Waste and Biomass Valorization

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-021-01360-x

REVIEW

Methane and Electricity Production from Poultry Litter Digestion

in the Amazon Region of Brazil: A Large‑Scale Study
Marcelo Mendes Pedroza1   · Wanderson Gomes da Silva2 · Luciene Santos de Carvalho3 · Alice Rocha de Souza1 ·
Girlene Figueiredo Maciel2

Received: 12 August 2020 / Accepted: 20 January 2021

© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
This work, on a real scale, aims to characterize and quantify the production of biogas from poultry litter based on Napier
grass (CN) and rice husk (CZ) as substrates. The system uses four substrate feed tanks, followed by four anaerobic reactors
and a stabilization pond for the effluent. The system has a generator set used in the production of electricity. Poultry litter was
analyzed for the chemical determination of the constituents. Samples were collected at the entrance and exit of the biodigester
to verify the efficiency of removal of organic matter. Biogas production and consumption were monitored. In this research,
a new methodology was used to replace the residue of CN with CZ and feed the biodigestion system without interrupting
the process until the complete replacement of one residue with another.The values of N, P, K obtained were, respectively,
2.92, 3.72 and 2.12 g/100 g. The COD removal efficiency in the biodigesters was 51%, representing a load of 79.8 kgDQO/
day. The values of C ­ H4 and C
­ O2 concentrations in biogas were 52.5 and 47.5%, respectively. The highest energy produc-
tion occurred in September (9280 kWh/month). In the months of July and September, the highest values of energy demand
(around 2000 kWh/month) were perceived, with exhaust fans and fans as the main responsible for energy consumption (48%
of the total). The research showed how the use of poultry waste can contribute to reducing the cost of electricity from rural
properties, providing economic development and improving the local energy sector.
Graphic abstract

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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Keywords  Anaerobic biodigestor · Residual biomass · Electric power · Biogas
Statement of Novelty
In this research, a full scale biodigestion system was used,
with Napier grass and rice husk as a base for poultry litter.
Some aspects of innovation in this research are highlighted
here: (1) optimization of the substrate preparation system
(poultry litter) in a dilution process with the biofertilizer
generated in the biodigester; (2) new methodology for
replacing Napier grass residue with rice husk and feeding
the biodigestion system without interrupting the operation of
the process, with control of the mass flow of the two residues
until the complete replacement of one residue by the other;
(3) optimization of the internal mixture of the biodigester
with the recirculation of the liquid as a way to avoid areas
of stagnation.
Introduction
All large developed societies have their economy based on
a source of energy of fossil origin that until recently was
considered almost inexhaustible, based mainly on nonrenew-
able sources, with petroleum as the main raw material [1–4].
However, the need to meet a high energy consumption
has shown that some of the natural resources are finite and
that by high consumption can be exhausted. For this reason,
the constant search for alternative renewable natural energy
sources has intensified [3, 5].
Over the past century, the world’s population has become
significantly dependent on energy from non-renewable
sources, fossil fuels, all of which exploitation and consump-
tion activities have contributed intensively to the planet’s
imbalance, directly interfering with global warming and in
the conditions of man’s survival on Earth. These petroleum
fuels at various times had their supplies compromised, gen-
erating high prices and huge political and economic crises
[3–6].
In this sense, the search for clean energy generation from
renewable sources is increasing, which does not release
pollutants to the environment during its generation process.
Sustainability research has been more and more successful
and the concern with the emission of gases and reduction of
the use of water resources, as well as the adequate allocation
to the waste generated are increasing [6, 7].
In 2015, the Brazilian energy matrix consisted of 64.0%
of hydroelectric power generation plants, 12.9% of genera-
tion plants using natural gas, 4.8% used oil as an energy
source, 8.0% use biomass (sugarcane bagasse, black liq-
uor, wood and rice husk) as an energy source, 2.4% from
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Waste and Biomass Valorization
nuclear power plants, 4.5% use coal and 3.5% from the
matrix national energy comes from wind power plants.
Faced with these energy sources, it can be considered that
the national matrix had a composition of approximately
75% of renewable energies, among which 8.0% of the total
uses biomass as an energy source [3, 4].
Among the energy alternatives, biomass stands out in
Brazil for its enormous residual potential for the produc-
tion of “clean” energy. Climatic conditions associated with
different types of regional economic activities favor the
production of raw material in order to satisfy considerable
market levels, as well as being recognized by the scientific
community of the energy area as one of the most relevant
new forms of energy for electricity production tending to
an increasing use. In this regard, attention has focused on
identifying suitable species of biomass, which may pro-
vide options for replacing conventional sources of energy
from fossil fuels [3, 4].
Poultry waste is called poultry litter, chicken bed or
poultry bed. It is a material used to coat the floor of a
poultry facility, in order to avoid diseases of the birds in
confinement, to incorporate the excreta (feces and urine),
to absorb moisture and to contribute to the reduction of
the temperature oscillations in the shed. The absorbent
material can be constituted of several vegetal components
(shaving, peanut shell, rice straw, corn cob) that finalizing
each production cycle becomes quite heterogeneous due to
the type of ration, the age and types of birds, the the quan-
tity of feathers and excreta, the number of lots created,
the length of time of the lots, the number of lots using the
same bed and the form of storage [1, 6–10].
In Brazil alone, in 2015, 10.2 billion chicks, which
resulted in the production of 20.03 million tonnes of meat.
In the same period, 20.2 million tons of poultry bed were
produced. In fact, poultry litter has a pollutant potential
higher than that of human waste, and the residual water
produced by the poultry industry has a biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), approximately 8 times higher than that of
urban sewage [8, 9].
In this sense, the chicken bed has considerable ener-
getic potential that can be made available in the form of
biogas. Thus, many studies emerged at the beginning of
the century to evaluate the anaerobic biodigestion of poul-
try waste in order to optimize the production of biogas.
The biodigestion or anaerobic digestion is shown as a good
alternative for the treatment of this residue. This is a pro-
cess by which anaerobic bacteria, through fermentation
in biodigestors, degrade organic matter producing biogas,
basically in three stages with different groups of microor-
ganisms [1, 6, 7].
Waste and Biomass Valorization
Anaerobic biodigestion offers several advantages such as
conversion of organic waste to methane gas, which can be
used directly as an energy source; reduction of ammonia
emission and odor control. The process effluent can be used
as a biofertilizer in the plantations, as it is a source of several
minerals, besides contributing to the rapid amortization of
the costs of the installed technology. In addition to these, the
contribution to the mitigation of emissions of greenhouse
gases such as C ­ H4; the conservation of areas destined to
landfill of residues, reducing the accumulation of metals in
the soil, as well as the leaching of the same to the ground-
water [11, 12].
The objective of this work was to evaluate biogas produc-
tion and its energy potential in biodigesters, in real scale,
using as substrate the poultry litter of residual chicken pro-
duced in Fazenda Bom Tempo, Amazon region of Brazil.
Materials and Methods
Characterization of the Study Area: Plant
of the Experimental System
The study was carried out at Bom Tempo farm, municipal-
ity of Palmeira do Tocantins—TO, located in the north of
Tocantins state, in the Amazonian region of Brazil. The
Fig. 1  Anaerobic reactors with gasometers inflated with biogas. a agitation pumps, b Gasometers inflated with biogas; c Pumps used to agitate
the substrate contained in anaerobic reactors; d Internal agitation piping in anaerobic reactors
climate is typically tropical. The temperatures oscillate
between 30 and 42 °C in the summer period, in a transitional
region of cerrado and dense caatinga. The plant (in real
scale) has two adjacent blocks, in which each one has four
anaerobic reactors and an independent biofertilizer pond.
The two blocks contribute to energy production for the entire
system and other farm activities. However, the study focused
only on studying a single block, since the characteristics are
similar. In this sense, the plant under analysis uses four (4)
substrate feed tanks, followed by four (4) anaerobic reactors
and one stabilization pond, used to receive effluents from
anaerobic reactors (Fig. 1). The system has a fully automated
power generator set.
Description of the System
Preparation of the Substrate Material
The dry vegetal residue that constituted the preparation
of the aviary was Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum),
removed from the vicinity of the farm with the aid of a
crushing tractor. The grass stayed for five days (in the sun)
to dry and reduce the mass/volume ratio and later to be taken
to the granaries of the farms in order to serve as an absorbent
layer for the poultry waste, thus composing the poultry bed
13

of the mentioned aviaries The farm also uses rice husk as an
adsorbent material in its aviaries.
After the confinement of five batches of birds, the entire
biomass was removed from the barns by means of loader
tractors, and then disposed in the waste storage shed.
The procedure for the collection and storage of the bio-
mass samples (poultry litter) was carried out obeying each
productive cycle of birds (interval of 45 days). The farm
under study adopts the use of poultry litter during three pro-
duction cycles, with the material being disinfected at the end
of each cycle. After this period the material is completely
removed from the poultry houses. Three samples were col-
lected for analysis of the percentages of NPK in the residue:
(a) Sample 1 (collected and stored after the end of a feedlot
cycle with 45 days), (b) Sample 2 (end of the second cycle
with 90 days) and (c) Sample 3 (collected after the third
cycle with 135 days).
Solid biomass was measured using a mechanical clam-
shell loader and then transported to each hydrolysis tank. In
each tank of preparation of the inoculum there was the liq-
uid compound (biofertilizer pond effluent), rich in bacteria
specialized in the degradation of biomass. This composition
had the ratio of 660 kg of solid biomass and 5 ­m3 of recir-
culated effluent.
After 24 h of maturation period, the solid biomass and
recycle effluent mixture is converted into the affluent liq-
uid substrate (SLA) by means of facultative bacteria that
transform most of the larger molecules of the substrate into
micromolecules. Then all the material was homogenized
through a mixing motor and completely discharged into the
anaerobic reactors.
For 6 months of the year, the studied farm uses Capim
Napier as poultry litter, and the rest of the year uses rice
husks. This change in the type of material supporting the
poultry litter is related to the ease of acquisition and season-
ality of these residues in the vicinity of the farm.
Anaerobic Digestion System
The analyzed system has four independent unconjugated
substrate preparation tanks, connected to an anaerobic reac-
tor. The connection of the tanks to the reactors takes place
through a 150 distribution pipe in PVC.
The reactors used in the system are tubular with a plastic
blanket, horizontal and excavated in the ground and covered
in the bottom by a rigid plastic (High Density Polyethylene)
and fixed with a gasometer (cover material made of flexible
alloy that inflates with increased volume of methane biogas).
Each reactor has the following dimensions: 24 m long,
4 m wide and 2.2 m high at ground level.
Each reactor was installed in the subsoil in order to
have minimum contact with the air and to avoid abrupt
temperature variations. The container with the material in
13
Waste and Biomass Valorization
fermentation is composed of a straight PVC cylinder with
a diameter of 400 cm and a length of 24 m. The ends were
secured with two PVC plates, with a thickness of 1.5 cm on
each side. In the plate is fixed the inlet pipe, through which
the feed was made and in the other end two pipes, one of
them destined to the exit of the biofertilizer and the other
one for the exit of the biogas.
The gasometer consists of two cylinders 4.0 and 5.0 m
in diameter, the first one being inserted into the second, in
such a way that the space between them contains a volume
of water (“water seal”), reaching depth of 3.9 m. The larger
cylinder was attached to a PVC plate with a thickness of
2.5 cm. The cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has one end sealed,
thereby receiving the gas produced, and the other end poured
into the water seal to store the gas produced.
Efficiency of Anaerobic Digestion Treatment
The physical–chemical parameters were monitored by col-
lecting samples at two different sample points, the first
one at the entrance P1 and the P2 located at the exit of the
anaerobic reactor. Sample collection in the hydrolysis tank
was performed after the homogenization of all the substrate
material with the aid of a mixing motor. The parameters
were measured according to the Standard Methods [13].
Before inoculation of the substrate in the anaerobic reac-
tor, the liquid temperature was measured at two depths in the
homogenization tank. The first calibration was performed on
the surface of the liquid (ambient temperature at the time of
measurement) and the second was performed at 50 cm depth
of the tank. The temperature measurements were performed
in the substrate homogenization tanks with the same depths
and then the average of the observed temperatures in all
the measurements was determined. The determination of
the effluent flow rate in each reactor was measured by the
volumetric method.
Treatment of the Liquid Effluent from the Anaerobic
Digester
The system has only one stabilization pond (Fig. 2), oper-
ating on a real scale, to treat the effluents of the four bio-
digesters, with the following dimensions: 25 m long, 24 m
wide, 3.5 m deep and with total storage capacity of 2100
­m3 biofertilizer. The hydraulic detention time of the pond is
87.5 days. The final effluent from the stabilization pond is
currently used for growing grasses on the farm.
Methodology Adopted for the Replacement
of Residues During the Feeding of Biodigesters
Throughout this research, a new methodology for feeding
the digestion system was developed with the replacement
Waste and Biomass Valorization
Fig. 2  Effluent treatment from anaerobic reactors: a Liquid effluent storage pond, b Biofertilizer, c View of the four reactors that supply the sta-
bilization pond and d effluent distribution pipes in the stabilization pond
of the poultry litter used in this research (Napier grass and
rice husk). It is important to note that two residues used
have different chemical characteristics (cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin). This methodology aimed to avoid
interrupting the system throughout its operation. Thus,
the replacement was carried out gradually. In the first two
months of changing Capim Napier residue by rice husk,
the mixture was made up of 80% of the first support and
the rest of the other residue. This proportion was modified
until the complete substitution of one residue for another,
being evaluated daily the performance of the biodigester
in terms of biogas production over time.
Biogas Collection and Analysis
The biogas collection was performed directly at the gas-
ometer outlet of the biodigester. Biogas samples were
collected in anaerobic reactors at different ambient tem-
peratures (23, 28 and 34 °C), totaling twelve samples to
be analyzed.
For the identification of the constituent compounds of
the biogas, a chromatograph was used, brand Shimadzu,
model GC-2014, coupled to the detectors of type TCD
and FID.
Generation of Electrical Energy in the System
The production and consumption of the biogas of the
whole system was monitored through the electronic panel
of the digital display of the motor-generator that provided
the main variations of the parameters regarding the con-
sumption of biogas, among them: (a) percentage of C ­ O 2,
(b) quality of the methane burned and (c) the amount of
energy produced by the system and released into the dis-
tribution network of the Tocantins electricity company.
The production and consumption of biogas from each
reactor of the system plant was performed through the
analysis of the data monitored in the digital panel of the
Otto combustion engine.
The biogas produced in the reactors was stored in the
gasometers and then transported to the combustion engine
through a gas conduction pipe (high strength PVC mate-
rial) coupled to the bottom of each gasometer. The desul-
furization process has yet to be adapted in the system and
will be carried out via a biological route with the introduc-
tion of a calculated amount of ambient air to be injected
into the biodigesters. The system must be retrofitted with
a biogas purification module prior to entering the firing
engine. The gas mixture must undergo a cooling system
13

for the removal of water and then a carbon filter activated
for the removal of hydrogen sulphide gas.
The gases are released to the Otto Cycle engine through
the opening of the check valve. After the valve is opened
the engine is started and the consumption (burning) of the
biogas of the four gasometers of the system is started.
In the machine house, coupled to the generator motor,
there is an electronic equipment (display) that measures the
amount of energy that the system throws in the electric net-
work of the ENERGISA Electric Company.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of Raw Poultry Litter
The experimental data obtained in the characterization of
the poultry litter studied in this research are presented in
Table 1.
Nitrogen (N) was responsible for the highest concentra-
tion per unit of poultry litter analyzed in this research, about
40.07% within the criteria of N, P, K, followed by potas-
sium (K) 37.7% and (P) 22.21%. Studies by Abouelenien
et al. [14], showed that FC had 4440 mg kg−1 of ammoniacal
nitrogen. According to the same author, during the anaerobic
digestion process, uric acid and proteins present in poultry
litter, result in the production of free ammonia and ammo-
nium ions. Among these two compounds, free ammonia is
considered the compound that causes inhibition for anaero-
bic digestion, due to the diffusivity of the cell membrane,
and within the cell it causes load imbalance and potassium
deficiency [14–16].
The concentration of minerals in poultry litter can influ-
ence the development of anaerobic biodigestion, and its
knowledge is important to better manage the reactor and,
consequently, to know the agronomic value of the effluent
(biofertilizer) for fertilizing plants, since these high levels
of N or P interfere in the microbiological reactions of the
different groups of bacteria present in the anaerobic reactors
[14, 16].
The values of N, P, K found in the analysis of the samples
of this research are close to the percentages found by Konzen
Table 1  Characterization of the percentage of NPK in poultry litter
(dry matter) in three cycles
Parameters Poultry litter Poultry litter Poultry lit-
(cycle 1) (cycle 2) ter (cycle
3)
N (g/100 g) 2.82 2.92 3.01
P (g/100 g) 3.68 3.72 3.79
K (g/100 g) 2.07 2.12 2.16
N-NH3 mg kg−1 4390 4394 4403
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Waste and Biomass Valorization
[17], with values of N, P, K of 3.0, 2.4 and 3.65 g/100 g
respectively in the vegetal dry matter of Napier grass. Sev-
erino et  al. [18], in his studies with Napier grass found
2.95 g/100 g of nitrogen, 3.87 g/100 g of phosphorus and
1.10 g/100 g of potassium. Marin et al. [19], also observed
values close to those found in the present research, but
using rice husk as dry vegetable matter, having 18 g/100 g
of nitrogen, 10.73 g/100 g of phosphorus and 18.10 g/100 g
of potassium, showing a proximity in the values of macro-
nutrients N, P, K present in the poultry litter studied here.
In this research, the potassium content growth was
observed over the three cycles (2.07 to 2.16  g/100  g).
According to Konzen [17], different types of dry matter
influence the absorption of minerals present in poultry lit-
ter and which directly affect the biological functioning of
anaerobic reactors. This fact that the absorbent material
incorporates more or less macronutrients is connected with
the reactions that happen with the poultry litter in the con-
finement sheds and mainly with the granulometry of the
material. According to Severino et al. [18], in the housing
of birds in high density there may be greater deposition of
water in the poultry litter, due to the stress suffered by the
birds, increasing the consumption of water and consequently
the amount of wet excreta, releasing many minerals in their
excreta, especially potassium. The incorrect handling of ani-
mals may also increase the humidity of the poultry litter, a
fact that explains the high levels of potassium 40.33% found
by Konzen [17] and 50.68% by Severino et al. [18].
The ammoniacal nitrogen content observed in this
research was 4403 mg/kg in the third cycle studied. High
levels of phosphorus and nitrogen present in the poultry lit-
ter can favor soil contamination and consequently the water
bodies located in the vicinity of the material disposal area
without any treatment. At the farm studied here, the poultry
litter was improperly disposed in its facilities, but today, the
material is fully utilized in the process of anaerobic digestion
for energy generation.
Efficiency of Removal of Organic Matter
in the Anaerobic Reactors Studied in the Research
Table 2 presents the experimental results obtained through
the physical–chemical analysis of the analytical parameters:
temperature, pH, alkalinity, ammonia, total phosphorus,
COD and fractions of solids.
The temperature values, as shown in Table 2, in the afflu-
ent and in the effluent of the biodigester were always very
close. The maximum temperature found in this work was
28.7 and 28.0 °C in the affluent and in the effluent of the
biodigester, respectively. According to Dalólio et al. [20],
temperature is one of the main factors in anaerobic diges-
tion, since it affects biological processes in different ways,
Waste and Biomass Valorization
Table 2  Results obtained from monitoring the studied system
Parameters Samples
P1 (input) P2 (output)
Temperature (°C) 24.4–28.7 24.0–28.9
pH (−) 6.0–6.7 7.5–7.6
Alkalinity ­(mgCaCO3/L) 8854–8867 12,340–12,345
Chemical oxygen demand (mg/L) 23,100–29,000 11,300–14,200
Total solids (mg/L) 50,190–51,245 27,302–28,495
Fixed Solids (mg/L) 25,803–26,331 14,450–15,032
Volatile Solids (mg/L) 24,387–24,914 12,852–13,463
Ammoniacal nitrogen (mgN/L) 600–621 830–851
Total Phosphorus (mgP/L) 280–420 290–370
including changes in the speed of bacteria metabolism, in
ionic balance and in the solubility of substrates, mainly
lipids.
Throughout the investigation period, the pH remained
between 6.0 and 6.7 in the affluent and 7.5 and 7.6 in the
effluent of the biodigester and in general it was close to the
neutral value. According to Converti et al. [21], the optimal
pH range for bacterial growth is between 6.5 and 7.5, and
that the main indicators of disturbances in anaerobic pro-
cesses are the increase in the concentration of volatile acids,
an increase the percentage of ­CO2 in the biogas, decreased
pH, decreased total gas production and decreased process
efficiency. The production of volatile acids in anaerobic
digestion can lead to process instability, since methanogenic
bacteria are sensitive to pH values below 6.0. This instability
of the biodigester was not observed in the system studied
here.
The alkalinity present must be sufficient for the neutrali-
zation of the Total Volatile Acids (AVT) formed [20, 21].
The alkalinity values of the digester effluent were between
12,340 and 12,345 ­mgCaCO3/L, much higher than those
found in the affluent substrate (8854 and 8867 ­mgCaCO3/L).
This increase in the alkalinity of the system may be related
to the consumption of volatile acids and the formation of
ammonia gas in the biodigester. According to the literature,
the alkalinization of the substrate resulting from the anaero-
bic biodigestion process is an expected phenomenon, since
there is a transformation of the acids contained in the afflu-
ents into gaseous products [20–22].
According to the experimental data of total and vola-
tile solids, there is a reduction during the treatment, which
proves that the anaerobic digestion process promoted the
partial removal of the inoculated material (organic and
inorganic). The average values of volatile solids found were
between 24,725 mg/L in the affluent and 13,207 mg/L in the
effluent. The maximum value found was 24,914 mg/L in the
tributary and the minimum value found was 12,832 mg/L
in the effluent, at the outlet of the system. The analysis of
volatile solids together with the parameter of total alka-
linity makes it possible to build a relationship, aiming to
observe some disturbance in the anaerobic digestion pro-
cess. The average values of total solids found were between
50,866 mg/L in the affluent and 28,284 mg/L in the efflu-
ent. The maximum value found was 51,245 mg/L at the
entrance of the biodigester and the minimum value found
was 27,302 mg/L at the exit of the system.
The COD values were between 23,100 and 29,000 at the
entrance of the system and 11,300 and 14,200 after the bio-
digestion system, with an average removal rate of 51%. This
low COD removal in the biodigestor may be related to the
low biomass preparation time in the hydrolysis tank (only
24 h). The diameter of the solid particle is a variable that
interferes with the hydrolysis process of biodigestion. The
materials used CZ and CN are completely heterogeneous
(large and small particles) and this may have interfered with
the bacterial metabolism of the first stage of anaerobic diges-
tion. Large particles require high hydraulic retention times
of the reactor for total biological degradation.
According to the literature, the poultry litter must undergo
a pretreatment before being added to the biodigester, the
grinding process being the most suitable, as the residue par-
ticles are very large and this can decrease the efficiency of
the microorganism activity present in biodigesters. Regard-
ing the moisture content of the bed, it is necessary to add
water to favor the decrease in the solids content. For high
levels of total solids in the substrate, it is necessary to hold
the liquid in the high biodigester, which makes it difficult to
purchase and install reactors with large volumes. In order
to reduce the hydraulic retention time of the biodigester,
agitation, heating and, mainly, inoculum addition systems
can be used. In this research, the biomass was diluted with
the biofertilizer from the stabilization pond located near
the biodigester. According to Chernicharo [23], there are
biomasses that only diluted can present good results in the
process of anaerobic digestion, with relative ease of deg-
radation, however others, are more difficult to be degraded
by the microorganisms involved in the process, presenting
slow degradation and in these cases, it is necessary not only
dilution but also inoculation. Admitting the effluent inlet and
outlet flows equal to 6 m ­ 3/day in each biodigester, there is
a load removed value of COD equal to 79.8 kgDQO/day in
the system studied here.
In natural anaerobic digestion processes, the proteins
found in the environment are degraded and converted into
two species, the ammonium ion and ammonia, commonly
called ammoniacal nitrogen. On the other hand, in the diges-
tion process large amounts of ammonia can be produced,
with ammonia being a toxic substance to microorganisms
in high concentrations. In addition to its toxicity, ammonia
can cause the inhibition of the biological process, and, con-
sequently, decrease the rate of degradation of organic matter.
13
 Waste and Biomass Valorization

An increase in the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen is Table 3  Daily temperature profile in the internal and external parts of
observed in the system, with values between 830 and 851 the anaerobic digesters studied in this research
mgN/L being found in the final effluent, which compromises Time of day External tem- Internal tem- Temperature
the disposal of the liquid in receiving aquatic bodies, since perature (°C) perature (°C ) difference (°C)
the Brazilian resolution stipulates the maximum value of 20
7: 00 21.5 23.5 3.0
mgN/L. According to Jing et al. [24], at higher temperatures
8:00 22.5 26 3.5
the concentration of ammonia in the non-dissociated form
9:30 24.5 27.5 3.0
­(NH3 (aq)) increases in anaerobic systems, which can cause
10:15 26 28.5 2.5
the process to fail. Free ammonia is toxic to methanogenic
11:00 28.5 29.5 1.0
archaea, as it easily diffuses through the cell membrane of
12:00 29.5 31.5 2.0
microorganisms, causing proton imbalance and/or potassium
13:00 32 33 1.0
­(K+) deficiency. Among the ecological implications of the
14:00 33.5 35 1.5
insertion of high ammonia loads in the environment is the
15:00 35 36.5 1.5
consumption of dissolved oxygen in the medium, due to
16:30 33 34 1.0
­ H4+, approximately
nitrification, since to oxidize 1 mg of N
17:30 31 32.5 1.5
4.3 mg of ­O2 is required, which can cause death aquatic
18:30 29 32 3.0
organisms [23, 24]. In addition, the residual nitrogen dis-
19:30 29.5 31 2.0
charged in watercourses stimulates autotrophic activity,
20:30 27.5 29 1.5
causing eutrophication due to the production of a large
22:00 24.5 26 1.5
amount of biomass in the form of algae.
24:00 23 25 2.0
The average concentration of total phosphorus found
in the final effluent varied between 290 and 370 mgP/ L.
Anaerobic reactors have an unsatisfactory ability to remove
phosphorus and nitrogen during treatment. According to According to Massé et  al. [26], the performance of the
Chernicharo [23], the effluents will not be able to provide the anaerobic digester decreases significantly when the oper-
receiving body with undesirable quality characteristics, thus ating temperature decreases from 20 to 10 °C. On farms,
compromising its classification. This enrichment of aquatic biodigesters can be subject to temperature fluctuations, due
ecosystems by nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, to large variations in air temperature. Therefore, it is neces-
can lead to the formation of dense populations of algae and sary to heat the substrate in digestion, for greater uniform-
cyanobacteria, in addition to aquatic plants. Such blooms ity in the substrate temperature and, consequently, greater
of algae and cyanobacteria are prominent symptoms of efficiency of the biodigester. Internal heating can be done by
eutrophication in aquatic environments, and seriously affect circulating water in a heat exchanger.
water quality, causing an unpleasant appearance, generally The anaerobic digestion process is influenced by several
making the environment unsuitable for supply, recreation factors, including temperature, applied organic load, pres-
and fishing [25]. ence of toxic substances (ammonia and hydrogen sulphide),
etc. At high temperatures, biological reactions occur with
Biogas Production and Electricity Generation greater speed, possibly resulting in greater efficiency of the
process [21, 23]. For Zamanzadeh et al. [12], in general, the
The temperature during the anaerobic digestion process anaerobic digestion process can be developed at tempera-
can vary between 10 and 65 °C, having as an ideal range tures at the mesophilic level (30 to 45 °C), or at the ther-
of bacterial activity the values between 30 and 35 °C [23]. mophilic level (45 to 60 °C). Despite not being at the ideal
Table 3 shows the temperature values obtained during the temperature for biogas production, from 21.5 to 29 °C, the
daily monitoring of the system, observing the internal and digesters used in this research remained in the mesophilic
external temperatures of the biodigester. The largest tem- range, between 20 and 45 °C.
perature gradients observed inside and outside the reactors It was observed in the system that the external tempera-
were 3.5 °C (8 h) and 3.0 °C (9:30 and 18:30 h). The highest tures varied from 21.5 (minimum) to 35 °C (maximum), val-
internal temperature value of the reactor was 36.5 °C, being ues not far from those observed inside the biodigesters that
verified at 15 h. were 23.5 to 36.5 °C. The temperature in the upper region
Low temperatures or many oscillations make this a lim- of the biodigester, above 30 °C, was higher at certain times,
iting factor in the anaerobic biodigestion process. In loca- which can be explained by the exothermic biodegradation
tions where climatic conditions have low temperatures or of organic matter, with the release of heat in the biodigester.
have great thermal variation, it can reduce the production The results obtained in Table 3 also show a relation-
of biogas due to inhibitions in microbial activity [23]. ship between the internal and external temperatures of the

13
Waste and Biomass Valorization
reactors. In the early morning, at 7:00 am, the external
temperature is very low (21.5 °C) in relation to the internal
temperature at the top of the biodigester (23.5 °C), and this
justifies the lower volumes of biogas produced in the period.
At 13:00 h, temperatures are higher inside the biodigester.
This fact leads to the conclusion that during the morning
period (cycle from 6 h until 12 o’clock) there is less vari-
ation in the internal temperature of the reactor, due to the
little variation in the night temperature, a fact that does not
occur in the period from 13 h until at 7 pm since the inter-
nal temperature of the reactor remains in the range of 30
to 35 °C, a value observed due to sunlight during the day.
Experiments developed by Achinas et al. [27], also show that
the external temperature influences the internal temperature
of the reactor.
The ideal temperature to optimize anaerobic biodiges-
tion should be in the mesophilic range, around 35 °C [23,
24, 27]. At lower temperatures, biogas is produced, but in
less quantity, corroborating what was found in Table 3. In
the mesophilic range of operation of anaerobic digesters it
provides the greatest production of biogas [23, 27]. In farms
with low air temperatures and thermal fluctuations, it can
harm the production of biogas. Despite the occurrence of
low temperatures in the present study, it did not fluctuate
much, that is, there was not much thermal variation, which
is also important for the production of biogas.
The digestion process must remain stable, since the tem-
perature fluctuation can affect the growth of microorganisms,
especially methanogenic bacteria, causing their inhibition
and decreasing the production of biogas. Low temperatures
show low microbial growth, with low biogas yield. The
increase in temperature has numerous benefits, including
increased solubility of organic compounds, improving the
speed of biological and chemical reactions [28]. However,
according to Yenigün and Demirel [29], the increase in
temperature influences parameters such as ammonia disso-
ciation, which may cause an inhibitory effect. In general,
anaerobic digestion is operated at mesophilic temperature,
mainly because of the lower energy expenditure, reducing
process operation costs [29, 30].
The liquid agitation system promotes the reduction of
temperature gradients within the biodigester, as well as
the rapid dispersion of metabolic products from digestion
and toxic substances, thus favoring a greater production of
biogas. When the stirring system was activated, there was a
decrease in the fluctuation of the internal temperature of the
biodigester. The application of agitation inside the biodigest-
ers also guarantees a better contact between the biomass and
the input liquid, with the physical, chemical and biological
uniformity of the system [23, 31].
Figure 3 shows the values of biogas flow rates in the
anaerobic reactors of the system under study using CN as
Fig. 3  Comparative results of biogas production with two different
types of poultry litter
a substrate. A comparison was made with the residue from
the CZ substrate.
The largest volumes of biogas produced by the reactors
were 6.37 and 6.20 ­m3/h at 3:00 pm and 4:30 pm, respec-
tively, using CN as a substrate. At the same times, biogas
flow rates of 6.29 ­m3/h and 6.26 ­m3/h were observed,
respectively, when poultry litter consisting of CZ was used.
Between 2:00 and 3:00 pm, the inoculum made up of CZ,
exceeded that of CN by 0.32% in terms of biogas production.
At other times, a greater production of biogas was observed
in the reactors using CN as a substrate.
It can be seen in Fig. 3, that the production of biogas had
different behaviors during the monitoring period, but these
values are not discrepant, since they were subject to the same
conditions of temperature and concentration of the substrate.
There was a decline in biogas production after 3 pm, which
justifies the ideal temperatures in the mesophilic range,
between 20 and 45 °C.
The comparative analysis of methane production using
the two characteristic types of poultry litter with CN and CZ,
was necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the system, with
regard to the volume of biogas produced, and to character-
ize the micronutrients of the biofertilizer in the anaerobic
reactors of the plant under study. The two inocula studied
here have very different levels of lignocellulosic materials,
and this interferes with the biochemical degradation kinetics
of organic matter in the reactors. Figure 4 shows the results
obtained during the analysis of the biogas through a chroma-
tography test, using the Napier grass inoculum.
The largest peak observed in Fig. 4, (in blue), corresponds
to the area of the curve related to the concentration of meth-
ane ­CH4. The value of this area corresponds to 11,478 units
of area (u.a) and refers to the inoculum of CN. When com-
pared to the methane peak, it is concluded that these values
are very close, since the area of the methane concentration
curve of the CZ inoculum corresponds to 11,475 u.a.
13

Fig. 4  Concentrations of ­CH4 and ­CO2 observed in the anaerobic reactor using the CN inoculum
It can be seen in Fig.  4 that the area with the high-
est peak corresponds to 52.5% ­CH4 followed by the ­CO2
peak that corresponds to 47.5%. These average values are
close to those found by Kispergher et al. [32], in which
the percentage of C­ O2 was in the range of 48% and 53% of
methane. The values of C ­ H4 concentrations per unit area,
in the two types of substrates, are very close, indicating
that the change in the type of inoculum that supplies the
reactors studied here, did not interfere in the variation of
methane produced in the biogas plant.
The production of biogas in the farm studied here could
be increased with the adoption of some structural changes
of the biodigester (with a better homogenization of the
material inside) as well as with the physical characteris-
tics of the biomass (decrease of the size of the particles).
According to Frigon and Guiot [22], in the anaerobic
biodigestion process of lignocellulosic biomass, methane
production is affected by the composition and difficult
degradability of the lignocellulosic material. This diffi-
culty is due to the recalcitrant nature of the lignin that
lines cellulose and hemicellulose, these being the main
carbohydrates of interest in the process. The contents of
lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose, pore volume, particle
size, surface area for enzymatic reactions and structural
characteristics are the main factors that limit the speed of
the hydrolysis rate in the biodigestion process of lignocel-
lulosic biomass [22, 33].
The farm studied here has ten chicken confinement sheds,
where 300,000 chicks are housed per cycle (one cycle cor-
responds to a period of approximately 42 days), in a manage-
ment of five or six cycles/year.
With the use of Napier grass substrate, the average experi-
mental biogas production was approximately 129.6 ­m3/
day (Fig. 3). Considering the concentration of methane in
biogas around 52% (Fig. 4), there is a methane production
of 67.4 m3/day under the current operating conditions of the
reactors in this research. This value calculated here repre-
sents only 3% of the total theoretically found (2659 m­ 3/day)
with the use of the total waste produced on the farm daily,
which indicates that the farm under study can expand its
13
Waste and Biomass Valorization
Fig. 5  Electricity generation and demand on the studied farm, in two
periods of the year
biodigestion system, with an increase in operating capacity
anaerobic reactors.
Figure 5 shows a comparison between the demand and
energy generation (kWh/month) of the plant located at
Fazenda Bom Tempo. The selection of the two periods
aimed to make a comparison between months of lower
energy production (February to April) with the months of
higher energy production (July to September) in the biodi-
gestion system of the studied farm.
The results presented in Fig. 5 show that the average elec-
tricity demanded and generated in the winter period (the
temperature fluctuates between 23 to 30 °C during the day)
was 1356 and 5033 kWh/month, respectively. In the sum-
mer period (temperatures between 25 and 36 °C), the aver-
age generation and consumption of electricity surpassed the
winter period, being 2006 kWh/month (energy consumed)
and 8928.33kWh/month (energy generated by the system).
Comparing the two periods studied, there were increases
of 67.5% for the demand for electricity and 56.4% for the
generation of energy produced by the system.
The state of Tocantins has maximum temperatures
between the months of August and October (dry period),
which contributed to a better performance of biodigesters in
this period, thus providing a greater accumulation of biogas
in the system studied here.
Waste and Biomass Valorization
The dissipated energy (not used) is a variable that inter-
feres with the percentage increase in energy (kWh) gener-
ated per day. The motor-generator system does not release
an average of 2.8 kWh/day of electricity into the distribution
network.
The factor that justifies this high value in energy produc-
tion (kWh/month) is related to the increase in temperature
inside the anaerobic reactors. Temperature is a fundamental
parameter in biological processes, since it directly influences
the rate of microbial growth, the process kinetics and stabil-
ity, and consequently the production of methane [23, 33, 34].
Massé and Masse [31], also evaluated the influence of
temperature on the anaerobic treatment of poultry effluent,
by removing COD and producing biogas in the range of
20 to 30 °C, with removals of 90.8; 88.7 and 84.2% COD
in the following thermal ranges: 30, 25 and 20 °C, respec-
tively. When analyzing the production of methane, the
authors found that in the condition in which the temperature
decreased from 30 to 25 °C, the specific production rate was
not affected. However, the data obtained in the present study
inform that the process temperature had a great influence on
the production of biogas, with the highest volumes of biofu-
els obtained at the highest levels of temperature.
This argument of biogas production as a function of the
temperature of the anaerobic reactor is verified in the system
under study, when comparing the semiannual percentages of
demand and energy generation (kWh) of the plant. In the six
months analyzed (winter period + summer period), the plant
generated an average of 41,884 kWh/semester of electricity,
26,785 kWh in the dry period of the state and 15,099 kWh
in the rainy period.
Regarding the demand for semi-annual energy consump-
tion, there was a considerable increase between the two peri-
ods of the year studied here. The system demanded 10,086
kWh/semester of electricity, of which 40.33% was in win-
ter and 59.66% in the warmest months in the region. This
increase in energy demand is directly associated with the
fact that fans and air conditioners are activated in the poul-
try houses, in the afternoon and night periods, where high
temperature indexes are noticed, requiring high energy con-
sumption equipment in operation for a longer time. inside
the aviary. Naegele et al. [35] studied anaerobic digestion of
livestock manure and renewable energy crops under meso-
philic conditions and observed that a percentage of 8.5%
of the produced electric energy was consumed by the com-
bined heat and power unit, which was required to operate
the biogas plant.
Another factor to be considered is the high water con-
sumption by birds in the summer (12% more than in the
winter), increasing the frequency of activation of the water
supply pump for the reservoirs located inside the aviaries,
growing about 50% its daily use, compared to the rainy sea-
son in the studied region.
Comparing the months of the studied period, February
was the one that presented the greatest relationship between
energy demand/consumption, around 34.5% and this was
due to the fact that the legal Amazon region (where the plant
under study is located) presents the greatest rain concen-
tration/month and consequently a considerable decrease in
temperature inside the aviaries. This action results in the
immediate activation of thermal heaters, which gradually
raise the temperature inside the aviaries between 6 and 8 °C.
And yet, another system variable that interferes with
the percentage increase in energy (kWh) generated is the
amount of electrical energy dissipated (not used) per day, by
the generator group of the biogas plant. The motor-generator
system no longer releases an average of 2.8 kWh/day of elec-
tricity into the distribution network. This value represents
0.5% of wasted energy compared to the winter period.
Electricity generation is greater than the amount of
energy demanded by the system, therefore, the Farm under
study gains energy credits in kWh for the surplus percent-
age of energy released in the electric network of Energisa
(Companhia de Energia Elétrica do Tocantins), which is
directly responsible for inspecting and reading the kWh of
energy generated by the motor-generator and consumed by
the entire system. This positive difference in kWh is con-
verted into electricity “credits”, which can be used by the
system itself when there is no electricity generation due to
insufficient poultry litter at a certain time of the year. During
the cleaning months of the aviaries, the energy consump-
tion is very low, favoring the accumulation of the amount of
energy credits by the system.
The substrate mixing engines in the hydrolysis tanks and
the effluent mixing pump of the anaerobic reactors, and
the three residences on the farm consume approximately
260 kW/month, about 1% of the electric energy produced
by the system in the winter period. The energy consumption
of the warehouses is influenced by the period of the year. In
summer, exhaust fans and fans remain on for a longer time,
consuming a greater amount of electrical energy due to the
intense heat during the day, a fact that does not occur in
winter. The average energy consumption of the lamps in the
warehouses increased in the winter period by 3%, followed
by the thermal heaters by 5%. The engine that transports
water for animals, which in the summer period consume 5%
of electricity and in winter only 4%.
Aspects Related to the Granulometry of Poultry
Litter for the Biodigestion Process
The granulometry of the inoculated biomass interferes with
the COD removal rate in anaerobic digesters. According to
Zhang et al. [28] and Kantarli et al. [36], the granulometry
of solid organic waste is an important indicator, as it can
interfere with the biostabilization of the organic input fed
13

into the reactor. The particle size of the solid residues is pro-
portional to the contact with the microorganisms, therefore,
the greater the specific surface area, the greater the interac-
tion between the attack of the organisms on the substrate,
allowing to accelerate the biological degradation process
[22]. In the view of Shahriari et al. [37], the decrease in the
granulometry of the residues is healthy for hydrolysis, as
a consequence, it favors the following stages of anaerobic
digestion, a phenomenon that can be partially linked to the
increase of the available surface contact area of the substrate
with microorganisms, providing increased decomposition of
organic input. The granulometry can also affect contribut-
ing to the reduction of the retention time of the solids inside
the reactor [20, 36]. As shown by the studies by Izumi et al.
[38], the particle size reduction of the substrate caused deg-
radation of about 30% of total COD and increased the pro-
duction of methane by 28%.
The studied system uses two types of plant material such
as poultry litter (Napier grass and rice husk). When Napier
grass is used, 12 tons of dry vegetable matter are inserted to
cover 1800 m ­ 2 of the poultry house and thus allocate 30,000
chicks per house, over a period of 42 days, with a density
of 16 birds/m2, being housed 300 thousand birds per batch.
Rice husk is purchased in the city of Paraiso do Tocantins,
since the region does not have the residue. From the point of
view of granulometry, the rice husk biomass has a smaller
particle diameter, which in theory, favors the composition
and homogenization of the stirred substrate in the hydroly-
sis tank and the stabilization process that occurs inside the
reactors by the microorganism consortium, whereas Napier
grass, due to its own vegetal characteristic, has a larger par-
ticle, which makes the homogenization process and the sub-
strate inoculation in the reactor difficult.
Consequently, because the particle is larger, it makes the
work of anaerobic bacteria difficult, which requires a longer
hydraulic retention time for the degradation of organic
matter. The larger size of the substrate material favors the
process of decanting the material, expanding the dead zone
areas within the reactor, and promoting the silting up of the
biodigesters, decreasing the liquid retention time within
the system [21, 33]. The increase in the contact surface
between the biomass and the microorganisms, caused by
the mechanical reduction in the size of the Napier Grass or
Rice husk particles, may favor the organic decomposition
and, therefore, cause the greater production of biogas in the
treatments with smaller particle sizes. Himmel et al. [33],
already highlights that there may be a need for pre-treatment
of poultry litter before being added to the biodigester. Grind-
ing or sifting is a way of making the material with suitable
granulometry, since the shavings particles can be large and
hinder the activities of microorganisms.
It is recommended that the granulometry of the feed bio-
mass of the anaerobic digesters of the Fazenda Bom Tempo
13
Waste and Biomass Valorization
should be adapted through the physical sieving step, as a pre-
liminary phase, prior to the hydrolysis process. This sieving
will assist in the removal of larger particles and will improve
the use of the material, making it more homogeneous and
favoring all other subsequent phases of the anaerobic diges-
tion process.
Scarlat et al. [39] and Chernicharo [23] report that the
first phase in the anaerobic degradation process consists of
the hydrolysis of complex particulate materials (polymers),
transforming them into simpler soluble compounds (smaller
molecules), which can cross the cell walls of microorgan-
isms anaerobic, since bacteria are not able to assimilate par-
ticulate organic matter (macromolecules). This conversion
of particulate materials into soluble materials is achieved
through the action of exoenzymes excreted by hydrolytic
fermentative bacteria. The high presence of particulate mate-
rials in the tributary can hinder the hydrolysis of these com-
pounds, limiting anaerobic degradation, which would require
longer hydraulic detention times for complete solubilization
of organic matter. If the organic matter to be hydrolyzed
is presented in smaller particles, these will theoretically
be more easily hydrolyzed, favoring the next steps of the
anaerobic digestion process. Therefore, hydrolysis can be,
for some particulate compounds, the limiting step of anaero-
bic degradation.
Conclusion
The load of organic matter removed in the biodigestion sys-
tem was 79.8 kgDQO/day, with an efficiency in terms of
COD degradation of 51%. This low removal may be associ-
ated with the following aspects: (a) large biomass particle
used, which hindered the hydrolysis of the material, (b) high
levels of ammonia detected, which inhibits the growth of
methanogenic bacteria and (c) deficiency in the homogeniza-
tion of the substrate inside the reactor, with the appearance
of dead zones. The values of temperature, pH and alkalinity
were within those commonly established for the proper func-
tioning of biodigesters. A positive correlation was observed
between the temperature inside the biodigester and the con-
centration of methane in the biogas. The greatest production
of biogas in the reactors studied was observed between 15:00
and 16:30 h, using Napier grass as substrate. The values
of concentrations of ­CH4 and ­CO2 are in accordance with
those commonly cited in the literature. With regard to the
monitored periods, energy balances are observed positively
(energy credit) in the two periods studied (winter and sum-
mer), noting that in the warmer months, the highest biogas
flow rates were observed in the biodigesters and, conse-
quently, in the production energy. The energy demand on
the farm is influenced by the period of the year. The high-
est energy expenditure was verified in the summer period,
Waste and Biomass Valorization
highlighting aviary exhaust fans and fans as the main respon-
sible for energy consumption at Fazenda Bom Tempo (48%
of the total). This research presented a new methodology for
replacing solid substrate (grass by rice husk) and optimiz-
ing the dilution of the residue with biofertilizer obtained in
the process, without compromising the biogas production
of the system.
Acknowledgements  The authors are gratefully acknowledged to Con-
selho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
(Process: 468833/2014-5), for financial support.
Open Access  This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
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the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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Authors and Affiliations
Marcelo Mendes Pedroza1   · Wanderson Gomes da Silva2 · Luciene Santos de Carvalho3 · Alice Rocha de Souza1 ·
Girlene Figueiredo Maciel2
* Marcelo Mendes Pedroza
mendes@ifto.edu.br
1 Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande
Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal Institute
of Tocantins (IFTO), Palmas, Brazil
13
Waste and Biomass Valorization
Engineering Plants and Enzymes for Biofuels Production. Science
(2007). https:​ //scienc​ e.scienc​ emag.​ org/conten​ t/315/5813/804.full.
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digestion of poultry manure and straw: effect of organic loading
and temperature. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. (2013). https​://doi.
org/10.1186/2052-336X-11-15
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tric energy consumption of the full scale research biogas plant
“Unterer Lindenhof”: results of longterm and full detail measure-
ments. Energies (2012). https​://doi.org/10.3390/en512​5198
36. Kantarli, I.C., Kabadayi, A., Ucar, S., Yanik, J.: Conversion of
poultry wastes into energy feedstocks. Waste Manage. (2016).
https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasma​n.2016.07.019
37. Shahriari, H., Warith, M., Hamoda, M., Kennedy, K.J.: Anaerobic
digestion of organic fraction of municipal solid waste combin-
ing two pretreatment modalities, high temperature microwave
and hydrogen peroxide. Waste Manage. (2012). https​: //doi.
org/10.1016/j.wasma​n.2011.08.012
38. Izumi, K., Okishio, Y.K., Nagao, N., Niwa, C., Yamanoto,
S., Toda, T.: Effects of particle size on anaerobic digestion of
food waste. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. (2010). https​://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ibiod​.2010.06.013
39. Scarlat, N., Dallemand, J.F., Fahl, F.: Biogas: developments and
perspectives in Europe. Renewable Energy (2018). https​://doi.
org/10.1016/j.renen​e.2018.03.006
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
2
Department of Environmental Engineering, Federal
University of Tocantins (UFT), Palmas, Brazil
3
do Norte (UFRN), Natal, Brazil