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Keywords: Poultry litter is characterized as a heterogeneous compound produced after a poultry production cycle, being the
Aviculture sum of the material used as bedding in association with the animal waste, dead skin, feed scraps, water, feathers
Combustion and the resulting microbiota. The expansion of poultry production around the world has resulted in elevated
Wastes generation of this residue. Over the years its use has been restricted to organic fertilizer or simply as a waste to
Gasification
be eliminated and disposed of in the environment. However, this mechanism has caused environmental and
Pyrolysis
Sustainability
social damages due to its indiscriminate use. Because of the energetic and biological properties of poultry litter,
its sustainable use as energy can be obtained via thermochemical processes such as anaerobic digestion and
through combustion, gasification, pyrolysis or power co-generation systems, in which there is a combination of
one or more processes. As a result, there is the potential for generating heat, electricity, fuel gas and biochar
with low emission of pollutants. However, it is emphasized that there is no standard with regards to its
composition and the source material type, where efforts are more focused on the contents of moisture and
inorganic compounds. Therefore, processes that seek to use poultry litter as fuel biomass should be well-
controlled and efficient for successful energy generation. In this sense, the objective of this study is to analyze
the characteristics of poultry litter as fuel, discuss the main thermochemical processes for its energetic
conversion and propose measures to improve its performance as a sustainable biomass.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: felipesantos181@hotmail.com (F. Santos Dalólio).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.104
Received 30 September 2016; Received in revised form 27 November 2016; Accepted 23 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Santos Dalólio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 941–949
use poultry litter in more than one production cycle for chickens. In contamination of the water table has been reported due to excessive use
Brazil, the average is 6 cycles with the same bedding. And this helps to of poultry litter as fertilizer [25]. Oviedo-Rondón [26] affirmed that in
reduce the volume of generated bed. However, the volume reduction some regions of the United States, such as Minnesota and North
fact not completely minimizes high production chickens generate high Carolina, saturation of the soil has also occurred due to intense
amount of waste. application of litter, and in order to avoid this problem its application
Brazil is the second largest world producer of broiler chickens and it for generating electricity should be considered.
is estimated that the annual volume of litter generated is around 8–10 It should also be stated that after a production cycle the litter may
million tons/year. This calculation is based on the number of chickens contain many pathogens that survive up to 11 weeks outside the
slaughtered each year multiplied by the litter volume generated per digestive system of the birds [27]. Additionally, antibiotic residues used
bird. According to Santos [9], for Brazilian conditions each bird over 42 as a growth promoters or for the treatment of diseases may be detected,
days produces an average of 1.75 kg of litter, based on natural matter, which are not fully absorbed by the birds and up to 75% may be
assuming that the litter has an average moisture content of 20%. Thus, released to the environment [28]. According to Hahn [29], the main
independent of the amount of poultry litter generated, it is noted that microorganisms present in poultry litter are Escherichia coli,
the total volume of this residue is high due to elevated productivity, and Salmonella and oocysts of Eimeria. Therefore, the use of poultry litter
constitutes a growing concern regarding its disposal. Therefore, it is as organic fertilizer, without appropriate treatment, may cause adverse
necessary to analyze this material with regards to its chemical effects to the ecosystem since the antibiotics used in poultry production
composition as a fuel biomass and its current use as an organic have been detected in soil, water, plants and sediments [30].
fertilizer. Although poultry litter has advantages with regards to its use as a
fertilizer, it is currently verified that its use causes environmental and
3. Poultry litter: use as organic fertilizer social damage due to indiscriminant application [7]. In this sense, it is
necessary to seek new rational alternatives for the use of poultry litter
After a poultry production cycle, in addition to wastes there is also that result in less impact to the environment with appropriate
flaked skin from the birds, waste feed, water, feathers and the treatment to eliminate undesirable compounds and pathogens.
microbiota resulting from this heterogeneous mix [10]. Moreover, it Among the available alternatives, the use of poultry litter as biomass
also contains antimicrobial and antibiotic residues, which are used as energy for generation of heat and electricity is gaining prominence
growth promoters and for treatment of infections, endocrine disruptors [4,7,31,32].
such as chicken metabolic products, and residues of pesticides and
herbicides used in cultivation of the grains used for feed manufacture 4. Poultry litter: biomass energy
[11,12].
At present, the main destination of poultry litter is its use as organic Given the high volume generated by broiler poultry and due to
fertilizer and/or manufacture of organo-mineral fertilizers, due to its shortage of energy sources and the high price of conventional sources,
contents of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The litter is presented the use of poultry litter as biomass energy is becoming attractive
as a potential organic fertilizer, because in addition to the concentra- [3,4,6,7,33] and therefore it may become both technically and econom-
tion of nutrients, it permits the inclusion of organic matter to the soil, ically feasible. Available literature on the use of poultry litter as
improving both the physical and chemical attributes [13]. biomass energy in industrial production units is still incipient.
The physico-chemical composition of poultry litter depends on Recent studies indicate the efficiency of heat and energy production
certain parameters such as the type of material from which the litter is from poultry litter in locations near the waste-generating units [4,33].
produced, for how many consecutive flocks it was used and the This is because the cost related to transport is a major factor to be
management practices employed during production of the birds [10]. addressed when seeking efficient power generation from any type of
In order for a material to be used as litter it must be of medium size, biomass.
have good absorption capacity without hardening, easily release For utilization of alternative biomasses some factors are important,
trapped moisture, have low thermal conductivity with capacity to where the main characteristics are: moisture content, energy density,
withstanding high densities, and most importantly be of low cost. calorific value, the amount of generated volatile material generated
The main materials used as poultry litter are wood shavings, coffee during combustion, the volume of ash at the end of the process, the
hulls, peanut hulls, rice hulls, dry grass, chopped corn cobs and others fixed carbon content, the chemical analysis and the elemental content
[14–16]. According to Toghyani [17], the type of material used as litter [34,35].
does not affect the performance parameters of poultry, considering that The moisture content is one of the main indices of non-inherent
they are handled properly in the installations. However, Vieira [18] quality of the evaluated residue, since elevated moisture content may
observed a reduction in the sanitary quality of coffee hull poultry litter result in more energy consumed for drying the biomass prior to
in four reuses. As a result, increased incidence of lesions to the carcass combustion processes. It also influences the initial ignition capability.
was observed due to increased nitrogen concentration in the bed. This decreases the process efficiency and impairs the energy and
Despite the concentration of beneficial nutrients, the massive use of thermodynamic equilibrium in the final calculation. Furthermore, the
poultry litter as organic fertilizer can result in eutrophication processes high moisture content leads to incomplete combustion and consequent
in soil and water bodies, the spread of pathogens, production of release of carbon monoxide to the environment [36]. In general, for the
phytotoxic substances, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions efficient generation of heat and electricity from poultry litter, it is
[3,19]. One of the main concerns regarding the disposal of litter in the recommended that the moisture content does not exceed 25% [1].
environment, when applied as fertilizer, has been the presence of The calorific value of any biomass can be defined as the amount of
endocrine disruptors, especially 17β-estradiol [11]. Its effect is still energy released in the form of heat during complete combustion of the
unknown, however it is believed to cause sexual reversal in fish when fuel mass unit, which can be measured in kJ/kg [37]. Energy density is
poultry manure is applied in excess in the soil and subsequently another important parameter, since in terms of transport and storage it
leached to water bodies [20,21]. becomes crucial, corresponding to the average mass of a solid for a
Another barrier to the use of poultry manure as organic fertilizer is given volume.
the continuous application to soil to improve the production rates of The volatiles content is the amount of material that will volatilize at
agricultural crops. This can result in high toxicity to animals and plants high temperatures and indicates the reactivity of the fuel. In general,
along with depreciation of the product, however this is only perceived for plant biomass the volatile content varies from 65% to 83% [37],
in the medium and long term [22–24]. In the Brazilian state of Paraná, whereas in biomass of animal origin the value is more heterogeneous
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and may vary from 40% to 75%, due to lack of standardization. Ashes Table 2
result from burning products which are unreactive in the process and The main chemical composition parameters of poultry litter, of wood savings, to be used
for energy purposes.
represent about 2% of plant biomass and up to 45% of animal biomass.
The fixed carbon content directly influences the temperature to be Components [46] [47] [31] [1] [48] [49] [50] [51]
employed in the thermochemical processes, such as pyrolysis for
example. In general, as the fixed carbon content of the biomass Proximate (%)
Fixed carbon 9.80 14.00 – 1.70 8.11 13.06 10.20 –
increases, greater is the temperature for ignition and subsequent
Volatile 47.30 62.20 – 38.90 54.72 43.48 50.30 53.96
combustion [38]. Moisture 27.40 25.50 – 43.00 10.59 9.29 8.20 10.47
Organic animal residues have very low fixed carbon content, Ash 15.70 23.90 – 16.40 26.58 34.28 28.80 –
because this variable is obtained subtracting the ash and volatile Elemental (%)
material from the total mass to be burned [39]. The immediate C 27.22 35.60 34.70 28.17 29.09 37.78 24.84 27.82
H 3.72 4.60 5.20 3.64 5.11 4.19 1.90 5.08
chemical composition corresponds to the sum of moisture, ash, volatile
O 23.10 29.80 24.09 34.43 – 15.64 33.76 –
matter and fixed carbon in relation to total mass of a fuel. This N 2.69 5.30 5.60 3.78 3.44 3.76 2.50 4.25
relationship indicates not only the amount of water present in the S 0.33 0.90 0.13 0.55 0.80 0.74 2.50 1.14
biomass, but also the possible fuel behavior and its effectiveness in Cl 0.71 – 0.35 0.63 – 0.80 2.50 –
Ash 15.70 23.90 – – 26.58 37.79 28.80 39.18
energy processes [40]. Therefore, it is a relevant parameter for animal
Moisture 27.40 – – – 10.59 – 8.20 –
residues.
The chemical elemental composition indicates the amount of each
compound present in the biomass. However, it is governed by the levels tents, low sulfur concentration, and reduced moisture. These charac-
of: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. These directly teristics make poultry litter superior in relation to other animal wastes
influence the thermochemical processes, where oxygen, nitrogen and and regarding potential to be used in power generation processes such
sulfur cause damages. Excess sulfur present in the biomass is released as gasification and pyrolysis.
into the atmosphere in reaction with oxygen to form SO2 and becomes It should be noted that the chemical composition of the various
a significant environmental problem. The concentrations of hydrogen animal wastes is variable considering that many factors affect its
and carbon contribute positively, where the higher their content the composition, namely: diet and age, race, climate conditions, production
more efficient is the release of energy. Cortez [37] reported that the level and others. In the case of poultry litter, highlighted are other
chemical elemental composition is the basis for analysis of combustion factors such as litter material used to serve as bedding for the birds, the
processes and is useful for the calculation of volumes of air, gases and use of acclimatization in aviaries, such as ventilation and exhaustion,
enthalpy, and is essential for determining the calorific value. the number of reuses, management during production and manage-
Considering the main aspects that influence and determine the ment of wastes on the property. Table 2 presents some data on the
quality of a biomass to be used as fuel energy, it is necessary to evaluate composition of poultry litter, with respect to its characteristics as a fuel.
and analyze the poultry litter with regards to its physico-chemical Poultry litter presents high reactivity and can be used as fuel
composition. biomass because it is rich in volatile material [4]. Furthermore, from
Table 2 it can be observed that the poultry litter has a low amount of
4.1. Composition of the poultry litter and other animal wastes fixed carbon, therefore combustion in the solid phase may become
insignificant. This occurs due to high devolatilization of the compounds
Poultry litter compared to the other wastes from animals produced in this phase, requiring lower temperatures for the thermal processes.
in confinement systems presents some advantages due to inclusion of However, moisture of the litter is the most important parameter and
the material used as litter which raises the carbon concentrations [41]. must always be correlated with the content of volatile material in order
Table 1 shows the chemical composition data of animal wastes with to establish the optimum firing temperatures. Based on this, Abelha [1]
regards to their potential for use as fuel for thermochemical processes. identified that at a humidity of 11% the ignition temperature for an
In comparison with the other waste types, poultry litter used in adequate thermal process would be 580 °C for 2 s, while for in natura
thermochemical processes requires lower temperatures due to the litter with 20% humidity, this value rose to 620 °C for 8 s. This is
elevated concentration of volatiles, higher carbon and hydrogen con- important since it indicates greater energy consumption to release the
energy content of poultry litter, meaning higher costs, more sophisti-
Table 1 cated equipment and loss in the energy balance.
Mean chemical composition values of some animal wastes that can be used for energetic
purposes.
4.2. Atmospheric emissions and practical implications of using
Parameters (%) Cattle Horse Pig manurec Hen Poultry
poultry litter as biomass
manurea manureb manured littere
Volatiles 53.1 – 73.0 – 48.8 One of the main factors to be evaluated when seeking the use of
Fixed carbon 4.6 – 3.4 – – alternative biomass for energy production is the emission of pollutants
Ash 42.3 10.9 23.6 10.6 34.3
to the environment that may occur during thermal processes, or even
Moisture 24.6 19.0 – 39.7 19.3
Cellulose 32.7 37.8 16.6 – – thermochemical processes [41]. With respect to the non-conventional
Hemicellulose 24.5 32.4 – – – organic residues, the major pollutants that can be generated and cause
Lignin 42.8 19.6 1.6 – – negative impact to the environment and to the biomass transformation
C 21.9 – 12.3 24.8 27.8 process is the presence of chlorides, NOx, SOx, CO2 and excess CO
H 3.6 – 1.7 3.8 5.7
N 2.3 – 0.9 7.3 4.3
[52], in addition to other compounds such as dioxins and furans which
O 20.8 – – 17.0 – are also harmful [53,54].
S 1.1 – 0.1 3.0 1.1 Jia & Anthony [55] evaluated the atmospheric emissions released
by burning a mixture of 40% chicken manure and 60% coal compared
a
[42]. to the burning 100% coal and observed environmental viability of
b
[43].
c
[44].
burning the poultry litter. According to these authors, although the
d
[45]. concentrations of pollutants are higher for burning the mixture with
e
[4]. poultry litter, they are within the norms stipulated by the laws of
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F. Santos Dalólio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 941–949
Canada, where the research was conducted. as well as the potential for their addition to silage for animal feed or for
The presence of sulfur in the fuel causes it to volatilize and enrichment of other fertilizers [4]. In practical studies, a positive effect
condense on the cooler surfaces of the combustor, so that there is has been observed when using ash from the combustion of poultry
possibility of agglomeration and corrosion of the equipment [56]. As a litter as an organic fertilizer in wheat planting, with potential to be used
result, there is an increase in particle inertia and other undesired in the production of other crops [61,62]. Moreover, ashes may also be
chemical reactions, such as increased SOx emissions [57]. used as a source of phosphorus and calcium in poultry feeds [63].
According to the data presented in Table 2, it can be observed that Based on the material used as litter, ash resulting from thermal
the poultry litter has low amounts of sulfur. Loo & Koppejan [58] processes will have a different composition, for example if derived from
stated that 90% of sulfur present in poultry litter may be fixed in the straw it will have a higher potassium content (4–6%), while if from
ashes and this efficiency depends on the calcium concentration. This is wood shavings the concentration is lower (1.5%). Therefore, it can be
because calcium present in poultry litter, resulting from the addition of viably applied as a fertilizer in its natural form, however it would
lime in the treatment and reuse processes, increases the sequestration ideally be applied as granules [60]. It should be noted that granulation
of sulfur with the formation of oxides in the ash. With complexation of generates additional costs to the producer, so an economic evaluation
S to the Ca there is greater stability of oxides in the ash, resulting in is necessary.
improved capacity and potential of this material to be used as organic
fertilizer and as a correction agent for agricultural soils deficient in 5. Use of poultry litter as an energy source
these two elements.
However, the gradual increase in ash production at the end of the Sordi [25] evaluated poultry litter of pine wood as an energy source
thermal energy conversion process, as poultry litter is added as fuel, in the western region of the Brazilian state of Paraná and found that the
may require that materials with higher carbon content are added to theoretical energy potential was 142,500 kJ/s, with potential power
improve the combustion efficiency and reduce the emission of pollu- generation up to 50,700 kW. We conducted a study at the Federal
tants. This can be explained by the higher amount of sodium and University of Viçosa, part of the Zona da Mata mesoregion in Minas
potassium oxides contained in poultry litter that may be deposited on Gerais, Brazil, to evaluate poultry litter of coffee hulls as an energy
the furnace walls and precipitate in cold areas, affecting the combus- source considering a hypothetical scheme for generation of electricity
tion process [59]. Moreover, there are increased chances of corrosion of via a steam cycle, and found that the generation potential is 8800 kW
the internal walls of the combustors, reducing their useful life. from a regional production of 6552 t/month, assuming a thermody-
Therefore, it is essential to understand the composition of the litter namic efficiency of 30%. However, the efficiency may be increased to
together with its efficiency for power generation. 75% by utilizing the turbine exhaust steam in the co-generation
process. The poultry slaughter and meat processing industry itself
requires power and steam for industrial processes, and could use the
4.3. Residual ash from combustion of the poultry litter: composition
energy produced from poultry litter, closing the loop and making the
and possibilities of use
activity sustainable.
Although literature regarding the use of poultry litter as a fuel is still
Although poultry litter has a considerable amount of residual ash
very incipient, its viability as biomass may be verified. This considers
after thermal processes, it is made more stable and sterile because it
that there is knowledge of its composition, purpose of use, the concern
has no pathogenic microorganisms, is easier to handle and transport,
of not generating pollutants, harmful emissions and unwanted ash
and is more marketable compared to conventional poultry litter [3].
resulting from poorly sized processes. Energy conversion of poultry
Front-Palma [60] and Lynch [4] identified the composition of the ash
litter may occur via thermochemical transformations such as direct
derived from co-combustion processes of poultry litter of wood
combustion, gasification and pyrolysis.
shavings with coal in gasification systems. This data is presented in
Table 3.
5.1. Combustion of poultry litter: theoretical and practical aspects
From Table 3 it is possible to identify the high levels of potassium,
calcium and phosphorus minerals and the presence of micronutrients
The use of the energy contained in biomass by combustion is a
essential to the soil and plants. It is highlighted that the mineral
rudimentary form and the most used due to its ease of use and
nutrients present in the ashes have higher availability and stability than
suitability. Although very practical and sometimes convenient, the
those provided from in natura poultry litter. This fact results in a
direct combustion process can become very inefficient and unecono-
reduced environmental impact and greater efficiency in organic
mical because it depends on several factors such as fuel type, moisture
fertilization.
content, calorific value, energy density, and includes difficulties of
There are several ways of applying the ashes from poultry litter
transport and storage [64].
combustion to soils with low macro and micronutrient concentrations,
The combustion of poultry litter seeks to produce heat and the
possibility of providing this heat for other purposes. Highlighted are
Table 3
Composition of the ash resulting from co-combustion of poultry litter with coal. boilers to generate steam and hot air for industrial processes, power
generation or for direct supply of heat in furnaces, for example heating
Elements (mg/kg) [60] [4] of animal installations and grain drying [3]. According to Dagnall [65],
the heating value of poultry litter ranges from 9000 to 13,500 kJ/kg,
Boron – 270
Calcium 185,000 160,000 depending on the material and moisture content. Sordi [25] affirmed
Potassium 163,000 170,000 that for poultry litter composed of wood shavings with 25% moisture
Phosphorus 202,000 110,000 content, the calorific value is 11,600 kJ/kg. Poultry litter has a
Magnesium 42,000 39,000 relatively good calorific value compared to other animal wastes, but
Selenium – 12
Sodium 3600 2000
has a low ash melting point due to the concentration of sodium and
Cobalt – 8.8 potassium in its composition [66]. This may result in formation of
Copper – 590 undesirable liquids, fouling the equipment used for burning and
Iron 2100 6500 efficiency losses in the process [39].
Manganese – 4200
Due to the amounts of nitrogen, volatile material and sulfur in the
Molybdenum – 79
Zinc – 3800 composition of poultry litter, it is necessary to use an ideal mixture of
air and fuel within the combustion chamber to promote efficiency and
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minimize environmental impacts. process and the quality of gases and secondary emissions is vital for
The moisture content of in natura poultry litter is the main obstacle environmental feasibility of any project that seeks to use poultry litter
to its use in direct combustion. Dávalos [31] evaluated the direct for the production of heat and energy. In this sense, the need for
combustion of poultry litter in natura, wet (70.4% moisture) and dried existing mechanisms is clear to improve and enhance the use of poultry
to less than 10%. These authors found that only the litter with 9% litter as a sustainable fuel.
moisture can be burned directly without adding extra fuel and in the The use of other processes for conversion of poultry litter into
wet and in natura samples there was incomplete combustion with the energy including gasification and pyrolysis, or a combined cycle of
formation of excess carbon monoxide and higher pollutant emissions. both, enables increased energy efficiency [7]. In addition, the search for
This fact indicates that drying of the material must be accounted for in management factors such as proper feeding of the birds, management
the energy balance for its use as fuel in order to identify its economic of the environment and efficient management of the litter on which the
and financial viability. birds are housed are important factors to improve the quality and
In the exploitation of poultry litter to generate energy, the emission composition of this waste, making poultry production more productive
of harmful pollutants to the environment and effects on health of the and economically viable, because it is a relatively low gross profit
surrounding population can be a barrier to its use, due to the fact that activity.
there is no standard regarding its composition. This generates concern
regarding air emissions generated from combustion of poultry litter, 6. Gasification of poultry litter
especially the possibility for formation of NOx, SOx, HCl and dioxins
[2,6]. Gasification is the thermochemical process of converting a solid or
The nitrogen present in poultry litter is in the form of ammonium liquid raw material into a gas with fuel characteristics, by its partial
unlike other types of biomass used in controlled burning, where oxidation at intermediate temperatures. The thermochemical reactions
nitrogen is in the form of complex organic nitrogen. Ammonium occur at temperatures above those recommended in fast pyrolysis
present in poultry litter during combustion is quickly converted to processes and below those recommended in combustion processes
ammonia by rapid volatilization. Furthermore, at elevated tempera- [37].
tures of around 800 °C, ammonia rapidly converts NOx to N2 [67]. In the gasification process restricted amounts of oxygen are
Billen [6] identified differences in atmospheric emissions of nitrogen supplied in its pure form or simply as atmospheric air, depending on
from poultry litter according to its use, since when applying poultry the final use of the gas. The material may also be gasified in the
litter as fertilizer the emission was 25 mg/kg litter, while in combustion presence of controlled amounts of superheated steam. This steam is the
or fluidized bed gasification it was 0.0017 mg/kg of litter. This gasification agent needed to produce a gas mixture known as synthesis
indicates less environmental pollution when using the litter as fuel gas, rich in hydrogen and carbon monoxide [69]. In general, the
when compared to its use as fertilizer. Table 4 presents some results produced synthesis gas has many practical applications, from combus-
concerning atmospheric emissions resulting from the burning of tion in internal combustion engines and gas turbines for the generation
poultry litter and coal. of mechanical and electric energy, as well as direct heat generation
Although the presence of dioxins and furans was detected in [70].
atmospheric emissions from burning of poultry litter, Billen [6] noted The gasification of poultry litter can be successfully used for
that these values are below the limits recommended by the European production of fuel gas [3]. Gasification of poultry litter using a fluidized
Union. It should be noted that this legislation is the most demanding bed combustor, mixed with other wastes such as peat and tailings from
with respect to emission of these elements. Thus, it is emphasized that mineral and charcoal production, presents technical and environmen-
if thermal control processes, operation and the respective air intakes tal viability [55,71,72]. Quiroga [73] stated that the biomass sources
are appropriately considered, emissions from burning of poultry litter most feasible to be mixed with poultry litter, to favor the energetic
will be satisfactory. aspects of gasification, are forest-based residues and those from
Zhu and Lee [68] evaluated the co-combustion of poultry litter agricultural production. The objective would be to increase the fixed
mixed with sawdust and using natural gas as the ignition fuel, carbon content and reduce the excessive formation of volatile compo-
observing that it is operationally viability to burn poultry litter with nents early in the process. However, to reduce emissions of SOx, NOx
reduced emissions of CO and NOx. However, they stressed that further and CO it is recommended to use computational modeling to optimize
studies are needed in order to identify the emissions generated from the combustion and production of high quality fuel gas [7,71].
other thermal processes. The existing results in literature that used the poultry litter, alone or
Optimization mechanisms of existing thermochemical processes mixed with other biomass for gasification, were unanimous in affirming
such as the use of technological tools are essential for improving energy that the best system to be used is the fluidized bed gasifier [4]. This is
efficiency. According to Huang [5], computer modeling for total control because the fluidized bed gasifier allows for use of a wide range of solid
of feed to the combustor, the air vents, the heat generated in the fuels, in addition to being a system with higher production capacity
compared to the others. It can produce, if well sized and managed, up
Table 4 to five times more than fixed bed gasifiers [74].
Atmospheric emissions from the combustion of poultry litter and coal. The fluidization process promotes intimate contact between the
particles and gases, causing intense circulation and mixing of the
Elements Unit Poultry litter Coal
particles. In gasification of poultry litter a sand bed can be used to
CO2 Kg 0.00 626.00 increase contact between the particles and decrease the production of
CO Kg 0.05 0.15 ash [3], resulting in high gas-solid reaction rates and a uniform
NOx Kg 0.22 1.10 temperature throughout the entire bed.
NH3 g 17.00 27.00
SO2 g 20.00 830.00
The main advantages of fluidized bed gasifiers are their flexibility
HCl g 4.00 8.00 with regards to the material in the feed, ease in maintaining tempera-
Hg Mg < 4.00a 12.00 ture control below the melting point of ash, and the ability to operate
Cd+Tl (radioactive) Mg < 9.00a 0.90 with friable materials and those of fine particle sizes [70]. The
Heavy metals Mg < 65.00a 262.00
disadvantages that this type of reactor include the limited operational
Dioxins and furans Ng < 44.00a 53.00
temperatures and the possibility of tar production due to low operating
a
Below the detection limits, overestimated value. Within the current standards of the temperatures (700–900 °C), with a risk of incomplete biomass com-
European Union - Adapted from [6]. bustion [75]. However, studies with gasification in fluidized beds with
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poultry litter observed no increased production of tar, NOx, SOx and density per area and the optimal acclimatization of production
CO [5–7]. installations, with respect to bioclimatic indices of temperature and
humidity, are important management measures [83] since they avoid
7. Pyrolysis of poultry litter excessive water consumption, food waste on the litter and proper
transit of birds along the installation to avoid water and waste
Pyrolysis may be defined as the thermal degradation of organic accumulation zones.
material in the partial or total absence of an oxidizing agent, or even in In preparing of feeds, an appropriate nitrogen and digestible amino
an environment with an oxygen concentration capable of preventing acid balance can be adopted using the ideal protein concept, decreasing
intensive gasification of organic material [76]. It can be split between nitrogen excretion in the litter [84]. It can promote digestibility of the
slow and fast pyrolysis, where that which modifies each process are the feeds with the supply of more digestible ingredients that allow better
heating rates during the biomass decay time and the temperatures assimilation of nutrients by the birds. Also, exogenous enzymes can be
used. used such as phytase, protease and enzyme complexes, increasing the
Fast pyrolysis takes place at elevated temperatures, around 900 °C, utilization of phytate and proteins, and reducing the excretion of
producing fuel gas and small amounts of charcoal, about 10%. Slow nitrogen and phosphorus [85]. A proper electrolyte balance of the
pyrolysis usually occurs within the temperature range of 300–450 °C, feeds can also be adopted to allow proper water consumption and
until beginning the gasification system with the aim of producing reduce its excretion in the litter, maintaining it drier. The combination
charcoal, bio-oil and synthesis gas [77]. In this process there is greater of these nutritional mechanisms can increase the quality of the litter to
coal production, with the higher concentration of carbon. be used as biomass fuel and enable better performance of the chickens,
Slow pyrolysis of agricultural residues is commonly used to produce improving the sustainability of poultry production.
biochar, bio-oil and syngas as co-products, which may be reinserted in
industrial thermochemical processes. In this technology, organic waste 8.2. Management of wastes and preprocessing of in-natura poultry
is heated in batch reactors similar to coal furnaces or in continuous litter
flow beds, in total or partial absence of air. Typical yields of coal, bio-
oil, and synthesis gas from wood waste are 30%, 28% and 42% of the Management of wastes should avoid improper disposal of poultry
raw biomass material, respectively [78]. However, the biochar yield litter after a productive cycle and favor that the litter does not absorb
and fuel characteristics of syngas vary according to the heat flux, moisture and does not eliminate or generate particulate pollutants to
pyrolysis temperature, processing time, density and particle size [79]. the environment. If possible drying is recommended to remove excess
Thus, it can be inferred that biomass which is homogeneous and has a residual moisture in addition to processes that facilitate volatilization
standard chemical composition generated higher and more defined of ammonia, such as composting. This will decrease the nitrogen
yields in relation to heterogeneous biomass. content which in turn negatively affects the thermal processes. Another
Cantrell [80] found that chicken manure has a higher efficiency to desirable process is standardization of the waste particle size which will
be used as substrate for the production of biochar than synthesis gas. influence the thermochemical transformation.
Song and Guo [32] evaluated the viability of slow pyrolysis of poultry
litter at different temperatures (300, 350, 400, 450, 550 and 600 °C), 8.3. Preprocessing of the poultry litter to improve the fuel properties
and found that the temperature of 500 °C is most recommended to
generate bio-coal quality with yields of up to 60.2%, with a high Regarding the preprocessing of unconventional biomasses, such as
concentration of nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) to be used in organic poultry litter, some measures may be adopted such as compaction and
fertilizer. torrefaction of biomass to improve the fuel parameters [86,87].
The biomass composition modifies the properties and proportion of
compounds produced in pyrolysis. According Mante and Agblevor [81], 8.3.1. Compaction
pyrolysis at 450 °C of a mixture of different proportions of poultry litter The compaction of poultry litter is recommended since this material
in conjunction with wood chips produces different compounds. The has a low density of around 500 kg/m3 [88]. The advantages of
authors concluded that as the addition of wood was increased, the bio- compaction processes are numerous, especially the increased density
oil yield also increased while the proportion of biochar decreased. It of the material, standardized dimensions of the biomass, process
was further found that bio-oil produced only with poultry litter has a automation, improved combustion efficiency, reduced moisture con-
high energy content, low density, low viscosity and satisfactory pH tent and the possibility of storage and bulk transport.
values. Ma and Agblevor [82] studied the fast pyrolysis of poultry litter The compacted material is about 5–6 times more energy density
(450 °C) with the objective of producing bio-oil, and identified that the than the source material, which allows for subsequent mechanization
bio-oil composition was 70.48% C, 8.78% H, 7.18% N, 13.56% S and of the process due to its homogeneity [89]. Nandi [90] indicated that
0% S. It was also identified that different fractions of oil were extracted compaction of poultry litter reduces the emission of particulates and
(hexane, toluene, methanol and chloroform) with a high average bio-oil pathogens during handling and transportation, and is also a suitable
viscosity, indicating this raw material may potentially be used for form of treatment. However, the energy used in poultry litter compac-
manufacturing bio-lubricants on an industrial scale. tion processes can make it a costly alternative if not performed
efficiently [91].
8. Future perspectives on the energetic use of poultry litter Sultana and Kumar [92] evaluated a future scenario with use of
poultry litter pellets, and observed low production costs, lower CH4
8.1. Factors associated with production management and production emission and higher gross mass content compared to wood pellets.
of feeds However, they released more NOX and SOX, showed lower durability
and low consumer acceptance, thus making it more cost effective to use
Poultry litter has characteristics that allow for it to be used as wood pellets for residential use. Still, the poultry litter pellets possessed
biomass fuel, however for efficient use it is recommended that it advantages from economic and environmental points of view, indicat-
present reduced contents of: moisture, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, ing possibilities for greater diffusion of their use in the future.
sodium and potassium. These levels can be controlled by management
mechanisms on the farm which include the proper formulation of 8.3.2. Torrefaction
feeds, management in poultry houses and waste management. The torrefaction process is defined as a thermal treatment at
Proper management of the birds so as to avoid excess animal temperatures between 200 and 300 °C and a reaction time between
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