.
Inputs Processes Outputs
1 Solar radiation 1 Scattered and reflected

Atmosphere Biosphere
2 Heat from the solar radiation from the
earth’s interior atmosphere to space
2 Radiation from the earth’s
surface and the
Flow of energy
Lithosphere Hydrosphere atmosphere to space
Interaction
Figure 1
a The earth system is a group of things that interact within a boundary and perform specific
functions. It has inputs (i.e. solar radiation and heat), processes
(i.e. interaction among the four spheres: atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere) and outputs (i.e. solar radiation and radiation
from the atmosphere and the earth’s surface).
b Give ONE example to each of the following interactions. (Hint: You may refer to Figure
4 on p. 6 of your textbook or what you have learned in the other chapters for examples)
i How does the atmosphere interact with the biosphere?
Rainfall from the atmosphere provides water for plant growth (or other reasonable
answers)
ii How does the biosphere interact with the hydrosphere?

Rainwater trapped by vegetation (interception) reduces the amount of surface
run-off (or other reasonable answers)
iii How does the hydrosphere interact with the lithosphere?

The hydraulic action of river water removes rock at river banks (or other
reasonable answers)
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iv How does the hydrosphere interact with the atmosphere?

Water forms cloud in the air through evaporation and condensation (or other
reasonable answers)
B What is the structure of the earth and the related internal

processes? Textbook pp. 7–8
1 Refer to Figure 2 which shows the structure of the earth and complete the chart that follows.
Figure 2
Structure of the earth

Divided into 3 layers
 Crust  Mantle  Core
○
a Oceanic  Uppermost part of the mantle Outer core
crust
Asthenosphere Inner core
○
b Continental
Lower mantle
crust
Broken into pieces

A Lithosphere Plates
Driven by slab pull and ridge push,
they move differently
Move apart/ Move towards each Slide past each

Diverge other/Converge other
Resultant plate
boundary Divergent Convergent Transform
plate boundary plate boundary plate boundary
8-2
2 Complete the chart below to show the internal forces and processes generated at different
types of plate boundaries and their resultant landforms/features.
Divergent plate Convergent plate Transform plate

boundaries boundaries boundaries
Internal  Tensional  Tensional  Tensional

force  Compressional  Compressional  Compressional
generated
 Shearing  Shearing  Shearing
Internal  Faulting  Faulting  Faulting

process  Folding  Folding  Folding
generated
 Volcanism  Volcanism  Volcanism
Resultant
landform/  Normal  Reverse Strike-slip
feature faults faults faults
 Block mountains and  Block mountains and
rift valleys
rift valleys
 Volcanoes  Folds
 Volcanic islands  Fold mountains
 Submarine  Volcanoes
volcanoes  Batholiths ,
sills, dykes and
laccoliths
C What is the overall physical landscape of Hong Kong? Textbook pp. 10–12
1 Refer to the relief map of Hong Kong in Figure 3 on p. 4.

a i Mark the highest peak in Hong Kong in Figure 3. Label the height of the peak.
ii Mark the largest river in Hong Kong in Figure 3.
iii Complete Table 1 on pp. 4–5 for the major characteristics of the overall physical
landscape of Hong Kong.
8-3
Figure 3
Table 1
Feature Major characteristic
 Hilly with steep slopes
 Central and eastern New Territories and central Lantau Island have a ( higher /
lower ) elevation than the rest of Hong Kong
Upland
 Ridges are broken up, but generally run from north-east to
south-west
 The highest peak is Tai Mo Shan at 957 metres
 Not many lowlands

 They are mainly river valleys and narrow coastal plains
Lowland
 The largest extent of lowland is in Yuen Long ,
Kam Tin and Fanling (they are floodplains)
 Many rivers, but most of them are ( short / long). The largest river is the
Sham Chun River
Drainage  Most rivers have a ( gentle / steep ) gradient at the upper course but a ( gentle /
steep ) gradient at the lower course, the middle course is generally absent
 Dendritic pattern is common
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 The coastline of Hong Kong is ( long / short ) and ( indented / smooth), with
many offshore islands
 The coastline of eastern New Territories (i.e. Sai Kung) is particularly

Coast
irregular with a lot of bays, headlands, peninsulas and offshore
islands
 The largest offshore island is Lantau Island
b Describe the relief of Hong Kong.

In general, the relief of Hong Kong is hilly, with little flat land and many offshore
islands.
8-5
How do different types of rock affect the physical

8.2
landscape of Hong Kong?
Focus of this unit:
 Igneous rock: formation, types and  Rock cycle
characteristics
 Sedimentary rock: formation, types and  Distribution of rock types in Hong Kong
characteristics
 Metamorphic rock: formation, types and  Effect of rock types on the physical
characteristics landscape of Hong Kong
A What is rock? How are rocks formed? Textbook p. 14
1 Rock is the solid material that makes up the lithosphere . Basically, it is made up of
minerals . Rocks are classified into the following three types:
 igneous rock;
 sedimentary rock; and
 metamorphic rock.
B How is igneous rock formed? Textbook pp. 15–16
HKDSE DBQ 2012 Q1ai, ii, iv, 2015 Q1ai, ii, iii, 2016 Q1ai, ii, 2019 Q1a; Essay 2017 Q5
1 Igneous rock is formed from volcanism. They can be divided into two types according to the
location of formation. Complete the figure below to show.
Extrusive Cooling and solidification of lava

volcanism or other volcanic materials, e.g. ash,
( on the earth’s surface / within the crust )
Crystallization takes place
and forms minerals
Minerals aggregate to form ( extrusive / intrusive )

rock (also called volcanic rock)
Intrusive Cooling and solidification of magma

volcanism ( on the earth’s surface / within the crust )
Crystallization
takes place and
Minerals aggregate to form ( extrusive / intrusive ) forms minerals
rock (also called plutonic rock)
8-6
2 Below shows some examples of igneous rock.
Flow bands Rhyolite
Rhyolite
Extrusive rock
(Credit: Stephen Hui Geological

Tuff Museum, the University of Hong
Kong)
Basalt
(Credit: Valery Voennyy/Alamy

Stock Photo)
(Credit: Stephen Hui
Geological Museum, the
University of Hong Kong)
Granite
Gabbro
Intrusive rock

Museum, the University of Hong Kong)
Museum, the University of Hong Kong)
8-7
The table below shows some characteristics of extrusive and intrusive rocks. Refer to the
examples of igneous rock shown on p. 7, complete the characteristics of ‘Structure/Texture’
and ‘Colour’
Extrusive Intrusive
Structure/Texture  Crystalline /Crystals interlocking with one another

 Usually ( non-stratified / stratified )
 Compact/Hard
 Well-jointed
 ( Fine- / Coarse- ) grained ( Fine- / Coarse- ) grained due to

due to fast cooling rate of slow cooling rate of magma
lava or volcanic materials on within the crust
the earth’s surface
 Some rocks, such as rhyolite,
may have flow bands ,
which are lines formed by the
lava flowing on the earth’s
surface before it cools and
completely solidifies
Colour Varies/Can be both light and dark in colour

(The colour of the rock depends on the silica content. The higher the
silica content, the lighter the colour)
Presence of fossils No (As the high temperature of magma or lava would have
destroyed dead plants or animals)
3 Figure 1 shows a granite specimen.

a Briefly describe its characteristics.
Granite has a crystalline
structure with interlocking
minerals. It is coarse -grained
and well-jointed. It has
light colour as the silica
content is high.
b Write the name of the minerals in the

Quartz Mica Feldspar boxes.
Figure 1
8-8
4 Complete the table below to show the differences between granite and tuff.
Revision table
Granite Tuff
Location of formation Within the crust On the earth’s surface
Type of igneous rock Intrusive Extrusive
Volcanic material that forms the rock Magma Volcanic ash
Cooling rate of the volcanic material Slow Fast
Size of crystals/grains Large/Coarse Small/Fine
C How is sedimentary rock formed? Textbook pp. 16–22 HKDSE DBQ 2014 Q1ai, ii
1 Sedimentary rock is made up of materials that have been eroded from pre-existing rocks and
the remains of living organisms. It can be grouped into two types:
a Clastic sedimentary rock is formed from particles of pre-existing rocks.
b Non-clastic sedimentary rock is formed by chemical processes of evaporation or
precipitation or by an organic process through
the accumulation of dead plants and animals .
2 Clastic sedimentary rock is formed in the following way. Complete the flow chart in Figure 2.
Weathering and erosion Loose fragments and grains are produced
Transportation Weathered materials are moved downhills
Sedimentation/ Sediment is sorted and deposited in lakes, along rivers or in

Deposition shallow coastal waters
Compaction Sediment accumulates and is compacted by weight of overlying

layers
Cementation Minerals dissolved in water cement the loose materials together
Lithification Loose sediment is transformed into solid rock
Clastic sedimentary rock
Figure 2 Formation of clastic sedimentary rock

8-9
3 Clastic sedimentary rock is classified according to the size of the particles in the sediment.
Complete Table 1.
Table 1 Classification of clastic sedimentary rock
Texture Size of particle Name of Clastic sedimentary rock
(mm) particle
Coarse Over 256 Boulder  Conglomerate (with
64–256 Cobble rounded particles) (Figure 3a)
4–64 Pebble
Granule  Breccia (with angular
2–4
particles) (Figure 3b)
Medium Sand Sandstone (Figure 3c)
Fine Silt Mudstone and siltstone

(Figure 3d)
Very fine Clay Shale (Figure 3e)
a b
(Credit: Michael P. Gadomski/ (Credit: Wwwhazzapala/

c Dreamstime.com)
Science Photo Library)
(Credit: Michal
Baranski/
Dreamstime.com)
d
(Credit: Stephen Hui Geological Museum,

(Credit: Trevor Clifford
the University of Hong Kong)
Photography/Science Photo Library)
Figure 3 Examples of clastic sedimentary rock Dreamstime)
8-10
4 Some clastic sedimentary rocks have layered structure. Label Figure 4 with the words given.
Strata Bedding plane
Bedding plane
Strata
Figure 4
5 Figure 5 shows dip and strike on an inclined sedimentary rock. Find out the dip and strike in
the diagram.
 Dip (angle of dip): 34

 Strike: north-south
Figure 5 Dip and strike
6 What are the general characteristics of clastic sedimentary rock? Refer to the sedimentary rock
shown in the photo for hints and fill in the table below.
Forming Composed of
materials fragments/particles
eroded from pre-existing rock
Structure/  Presence of layers

Texture ( stratified
rock) with bedding
plane
 Less compact/Soft
(Credit: pdtnc/iStock.com)
 ( Non-crystalline /
Crystalline )
Presence ( May / Do not ) have fossils

of fossils
8-11
7 Non-clastic sedimentary rock is formed in a very different way. Fill in Figure 6.
Non-clastic sedimentary rock
Chemically-formed Organically-formed
Chemical Evaporation/ Water Remains of shells/ Burying and

precipitation evaporates from a skeletons compacting
salt water body of sea-dwelling dead vegetation
organisms in swamps
Example Example Example Example
Gypsum Rock salt Limestone/Chalk Coal

(Fossils may be
found)
(Credit: Farbled/ (Credit: grotos 245/

(Credit: PjrStudio/ (Credit: Lcrms7/
Dreamstime.com) flickr)
Alamy Stock Photo) Dreamstime.com)
Figure 6 Formation of non-clastic sedimentary rock
8 The table below shows the general characteristics of non-clastic sedimentary rock.
Forming materials Materials formed chemically or organically
Structure/Texture ( Less / More ) compact than igneous rock
Presence of fossils ( May / Do not ) have fossils, especially those formed organically
Colour Varies, depends on the colour of the materials that formed the rock
and the environment and climate in which it formed
D How is metamorphic rock formed? Textbook pp. 22–6
1 What is metamorphism?
Metamorphism is the process of transformation of existing rock
under the influence of high pressure and/or high temperatures .
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2 There are three types of metamorphism. Complete the table below to show.
Dynamic Thermal/Contact Regional metamorphism
metamorphism metamorphism
Location of Rocks along Contact zone At convergent plate

occurrence faults where magma intrusion boundaries where large-scale
touches the existing rock mountain-building process is
found
Condition High pressure High temperature High pressure and temperature

that cause
the rock to
transform
Effect on  Mineral grains Minerals melted Minerals recrystallized
rock flattened and recrystallized and realigned
minerals
and realigned to form a new type of rock roughly perpendicular to the
roughly parallel to direction of compressional force
Limestone
shearing force
Gneiss
Calcite from shells and skeletons

cemented together, with space
between grains
Heat raises the

temperature of
the rock at the
contact zone
Marble
Compressional force
(Credit: Drik Wiersma/Science
 No or little change Photo Library)
in mineral content
Calcite recrystallizes, and these
crystals interlock together
8-13
3 Under metamorphism, some rocks have minerals flattened and realigned to give a foliated
structure, while some have minerals recrystallized to give a crystalline structure. In general,
 metamorphic rock formed under great pressure have a foliated
structure. It is called foliated metamorphic rock;
 metamorphic rock formed under high temperature have a crystalline
structure. It does not have a foliated structure. It is called non-foliated metamorphic rock.
4 Complete the table below to show the characteristics of foliated and non-foliated metamorphic
rocks.
Foliated metamorphic rock Non-foliated metamorphic rock

Condition that  Pressure generated by shearing Heat associated with intrusion of
cause the rock force along faults magma
to transform
 Pressure and heat associated with
mountain-building activities
Structure/  Generally ( non-crystalline / crystalline )
Texture  ( More compact / Less compact ) than the parent rock
 Fine to coarse -grained  Fine to medium -grained

Examples Examples
- Fine-grained: slate, phyllite - Fine-grained: anthracite
- Medium- to coarse-grained: - Medium-grained: quartzite,
schist, gneiss marble
 Parallel alignment of flat or  No visible alignment
elongated minerals
 Examples of foliated structures:
Characteristic
- very thin layers

- shiny appearance
- alternate bands of light and
dark minerals
Quartzite
Museum, the University of Hong
Kong)
Phyllite
(Credit: Michal Baranski/
Dreamstime.com)
Presence Absent (Reason: High temperature and pressure will
of fossils destroy fossils )
8-14
E What is a rock cycle? Textbook pp. 26–7 HKDSE Essay 2013 Q5, 2016 Q5
1 Study Figure 7 about the rock cycle.
a A rock cycle is the cycle of transformation which affects all rock/ a cycle by which
rock is transformed among one another .
Figure 7
b Fill in the boxes in Figure 7 to show the type of rock formed.
c With reference to the knowledge you learned in the previous section, describe:
i how igneous rock is formed;
During volcanism, magma or lava cools and solidifies. Crystallization occurs
during cooling and forms igneous rock.
ii how sedimentary rock is formed;

When rock is exposed to the earth’s surface, it is subject to denudation/weathering
and erosion. The loose materials are carried away and deposited as sediment.
Compaction, cementation and lithification turn the sediment into sedimentary
rock.
8-15
iii how metamorphic rock is formed.

When rock is subject to high temperature and/or high pressure, metamorphism
changes the texture and mineral composition of the rock, forming metamorphic
rock.
d Refer to Figure 7 again. Complete the following points to show how one type of rock
transforms to another.
i Igneous rock and sedimentary rock may turn to metamorphic rocks when
high pressure and/or high temperature occur on the rock.
ii Sedimentary rock may turn to igneous rock when the rock melts into magma,
cools and solidifies.
iii Metamorphic rock may turn to sedimentary rock when it is subjected to denudation,
sedimentation, compaction, cementation and lithification.
e With reference to Questions c and d, what would you conclude about the rock cycle?
The rock cycle can begin with any one of the three rock types.
F How are different types of rock distributed in Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 28–9 HKDSE DBQ 2012 Q1aiii, 2018 Q1ai, ii
1 Figure 8 shows the distribution of different rock types in Hong Kong.
Figure 8
8-16
Refer to Figure 8 on p. 16,

a complete the table below about the occurrence of rock types in Hong Kong.
Occurrence of rock Rock type
Major outcrop (85%) Igneous rock
Second largest outcrop (13%) Sedimentary rock
No large outcrop Metamorphic rock
b complete the table below to show the distribution of different rock types in Hong Kong.
Type of rock Distribution
Igneous Intrusive  Both sides of Victoria Harbour
rock rock
(mainly  ( Eastern / Western ) Lantau Island
granite)
 Areas around Castle Peak, Tai Lam, Sha Tin, Tai Po
Extrusive  Central, northern and eastern parts (Sai

rock Kung) of the New Territories
(mainly
tuff)  ( Eastern / Western ) Lantau Island
 Central part of Hong Kong Island
Sedimentary rock  North-eastern part of the New Territories

(mostly clastic, such as (on islands such as Ping Chau, Ap Chau)
conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone and  On the ( northern / western ) side of the Tolo Channel
mudstone)
 Along the coast at Tai O on Lantau Island
Metamorphic rock Mainly found underground in Yuen Long, Ma On Shan

(not much, mostly and Tung Chung
marble and schist)
2 Complete the table on p. 18 to show the characteristics and formation processes of different
types of rock in Hong Kong.
8-17
Granite^ Tuff* Conglomerate* Siltstone^
Major  Crystalline  Crystalline  Crystalline  Crystalline

characteristic  Contain particles of  Contain particles of  Contain particles of  Contain particles of
(tick ‘’ the pre-existing rocks pre-existing rocks pre-existing rocks pre-existing rocks
correct answer)
 Stratified  Stratified  Stratified  Stratified
 Contain fossils  Contain fossils  Contain fossils  Contain fossils
 Foliation  Foliation  Foliation  Foliation
 Shiny sheen  Shiny sheen  Shiny sheen  Shiny sheen
Type of rock Igneous rock (plutonic Igneous rock (volcanic Clastic sedimentary Clastic sedimentary
rock/intrusive rock) rock/extrusive rock) rock rock
Other  Coarse- to  Fine -grained  Some are cemented  With thin

characteristic(s) medium-grained  Some are light grey in strata
of the rock  Composed of quartz,  Some have crystals thick
 With fossils of
feldspar and mica of quartz and layers
plants and
 Presence of joints feldspar embedded  Some rest on top of
insects
 Light colour in dark fine extrusive rock;
groundmass some others are
 May contain crystals sandwiched by
and volcanic other sedimentary  Dark grey to
materials ranging rocks reddish brown in
from fine ash to  Red or white in colour
small volcanic rock colour
fragments
 Some have
columnar
joints
Formation Formed from slow Formed from cooling White conglomerate Formed from
process of the cooling of magma in and solidification of formed from lithification of silt in a
rock in Hong the batholiths volcanic ash and rock lithification of round quiet environment
Kong fragments pebbles in rivers at
around Tolo Channel
and Ma On Shan
Red conglomerate
formed in an arid
climate, when rocks
fell from hill slopes in
the north-east of Hong
Kong, then compacted
and cemented
^ (Credit: Yeung Kam Chuen)
* (Credit: The Head of the Geotechnical Engineering Office and the Director of Civil Engineering and Development,
the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
8-18
G How does the type of rock affect the physical landscape of Hong
Kong? Textbook pp. 30–2 HKDSE DBQ 2018 Q1aii; Essay 2013 Q5, 2014 Q5, 2016 Q5, 2017 Q5
1 a What is the relationship between the resistance of rock and weathering and erosion?
The resistance of rock controls the rate of weathering and erosion. Less
resistant rock has ( slower / faster ) rate of weathering and erosion.
b How does the resistance of rock affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong?
In Hong Kong, more resistant rock is weathered and eroded at a ( slower / faster ) rate,
forming mountain peaks/ridges . The less resistant rock is weathered
and eroded at a ( slower / faster ) rate, forming depressions/valleys .
2 Figure 9 shows the distribution of different rock types in Hong Kong and Figure 10 shows the
relief of Hong Kong.
Figure 9
Figure 10
8-19
Refer to Figures 9 and 10 on p. 19, complete the table on pp. 20–1 to show how different types
of rock affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong.
Rock type Landscape/Relief formed on this type of rock Reason
Sedimentary ( High / Low ) hills, such as  ( High / Low )
rock ○1 Pat Sin Leng resistance to weathering
(conglomerate)
and erosion as pebbles
and cementing materials
are strong. The rate of
denudation is low even
under the hot and wet
climate
(Credit: ystsoi/flickr)  Protect underlying rock
○2 Wong Leng (tuff) from denudation
Extrusive ( High / Low ) hills with angular peaks, rugged ( High / Low ) resistance
(tuff) relief and ( steep / gentle ) gradient, such as to weathering and erosion
○
3 uplands in western Lantau (e.g. Lantau Peak) as its fine-grained and
crystalline structure make
it compact
(Credit: Martin Ng/flickr)

○
4 central Hong Kong Island
Igneous rock
○
5 central (e.g. Tai Mo Shan) and eastern New
Territories (e.g. Sharp Peak)

Intrusive Low hills (under 500 m) with rounded peaks and ( High / Low ) resistance
(granite) relatively ( gentle / steep ) gradient, such as to weathering and erosion
○
6 lowlands on the two sides of Victoria Harbour because
○
7 Po Toi
 well-jointed
structure allows water to
penetrate along joints
deep into the rock for
weathering
 mica and feldspar are
unstable under hot and
wet climate
8-20
Rock type Landscape/Relief formed on this type of rock Reason

Sedimentary Low-lying areas with layered rock structures, such ( High / Low ) resistance
rock, except as to weathering and erosion
conglomerate ○8 Ping Chau
because
(e.g. sandstone,
siltstone, shale)  sediment is only
compacted and loosely
cemented together
 bedding plane/strata
are lines of weakness
for denudation
○
9 Ap Chau
○
10 Port Island
(Credit: The Head of the Geotechnical

Engineering Office and the Director of Civil
Engineering and Development, the Government of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
8-21
How is the physical landscape of Hong Kong shaped

8.3
by internal processes?
Focus of this unit:
 How faulting affects the physical landscape  How volcanism affects the physical
of Hong Kong landscape of Hong Kong
 How folding affects the physical landscape
of Hong Kong
A How does faulting affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 36–9 HKDSE Essay 2018 Q5
1 Refer to Figure 1 which shows the distribution of large-scale fault lines in Hong Kong.
Figure 1
a What internal process is indicated by the presence of fault lines in Hong Kong?
Faulting
b What do you notice about the orientation (direction) of faults in Hong Kong?
Faults in Hong Kong usually orient in two directions: north-east/south-west and
north-west/south-east .
c i Refer to Figures 1 and 2 on p. 23. Name the two largest faults in Hong Kong.
From Tolo Channel through Sha Tin to the west of

Kowloon: Tolo Channel Fault
From Sha Tau Kok through Tsing Lung Tau to Pui O: Sha Tau Kok Fault
8-22
Figure 2 Fault lines in Shenzhen and nearby areas

ii Explain the orientation of the major faults in Hong Kong with reference to Figure 2.
The orientation of faults in Hong Kong is in line with the trend of the faulting
system of South China.
2 Weathering and erosion tend to concentrate along faults. Why? Complete the table below to
show the reasons and resultant relief features formed along faults.
Reasons of active weathering and Resultant relief features

erosion along faults
 Rock along faults is often crushed Valleys and water inlets, with headland areas and
into fragments due to the force ridges on the two sides as erosion lowers the land
along faults
associated with rock displacement.
This increases the surface areas Examples:
for chemical  Relief features formed along the Tolo Channel
weathering Fault:
 Faults are lines of weakness Tolo Channel , Shatin Valley and
. They allow water Chi Ma Wan Gap on Lantau Island with ridges
to penetrate into the bedrock and on both sides (the north-east/south-west
carry out chemical weathering alignment of these relief features are
determined by the Tolo Channel Fault)
 Weathering turns rock along faults
into loose weathered materials.  Relief features formed along the Tai Lam Fault
These materials are easily removed and the minor faults around Tai Lam Chung
by erosion region:
Tai Lam Chung Valley and
rectangular drainage pattern in the area
8-23
3 Besides the major fault system, small-scale faults

Top
are common in Hong Kong. Refer to the one
shown in Figure 3. Do you know what kind of
fault it is? How do you know? (Hint: Note the
direction of the arrow)
It is a normal fault. It is because the rock slides
down the fault plane.
(Credit: Yeung Kam Chuen) Bottom

Figure 3
B How does folding affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 39–40 HKDSE DBQ 2014 Q1b
1 When rock is affected by compressional force, the
rock strata are bent into a fold .
In Hong Kong, relatively large-scale folds

occur in Yuen Long. However, they are covered by
superficial deposits. Therefore, folding
( is / is not ) a major feature of the physical
landscape of Hong Kong.
(Credit: Scarlett Tsui)

Figure 4 Folded rock layers in Bluff Head
C How has volcanism affected the physical landscape of Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 41–6 HKDSE DBQ 2015 Q1aiii
1 Both extrusive and intrusive volcanisms occurred in Hong Kong. Complete the table on
pp. 25–6 to show their characteristics and effects on the physical landscape of Hong Kong.
8-24
Major characteristic
 Volcanic eruptions emitted large amounts of volcanic ash

and lava , forming tuff and other volcanic rock
 During the cooling process, tuff contracted and hexagonal columnar
joints developed
(Credit: The Head of the Geotechnical Engineering Office and the Director of
Civil Engineering and Development, the Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region)
Extrusive
volcanism  Some solidified ash formed layers
 Solidified lava display flow bands
How such characteristics affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong
 Extrusive rocks are resistant

to weathering. They form ( high / low )
hills in Hong Kong, e.g. Tai Mo Shan and
Lantau Peak
 In Sai Kung, wave erosion is concentrated

along the columnar joints at the coast.
This forms coastal landforms such as
sea caves and
sea arches . Collapse of
rock columns form nearly vertical or very
steep sea cliffs
8-25
Major characteristic 1
 This process formed batholiths in Hong Kong. We can see this

feature because it became exposed after the rock on top was
removed by erosion
How such characteristic affects the physical landscape of Hong Kong
 Exposed batholiths cover over one-third of the area in Hong Kong
 Batholiths are unstable and less resistant/vulnerable to weathering

when they are unloaded and exposed to the atmosphere
 They form ( high / low ) hills on Kowloon Peninsula, such as Castle Peak
Major characteristic 2
 This process also formed dykes in Hong Kong (Feature X in

Figure 5). In Lantau Island, they occur in swarms and extend over a large area
Intrusive
volcanism
Feature X
Figure 5 An intrusive feature at Cape D’Aguilar Marine Reserve
How such characteristic affect the physical landscape of Hong Kong
 Resistant dykes form spurs and waterfalls , while less resistant

dykes form narrow inlets along the coast
8-26

8.4
by external processes?
Focus of this unit:
 How weathering works  Different types of erosion
 Mechanical (physical) weathering  Conditions leading to deposition
 Chemical weathering  How external processes shape the physical
 How mass wasting occurs landscape of Hong Kong
A What are external processes? Textbook pp. 54–5
1 Match the following external processes with correct explanation.
External process Explanation

Weathering E A Load is carried by moving agents
Mass movement B B Fragments move down the slope under gravity
Erosion C C Debris is removed by moving agents, e.g. river
Transportation A D Load is settled when moving agents lose their energy
Deposition D E Rock is broken into fragments by moisture and
temperature changes
B How does weathering work? Textbook pp. 55–62
HKDSE DBQ 2012 Q1bi, ii, 2014 Q1ci, ii, 2016 Q1bii, 2018 Q1bi, ii, 2019 Q1bi, ci, ii; Essay 2012 Q5, 2015 Q5
1 a Weathering occurs on exposed rocks. It breaks down rocks into loose debris, called
regolith . This forms a blanket covering the bedrock which is not being
weathered.
b There are several causes of
weathering. These include
changes in temperature ,
pressure, and moisture, as well
as the action of living organisms.
8-27
2 Complete Figure 1 on p. 28 to show the types of weathering and the five forms of weathering.
Weathering
Mechanical weathering Chemical weathering
The breaking of Rocks break down because certain

rocks into smaller angular minerals in rocks change into weaker
fragments ( with / without ) ones. This is due to the
changing its chemical chemical reaction
composition between the rocks and the gases in
the air, water or other solutions they
come into contact
Five forms of weathering
Block Granular Exfoliation Honeycomb Spheroidal
disintegration disintegration weathering weathering
Rock is broken Rock peels off Rock becomes

into blocks like onions rounded
Rock shatters Form honeycomb-
into grains like feature on rock
Figure 1
3 There are four common processes of mechanical weathering. Fill in the table on pp. 29–30 to
show how they work.
8-28
Process of Description
mechanical
weathering
1 Thermal  Rock is heated up intensely during the day and then cools to a low
expansion temperature at night in areas with a ( small / large ) diurnal range of
and temperature  Alternate expansion and contraction of
contraction the rock  Rock shatters into boulders, grains or slabs
 In Hong Kong, the diurnal range of temperature is not large enough (less than
10°C) to cause thermal expansion and contraction of rock. On hot summer
days, rock is intensely heated by strong sunlight during daytime and suddenly
cooled by rainwater . Repeated expansion and contraction can
cause rock to weaken and disintegrate
 Effects on different types of rock:
 Well-jointed rock or rock with many
cracks
Cracks enlarged due to alternate
expansion and contraction  Large
blocks split away from the main rock
along main cracks  Form of
weathering: Block
disintegration
 Coarse-grained rock with different minerals
Different rates of expansion and contraction among different
minerals  Mineral grains break off from the rock surface 
Form of weathering: Granular disintegration
 Fine-grained rock with uniform
structure
Different rates of expansion and
contraction between the surface and
the interior of the rock  Concentric
and radial cracks developed
at the outer layer of the rock  The
outer layer split off from the interior
like the skin of an onion  Form of
weathering:
Exfoliation
8-29
2 Pressure  Overlying rock exerts great

release of pressure on the rock
rock
beneath
 When overlying rock is
removed by erosion, the
pressure on the rock beneath is
released (known as
unloading )
 The rock expands and cracks
that are parallel to the rock
surface developed
 Rock splits into sheets or
blocks along the cracks
(a form of exfoliation:
sheeting )
3 Crystal  Water in a crack freezes to ice when temperature drops below 0°C  Ice
growth expands and widens the crack  Ice thaws and more
water enters the crack  Repeated freezing and thawing of ice crystals
further widen the crack  Rock is detached and broken into angular blocks
or fragments  Forms of weathering: block disintegration
 Ice crystals are uncommon in Hong Kong as temperature rarely drops
below 0°C
 Salt crystals Water evaporates, Repeated
crystallization growth of salt
Saline solution seeps takes place Salt crystals left crystals Salt crystals
into cracks or pores in in the cracks or accumulate
coastal rocks pore
On well-jointed
rocks or rocks
with many cracks
Minerals break off, forming Cracks widened

many small pits on
the rock surface
Outer layer of rock breaks into small
pieces and peel off the rock surface
Form of
weathering
Honeycomb
Form of
weathering weathering
Exfoliation
4 Biological Tree roots force open the joints in rocks. The great pressure helps
activity break the rock along the joints
8-30
Senior Secondary Exploring Geography (Third Edition) Comprehensive worksheets
4 The chart below shows the processes of mechanical weathering.
Mechanical weathering
Growth of salt Growth of ice Alternate heating and Removal of heavy Biological
crystals crystals cooling of rock overlying materials activities
Thermal expansion and

Crystal growth Crystal growth contraction Pressure release Plant roots grow and
(salt) (ice) force open the joints
Revision table
in rock
Well-jointed Coarse-grained Fine-grained
rocks rocks with rocks with
different minerals uniform structure
Joints enlarged Different rates Different rates

as alternate of expansion of expansion
expansion and and contraction and contraction
contraction among minerals between the
create stress cause the rock surface and the
along joints. to break down interior of rock
Rock splits into into grains cause the outer
blocks layers of rock to
peel off
Honeycomb Granular Exfoliation Block Granular Exfoliation Sheeting (a form Block

weathering disintegration disintegration disintegration of exfoliation) disintegration
8-31
5 Complete the chart below about the four processes of chemical weathering.
Chemical weathering
Minerals react and Minerals absorb Minerals react Soluble minerals

combine with water and turn with hydrogen dissolved in pure
oxygen in the air or into new but in water water or weak acid
dissolve in the weaker minerals
water
Oxidation Hydration Hydrolysis Solution and

carbonation
6 Below shows a form of chemical weathering. Describe the weathering process.
Water seeps through joints of rock.

Weathering works from them towards the
interior of the rock.
Rock along the joints is weathered to loose

rock debris ( regolith ). The
unweathered rock at the centre, called the
corestone , gets smaller
and rounded with time. This form of
weathering is called spheroidal
weathering .
Regolith is later removed by erosion

or mass wasting. The corestones are then exposed
on the ground surface. They often pile up on top
of one another, forming tors .
8-32
7 Fill in the table below to show the factors affecting weathering.
Factor How does it affect weathering
Temperature • In places with a large diurnal range of temperature 

Frequent alternate thermal expansion and contraction  Rapid
mechanical weathering
• High temperatures increase the rate of chemical reaction  ( Speed up /
Slow down ) chemical weathering
Climate
Rainfall In places with high rainfall, chemical weathering is active because:

• more rainwater seeps into joints/cracks of rock  Favours
spheroidal weathering
• more soluble rock minerals will be dissolved and removed by
rainwater
Rock type • Rock with more soluble minerals  Vulnerable to chemical

weathering in wet climate, or in coastal areas where seawater sprays are
common
• Rock with minerals of different expansion and contraction rate 
Vulnerable to mechanical weathering (granular disintegration)
• Rock with more joints  Vulnerable to
- mechanical weathering as joints are easily enlarged due to
alternate thermal expansion and contraction (block disintegration)
- chemical weathering as joints provide space for water
seepage (spheroidal weathering)
- biological weathering because joints alllow tree roots to grow (block
disintegration)
Vegetation Active plant growth has two effects on mechanical weathering:

• ( Facilitates / Slows down ) mechanical weathering as tree roots widen
joints or cracks
• ( Facilitates / Slows down ) mechanical weathering as trees provide
shade/shelter from strong sunlight
Thickness of the A thick layer of weathered materials (regolith) can slow down
weathered the weathering of the bedrock
materials
Time of exposure The degree of weathering would increase if the rock is exposed to air for a
( longer / shorter ) period of time
8-33
C In what ways does mass wasting occur? Textbook pp. 64–5
HKDSE DBQ 2015 Q1bi, ii; Essay 2012 Q5, 2015 Q5
1 What causes slope materials to move downslope?

Force of gravity
2 When will mass wasting occur?

It occurs when there is imbalance between the two forces:
 Shear strength : the force that prevents slope materials from falling
downslope. This involves two forces:
a Cohesion of slope b Force of friction to sliding of the materials
materials: force that holds
rocks and soil together.
Slope

 Shear stress : the downward pulling force that exerts pressure to move
slope materials downslope. This is controlled by two factors:
a Gradient b Weight
of the slope of slope materials
8-34
3 Fill in the diagram below to show how the two forces are affected by different factors and lead
to mass wasting.
It increases when:
• slope gradient increases
• weight of slope materials increases
Shear stress > Shear strength  Mass wasting
It decreases when:
• rainfall increases
• friction to sliding decreases
• rock resistance decreases
• soil cohesion decreases
4 In Hong Kong, rockfalls and landslides are common types of mass wasting. Complete the
table below to compare these two types of mass wasting.
Rockfall Landslide
How it occurs When partially weathered When the cohesion of

rock on overhanging or steep slope slope materials reduces after rain,
lose support and fall apart due to rock and soils collapse along a
gravity straight or curved
surface
Speed Very fast Fast
Slope materials Rock fragments Rock and soils

involved
of all sizes
Way of movement Free fall Slumping/Sliding
Characteristics of Steep or overhanging slopes More likely to occur on steep slopes

the slope where
they occur
8-35
D What are the different types of erosion? Textbook pp. 66–7
HKDSE DBQ 2016 Q1bi, ii; Essay 2012 Q5, 2015 Q5
1 Complete the flow chart below about water erosion on bare slopes.
Lack of vegetation on Cracks are formed Running water

slopes, exposing the topsoil when the topsoil erodes soil grains
and regolith contracts along cracks
Gully Rills become deeper Rills Rill

erosion and wider channels are formed erosion
Gullies Dense concentration Badlands

are formed of gullies
2 In the space provided, draw a series of annotated diagrams to show the formation of gullies.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
8-36
Note: Questions 3 and 4 cover the processes and landforms/features of rivers and coasts. Refer to Book 1
Part 2 ‘Managing river and coastal environments’ Units 2.3 and 2.5 for answers if necessary.
3 a Name the erosional features shown in Figures 2a and b, and their main agents of erosion.
a Feature X b
Feature Y
Feature Y: Stack
Feature X: Agents of erosion: Waves
Waterfall
Agent of erosion:
River
Figure 2 Erosional features in Hong Kong
b How do the agents of erosion carry out erosion in Figures 2a and b respectively?
River removes rock materials from river beds and banks.
The action of waves breaks against the exposed coastline and removes the
rock along the coast. (or other relevant answers)
c Give ONE more example of erosional landform/feature produced by these agents

respectively.
River: V-shaped valleys/interlocking spurs/rapids/gorges/river cliffs (any one)
Waves: sea cave/sea arches/wave-cut platforms/sea cliffs (any one)
8-37
E When does deposition occur? Textbook p. 68
1 a When does deposition occur?

Deposition occurs when rivers and waves lose their energy.
b Name TWO depositional features in rivers and along the coast respectively.
Fluvial depositional features Oxbow lakes/floodplains/levees/braided streams/
deltas (any two)
Wave depositional features Beaches/spits/bars/tombolos (any two)
F How is the physical landscape of Hong Kong shaped by external

processes? Textbook pp. 69–72 HKDSE DBQ 2016 Q1bii; Essay 2012 Q5
1 Complete the table on pp. 38–9 to show the landscape characteristics formed by external
processes in Hong Kong. (Hint: Refer to an atlas for examples)
Landscape Description Example found in Hong Kong (one to
characteristic two examples)
Uplands and Extrusive rock (i.e. tuff) • Rugged hills with angular peaks:
low hills have ( high / low ) resistance to Tai Mo Shan/Lantau Peak/Sharp
weathering and erosion. It forms steep, Peak/other acceptable answers
rugged hills with angular peaks and • Uplands: western Lantau/central
uplands and eastern New Territories/other
acceptable answers
Intrusive rock (i.e. granite) Beacon Hill/Castle Peak/other

have ( high / low ) resistance to acceptable answers
weathering and erosion. It forms low
hills below 500 m with gentle slopes
and rounded peaks
Conglomerate have ( high / low ) Pat Sin Leng/Wong Leng

resistance to weathering and erosion.
It protects underlying less resistant
rock to form high hills/ridges
8-38
Landscape Description Example found in Hong Kong (one to

characteristic two examples)
Uplands and Other sedimentary rocks (except Ping Chau/Ap Chau/Port Island/other
low hills conglomerate) have ( high / low ) acceptable answers
resistance to weathering and erosion.
They form low-lying areas
with layered rock structures
Deep • Deep weathering profiles are Amah Rock is an

weathering formed from fast chemical example of a tor
profiles and tor
weathering of granite as the
formations
presence of joints on granite allow
water to penetrate deep below the
surface
• Spheroidal weathering takes place
in the profile. When the overlying
materials are removed, the granite
corestones are exposed as
tors
Badlands Absence of vegetation on slopes and Northern Lantau and Castle

heavy rains in summer in Hong Kong Peak
cause gully erosion.
Badlands are formed
8-39
2 With the help of the hints below, briefly describe the processes that produce features A, B and
Landform C.
Feature A Type of weathering: Mechanical weathering
(caused by alternate expansion and contraction
of rocks )
Describe the process:

During hot summer days, the rock is intensely
heated and expands
When it rains suddenly, the rock cools and

(Credit: Sze Ming Hui)
contracts . Joints are enlarged
Result:
Repeated expansion and contraction of the
rock causes the rock to break into blocks (Feature A)
along the main cracks
Type of process: Erosion/wave erosion

Feature produced: sea cave
Describe the formation process:
Wave erosion concentrates at the areas between
high tide and low tide and
along the columnar joints which are lines of
Feature B weakness . They are enlarged to form a cave
called a sea cave
Type of process: Deposition/wave deposition

Landform produced: Beach
Describe the formation process:
Eroded materials carried by waves are deposited in
Landform C
sheltered areas, forming Landform C. They are
the building up of sand and shingle between
the lowest water level and the highest
water level reached by storm waves
8-40

8.5
and modified by human activity?
Focus of this unit:
 Reclamation  Modifying drainage systems
 Cutting slopes  Setting up landfills
 Flooding valleys and damming water inlets  Developing the physical landscape for
for building reservoirs recreational use
In what ways is our physical landscape modified by urban

development? Textbook pp. 81–7 HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q1ai & ii; Essay 2018 Q5
1 Figure 1 shows the population change in Hong Kong between 1871 and 2018.
Figure 1
a Refer to Figure 1. Describe the population change in Hong Kong in the period shown.
Before 1891, the population was quite steady with less than half a million people. It
started to grow from 1891 to 1941, reaching around 1.6 million people. Then it dropped
drastically from 1941 to 1945 to around 0.6 million people. The population started to
grow again in 1945 and has been increasing ever since, reaching over 7 million people.
8-41
Figure 2 Coastal reclamation in Hong Kong
b Refer to Figure 2.
i When did most reclamation projects take place in Hong Kong?
Most reclamation projects took place after 1945.

ii Where do most reclamation projects occur in Hong Kong?
Most reclamation projects in Hong Kong occur along the two sides of Victoria
Harbour and at Chek Lap Kok.
iii What are the major land uses of the reclaimed areas mentioned in Question ai?
They are mainly used for the expansion of commercial , industrial ,

and residential areas.
iv Name TWO new towns that are built on reclaimed land.
Tuen Mun/Tai Po/Sha Tin/Tseung Kwan O/Ma On Shan/Kwun Tong (any two)
8-42
c How has reclamation changed our natural coastline and landscape? Complete the
following points about these changes.
In general,
 more flat land is created;
 the coastline is shortened and straightened ;
 harbours become narrower ;
 bays and areas of shallow seas are buried;
 some islands disappear because they are linked up with major land areas;
 obtaining reclamation materials from the sea or nearby hills cause deepening
of the sea and levelling of the land.
d i Apart from coastal areas, where does reclamation take place?
Reclamation also takes place on natural lowlands such as floodplains,

wetlands , farmlands and fish ponds in the New Territories.
ii How does reclamation on natural lowlands change the natural landscape?
It raises the elevation/height of the land for urban development. It also

raises tombolos to provide land for settlement.
iii Name ONE example of development on reclaimed natural lowlands in Hong Kong.
Fairview Park/Tin Shui Wai new town/settlements in Cheung Chau (any one)
e Refer to Figures 1 and 2. Is there any relationship between changes in population and
changes in our landscape?
Yes, population growth leads to substantial changes in our landscape. The growing
population has led to a great demand for urban development. As flat land is limited in
Hong Kong, modification of the physical landscape by reclamation is needed to provide
more land to satisfy the demand.
8-43
2 Complete Figure 3 to show how the physical landscape is modified for urban development by
other means.
Cutting and filling

the slopes for development
remove natural
vegetation and Extracting rocks
steepens the slopes for construction Flooding river
valleys and damming
On hill slopes In quarries water inlets near the sea
Cutting slopes Building reservoirs
How the physical landscape is

modified for urban development
Modifying drainage systems Setting up landfills Developing the physical

landscape for
Building catchwaters Filling valleys recreational use
to collect water for the and raising the
reservoirs land Modifying the landscape
by building facilities such
Straightening and widening Restoring and as golf courses
rivers by landscaping closed and large parks
channelisation landfills to provide green
zones and land for
Concealing recreational use
channels in urban areas
Figure 3
8-44
How do we manage our geological resources in Hong

8.6
Kong?
Focus of this unit:
 Geological resources in Hong Kong  Environmental impacts of the extraction of
reclamation materials
 Reclamation process  Pros and cons of using public fill
 Reclamation materials
A What geological resources are there in Hong Kong? How do we use

them? Textbook pp. 91–4 HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q1c
1 What are geological resources?
Geological resources are materials of geological origins that are valuable for
human uses.
2 Complete the table below to show the geological resources in Hong Kong and their uses.
Geological resource Use
Mineral resources As industrial raw materials locally

 Metallic (e.g. iron ores, silver ores, and overseas
tungsten, lead ores)
 Non-metallic (e.g. kaolin)
Aggregates (e.g. sand, gravel, As construction materials to make

crushed stone) concrete, mortar and asphalt
Aquifers bearing groundwater For domestic and irrigation uses
Tectonic and denudation For geotourism , educational

features purposes and scientific research
Rock caverns (i.e. large  For various land uses, e.g. industrial,
man-made spaces created by excavating institutional, transport land uses
rocks such as granite)  Hide certain facilities to reduce their
visual impact
 Release land for other uses
Soils, rocks and marine sand As reclamation materials
8-45
B How is reclamation done? Textbook p. 95
1 Complete Figure 1 to show the reclamation process.
 Marine mud is removed A sea wall is

by dredging . It is replaced constructed using rock fill to
with marine sand fill encircle the area to be reclaimed. It
 Other fill materials
is protected by rock armour
are poured into the Rock
armour
area to complete the
Sea level
reclamation
Rock fill Original level of marine mud
Marine Marine sand fill Marine

mud mud
Figure 1
C What materials are used for reclamation in Hong Kong? Textbook p. 96
HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q1bi
1 Complete the table below to show the nature, source and distribution of fill materials.
Rock fill Marine sand fill Public fill
Nature of Weathered granitic Deposits of Inert construction

material rocks alluvium and demolition materials
Source and  Extracted from  Dredged from the  Taken from

distribution slopes in seabed in development and
borrow the waters of Hong demolition
areas in the Kong sites
countryside  Imported from the  Managed in public
 Mainly in the Mainland and other fill reception
New Territories countries facilities
2 How do we choose which fill material to use?

The choice of fill materials depends on availability and cost .
8-46
D How does the extraction of reclamation materials affect the

environment? Textbook pp. 97–9 HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q1bii
1 Refer to Figure 2. Complete the table below to show the negative environmental impacts of
extracting rock fill for reclamation.
 Extraction
produces dust  Removal of vegetation
and soil
 Machines
 Exposing produce noise
bare rocks
 Silting in drainage
channels
Figure 2
Environmental impact How the environmental impact occurs
 Air Extraction of rock fill creates dust , which can

pollution harm the respiratory system
During extraction
 Noise Noise from machines may scare away birds

pollution and disturb people in nearby settlements
 Water  Rock debris and soil washed down from

pollution the site may block the drainage channels
 They also increase the sediment content
in bodies of water near the site
 Destruction of the  This destroys the habitats of animals

Complete removal of
vegetation and soil
ecosystem and cuts their food supply

 The remaining thin soil may not be able to support
vegetation
 Visual ‘ Scars ’ are left on the green landscape

pollution
8-47
2 Refer to Figure 3. Complete the table below to show the negative impacts of dredging marine sand
for reclamation.
Dredger
 Toxic water kills

marine life Sea
 Some sea creatures survive

 Seawater becomes turbid
Contaminated
 Fish suffocate mud
 Shelters for sea Marine sand

creatures are dredged
Figure 3
Negative impact How the negative impact occurs
 Death of marine creatures  When contaminated mud at the top layer is

Dredging and dumping
of contaminated mud
due to increased levels of dredged or dumped, toxicity of the

toxins and seawater increases
heavy metals  The toxic materials may accumulate
in the bodies of sea creatures
 Health risk to Toxins and heavy metals can be passed along the
humans food chain and be consumed by humans

Dredging and dumping of mud
 Reduced ability of sea Dredging increases the level of suspended

creatures to find food sediment
and dredging of sand
 This increases the turbidity and

reduces the visibility of seawater
 Suffocation of fish Suspended sediment may clog the gills of

fish
 Destruction of marine Dredging destroys shelters for many sea creatures,

habitats e.g. coral reefs
8-48
3 What issues should we consider when extracting geological resources for reclamation?
We should consider the economic benefits of extracting fill materials, the

economic losses to some industry sectors (e.g. fishing industry) and the negative
impacts on the environment .
4 What can be done to minimize the negative impacts of extracting reclamation materials on the
environment?
Each reclamation project has to pass an environmental impact assessment and is

monitored by the Environmental Protection Department.
In addition, a permit is needed before a marine borrow area or dumping area is

designated for the extraction of marine sand fill.
E What are the pros and cons of using public fill for reclamation?
Textbook p. 99 HKDSE DBQ 2013 Q1bii
1 What are the pros and cons of using public fill for reclamation? Complete the table below.
Pros Cons
 Conserves natural resources  Supply is limited and

by acting as a substitute for rock fill or unreliable
marine sand fill  Requires on-site sorting ,
 Lowers the cost of reclamation which is troublesome and costly, to sort
as it is cheaper than extracting rock fill out reusable inert waste
and marine sand fill
 Reduces waste to ease the
landfill saturation problem
8-49
8.7 How does Hong Kong cope with landslides?
Focus of this unit:

 Damage caused by landslides in Hong Kong  Causes of landslides in Hong Kong
 Temporal and spatial distribution of  Measures to reduce landslide risks
landslides in Hong Kong
A What damage do landslides bring to Hong Kong? Textbook pp. 107–8
1 What damage do landslides bring to Hong Kong?

Landslides knock down buildings, bridges and roads. This cause loss of life and property,
injury to people, making people homeless, and cause economic loss. As landslides may also
destroy water pipes, gas pipes and electricity cables, this will cause disruption to daily
activities.
B When and where do most landslides occur in Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 109–110
1 Complete the table below to show the temporal and spatial distribution of landslides in Hong
Kong.
Temporal distribution Occur in summer months between May and September
of landslides
Source: GEO, CEDD
Spatial distribution of Occurred over extensive areas in Hong Kong:

landslides • on man-made slopes close to or in the built-up areas
• on natural terrain in areas where intensive urban
development is absent
8-50
C What are the causes of landslides in Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 110–15 HKDSE DBQ 2015 Q1bii, c, 2017 Q1aii, b
1 Under what conditions will landslides occur?
Landslides occur The shear stress exceeds the shear strength

when: of the slopes
Shear stress • Gradient of the slope is ( large / small )

increases when:
• Weight of slope materials is ( heavy / light )
Shear strength Cohesion of slope materials is ( reduced / increased ) due to the

reduces when:
following reasons:
• when slope materials are saturated
• when slope materials are weathered/loose
• when there is no plant roots to bind the soil together
2 Complete the table on pp. 51–2 to show the causes of landslides in Hong Kong.
Cause of landslide Explanation
On natural Intense and heavy rainfall • Saturated soil (increases / reduces ) friction
terrain brought by wet south-west and cohesion of soil grains
monsoons, troughs and  Shear strength (  /  )
typhoons in • Rain ( increases / reduces ) the weight of
summer slope materials
 Shear stress (  /  )
Many steep slopes Steep gradient

(gradients of more than  Shear stress (  /  )
30°)
Deeply weathered Granite and coarse-grained volcanic rock are

granite and easily weathered in hot and wet climate due to the
coarse-grained volcanic presence of joints and mineral
rock on slopes contents that are vulnerable to weathering 
Rapid chemical weathering
produces a thick layer of loose soil on slopes
 Shear strength (  /  )
8-51
On man-made Many slopes are cut and • Slope cutting or filling ( increases / reduces )
slopes filled for urban use, such slope gradient
**The three as buildings
causes of
landslides on • Vegetation on slopes was removed for
natural terrain
building squatter huts in the 1950s and the
above are also
applicable to 1960s  Without roots to bind the soil
man-made together
slope
Slopes on hillsides are cut Removal of vegetation + Ploughing

for unauthorised farming  Shear strength (  /  )
or gardening without
proper measures to
stabilise the slopes
Poor maintenance of Cracks on slope surface or damaged drainage

man-made system will
slopes • make water seeps into slope materials
• add weight to slope materials
D What has the government done to mitigate the risk of landslides?

Textbook pp. 116–23 HKDSE DBQ 2016 Q1biii, 2017 Q1ci, ii, 2018 Q1biii; Essay 2019 Q5
1 Complete the table on pp. 52–4 about the measures adopted by the government to reduce the
danger of landslides on natural slopes in Hong Kong.
1 Preventive measure on natural slopes

Careful land-use planning • For slopes where landslides have occurred and
Non-engineering measure
stabilising works are likely to be very expensive,

permanent evacuation or relocation of
nearby facilities may be carried out
• Example: change residential land use to recreational
land use (golf driving range) at the foothill of Tsing
Shan
8-52
1 Preventive measure on natural slopes
 Boulder fence/Flexible barrier  Advantages:  Disadvantages/

A fence or barrier • Stop boulders Limitations:
made of steel installed uphill or at from rolling • Cannot stop the
the toe of natural terrain downslope occurrence of
• Relatively easy to landslides
Boulder fence
install • Structures may be
• Less visually buried/destroyed
obstructive in times of severe
• Have less or extreme
environmental impact landslides
Engineering measure
• Rocks or debris
 Debris barrier  Advantages: may fall or spill
A barrier usually made of concrete • Strong structure can over to nearby
built at the toe of natural terrain effectively stop debris roads
flowing into nearby or buildings
developed areas
• Can resist large-scale

debris flow
(Credit: The Head of the Geotechnical

Engineering Office and the Director of
Civil Engineering and Development,
the Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region)
2 Preventive measure on man-made slopes
Restrict development on • Set up laws to restrict and control the building

Non-engineering measures
slopes of structures on steep slopes

• Identify black spots of unauthorized
cultivation on slopes and carry out
clearance on dangerous slopes
Regular checking of slopes • Identify substandard slopes

• Inspect underground drains and water pipes
8-53
2 Preventive measure on man-made slopes
Maintaining and strengthening slopes • Maintaining slopes by both government and

private land owners
• Strengthening slopes by different measures
 Covering slopes with ( permeable /
Engineering measures
impermeable ) layers
 Installing soil nails on slopes
 Building retaining walls
Retaining wall  Constructing surface and
subsurface drainage channels
(Refer to the table on pp. 55–6 for details
about the measures to strengthen slopes)
3 Measures to reduce the potential damage of landslides
• Issuing landslip warning during periods of

heavy rain
• Erecting warning signs near slopes which are
vulnerable to landslide
• Providing public education about precautionary action during
rainstorms
Leave your house if you think it is not

safe
8-54
2 Complete the table on pp. 55–6 to show how they work and their advantages and limitations.
Measure Advantage/Effect on Disadvantage/

shear strength and/or Limitation
shear stress
 Covering slopes with impermeable • Fast and simple • Visually unattractive
layers such as shotcrete • Prevents rainwater • Vegetation on
or chunam plaster seeping into the slope slopes is often removed
 Prevents • Must be fitted with
saturation of drains or weepholes on
Shotcrete/ soil the slopes to prevent
Chunam plaster
• Reduces weathering on water retention and the
slopes build-up of pressure
 Shear strength behind the impermeable
(  /  ) + Shear layer
stress (  /  )
 Installing soil nails • Anchors the soil to the • Steep slope or large
on slopes slope spacing between nails
 Shear strength makes the soil
(/) between prone to
• Sturdy and effective in erosion
weak soil layer • Should be used with
• Less susceptible to other measures, such as
weathering steel wire mesh to
Soil nail
• Can be coupled with prevent soil erosion
other slope greening between nails
and landscaping
 Building retaining walls Supports steep slope • Less effective on its

surfaces own, especially when
Retaining wall  Shear strength the slope is not
(  /  ) adequately drained
• Must be fitted
with drains or
weepholes to
prevent water retention
and the build-up of
pressure behind the wall
8-55
Measure Advantage/Effect on Disadvantage/

shear strength and/or Limitation
shear stress
 Constructing surface and subsurface Drains water • Blockage of the
drainage channels out of the slope after channels prevents water
rainstorms  Prevents from draining away
saturation of soil from slope
 Shear strength • Need proper
Surface drainage (  /  ) + Shear maintenance
channel
stress (  /  ) • The number, size and
layout of the channels
should be carefully
designed
Weephole
3 Sometimes, afforestation is carried out on slopes to increase slope stability to reduce the risk of
landslides. Complete the table below to show it works and its disadvantages/limitations.
How afforestation works Disadvantage/Limitation

 Intercepts rainwater • Strong winds such as
 Reduces water falling on typhoon can uproot the trees
slope surface, this on slopes with thin soil 
reduces Loosens soil
• water seeps into the  Shear strength (  /  )
soil  soil moisture
• Large trees add weight on
(/)
steep slopes
• surface run-off  soil
erosion (  /  )
 Plant roots bind the soil • Not effective to hold soil
together with deep regolith
• Trees are difficult to grow
 +   Shear strength
on steep slopes
(  /  ) + Shear stress
with thin soil
(/)
• Trees need time to grow
8-56

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Part 8 Dynamic Earth

Dynamic Earth—The building of Hong Kong

What is the earth system? What is the overall physical

A What is the earth system? Textbook pp. 5–6

Inputs Processes Outputs

1 Solar radiation 1 Scattered and reflected

ii How does the biosphere interact with the hydrosphere?

iii How does the hydrosphere interact with the lithosphere?

iv How does the hydrosphere interact with the atmosphere?

B What is the structure of the earth and the related internal

Structure of the earth

 Crust  Mantle  Core

Broken into pieces

Move apart/ Move towards each Slide past each

Divergent plate Convergent plate Transform plate

Internal  Tensional  Tensional  Tensional

Internal  Faulting  Faulting  Faulting

 Volcanic islands  Fold mountains

1 Refer to the relief map of Hong Kong in Figure 3 on p. 4.

Feature Major characteristic

 Hilly with steep slopes

 Not many lowlands

 Dendritic pattern is common

 The coastline of eastern New Territories (i.e. Sai Kung) is particularly

 The largest offshore island is Lantau Island

b Describe the relief of Hong Kong.

How do different types of rock affect the physical

A What is rock? How are rocks formed? Textbook p. 14

 sedimentary rock; and

B How is igneous rock formed? Textbook pp. 15–16

Extrusive Cooling and solidification of lava

Minerals aggregate to form ( extrusive / intrusive )

Intrusive Cooling and solidification of magma

2 Below shows some examples of igneous rock.

Flow bands Rhyolite

(Credit: Stephen Hui Geological

(Credit: Valery Voennyy/Alamy

(Credit: Stephen Hui Geological

Structure/Texture  Crystalline /Crystals interlocking with one another

 ( Fine- / Coarse- ) grained ( Fine- / Coarse- ) grained due to

Colour Varies/Can be both light and dark in colour

3 Figure 1 shows a granite specimen.

b Write the name of the minerals in the

Location of formation Within the crust On the earth’s surface

Type of igneous rock Intrusive Extrusive

Volcanic material that forms the rock Magma Volcanic ash

Cooling rate of the volcanic material Slow Fast

Size of crystals/grains Large/Coarse Small/Fine

Weathering and erosion Loose fragments and grains are produced

Transportation Weathered materials are moved downhills

Sedimentation/ Sediment is sorted and deposited in lakes, along rivers or in

Compaction Sediment accumulates and is compacted by weight of overlying

Cementation Minerals dissolved in water cement the loose materials together

Lithification Loose sediment is transformed into solid rock

Clastic sedimentary rock

Figure 2 Formation of clastic sedimentary rock

Medium Sand Sandstone (Figure 3c)

Fine Silt Mudstone and siltstone

Very fine Clay Shale (Figure 3e)

(Credit: Michael P. Gadomski/ (Credit: Wwwhazzapala/

(Credit: Stephen Hui Geological Museum,

Strata Bedding plane