‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual For the factis that, regardless of Newcastle 1989, and the very substantial economic costthat that disaster represents, damaging earthquakes have been, and arelikely tobe, rare events in Australia, at least as far as our current knowledge is concerned, This does not mean that most new civil engineering structures should not be designed with appropriate levels of earthquake resistance in mind - they should be - but it does mean that the community and their technical representatives -in this instance earthquake engineers - must carefully weigh the costs and benefits of the extra measures of resistance supplied. The vexed question of what todo about existing structures, many of them old and/or of historical value, is an area where, yet again, the community must ultimately decide the stance it wishes toadopt. The role of the earthquake engineer here is again paramount. ‘The Newcastle Earthquake of 1989 has been a catalyst for action on the part of the community and the profession. Government departments, industry, including the insurance industry, are seeing to it that, in the future, itis most unlikely that the risk of severe damage from earthquakes will be ignored or downplayed quite as much as the style of some engineering design and construction in Australia over the last two or three decades would seem to indicate. In the future ‘more attention will be paid to providing details for civil engineering structures by whicha suitable measure of earthquake resistance can be guaranteed. Design practice will change and so, too, will construction practice. ‘The changes will be gradual but the authors believe the process is inevitable. ‘The manual may beread in conjunction with two other publications, the firstis a texton structural dynamics called “Structural Dynamics for the Practising Engineer”, Unwin and Hyman, London 1990, by HIM Irvine. This work provides background reading in structural dynamics which is of fundamental importance in the study and practice of earthquake engineering. The second publication is a bulletin prepared by Munich Reinsurance in Australia on the ‘Newcastle earthquake. This excellent document presents a comprehensive overview of Newcas- tle and the problems associated with the earthquake of 1989, as well as giving a thoroughly readable account of the seismicity of Australia. Italso outlines of other significant seismic events in the recent history of Australia. ‘The manual here is in 10 chapters. ‘The first four are on background material. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of Australian seismicity and the nature of ground motions and, in Chapter 3, general matters to do with the response of structures to ground motions are considered. Earthquake loadings are compared with other environmental loadings, particularly wind loading. Chapter 1 Introduction Page 2‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual ‘Comments are made on structural configurations. In the case of buildings this reference relates particularly to the symmetry, or lack ofit, in the floorplan and in the lateral resisting elements that provide the skeleton in the structure. Chapter 4 provides an introduction to dynamic analysis, almost exclusively dynamic analysis of single degree of freedom systems responding to earthquake and carthquake-like loading, Response spectra and the concept of ductility are discussed at some length. Various points made are illustrated with appropriate examples. ‘The final six’chapters concentrate on design issues. Chapter 5 outlines a design philosophy believed appropriate for Australia and talks about the Code approach to design. Some comment isreserved for the new Code, although, at the time of writing, thatdocumentis not yetin final draft form. Chapter 6 concerns the design of buildings and contains sections on building types and the means by which energy may be dissipated in the structural systems undergoing moderate to strong shaking. Advice is given on the detailing of structural members and sub- assemblages in order to achieve limited ductility. ‘There is a section on the strengthening of risk buildings, always an important consideration when, damage has occurred in urban areas. Finally, another important area, often overlooked by engineers, relates to the seismic resistance and performance of non-structural elements such as cladding, partitions, pieces of special equipment and the like. The question of the provision of suitable connections for such non-structural elements is a crucial one. In Chapter 7 foundation design is considered. There is extensive material on earthquake effects ‘on soil deposits and this is followed by advice for the aseismic design of the three fundamental types of foundation namely, footings, raft foundations and pile foundations. Here the questions of stiffness and ultimate capacity are of great importance. Contrary to other types of environmental loading, it isthe foundation systems of civil engineering structures which first intercept and interact with the arriving ground motions. Accordingly, the integrity of foundation systems assumes a high priority in the overall aseismic design process. Chapter 1 Introduction Page 3Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual The related topics of slope stability and the behaviour of retaining structures is considered in Chapter 8, while Chapter 9 contains a lengthy exposition on the design of bridges. Bridges are vital elements in a community’s transportation network and itis imperative that important bridge structures are able to function adequately in the aftermath of an otherwise damaging event. ‘The final chapter, Chapter 10, considers the earthquake performance and design measures necessary to meet the resistance requirements. of bins, silos and tanks that are subjected to ‘earthquake loading, ‘These structures are either ground-supported or elevated and contain fluids or granular materials. ‘They are a particularly important class of structure in Australia given the large resources and agricultural bases to our economy. Chapter 1 Introduction Page 4Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Chapter 2: Seismicity and Ground Motions 2.1 Regional Seismicity ‘The most common cause of earthquakes is thought to be the violent slipping of rock masses along major geological fault linesin the earth’s crust or lithosphere. These fault lines divide the global crust into about twelve tectonic plates which are rigid cool slabs about 100km thick. Tectonic plates float on the molten mantle of the earth and move relative to one another at rates of 10- 100mm/year, ‘The basic mechanism causing earthquakes in the plate boundary regions appears to be that the continuing deformation of the crustal structure eventually leads to stresses/strains which exceed the material strength. A rupture will then initiate at some critical point along the fault line and will propagate rapidly through the highly stressed material at the plate boundary. In some cases the plate margins are moving away from one another. In those cases, molten rock appears from deep in the earth to fill the gap, often manifesting itself as volcanoes. If the plates are pushing together, one plate tends to dive under the other and, depending on the density of the material, it may resurface through other volcanoes. In both these scenarios there may be volcanoes and earthquakes at the plate boundaries, both being caused by the same mechanism of ‘movement in the earth's crust. Another possibility is when the plate boundaries slide sideways past cach other, essontially retaining the surface area of the plate, The San Andreas fault is representative of this type of plate interaction. Itis believed that some three quarters of the world’s earthquakes are accounted for by this rubbing- sticking-slipping mechanism with ruptures occurring on faults on boundaries between tectonic plates. Earthquake occurrence maps tend to outline the plate boundaries.* Such earthquakes are referred to as inter-plate earthquakes. ‘Australia is located on the Indo-Australian tectonic plate well away ftom the boundaries. The nearest plate boundaries to Australia are associated with the Pacific plate with a common boundary passing through New Zealand in the East and through Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and the Philippines in the North. * See, for example, “This Dynamic Planet: The World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquake and Plate Tectonics” published by the Smithsonian Institution and the U.S. Geological Survey, 1989. Chapter 2. Seismicity and Ground Motion Page 1Australian Earthquake Engineering ManualAustralian Earthquake Engineering EDITORS: CONTRIBUTORS: Manual Max Irvine and Graham Hutchinson Graham Hutchinson Professor of Civil Engineering The University of Melbourne Max Irvine Professor of Civil Engineering The University of New South Wales Les Megget Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering The University of Auckland Michael Pender Professor of Geotechnical Engineering ‘The University of Auckland John Wood Phillips and Wood Ltd Consulting Engineers, WellingtonChapter 1: Chapter 2: 24 22 23 Chapter 3: 31 32 33 Chapter 4: 41 42 42.1 422 42.3 424 425 Chapter 5: 5.1 5.2 5.3 53.1 5.3.2 54 54.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 Table of Contents Introduction Seismicity and Ground Motions Regional seismicity Characteristics of ground motions Influence of local site conditions Response of Structures Effect of ground motion on structures Structural configurations Comparison with other environmental loadings Dynamic Analysis Techniques Natural frequencies and mode shapes Analysis options Equations of motion for SDOF systems Response to an impulse Response to an earthquake Elastic response spectra Design curves and inelastic response spectrum References Design Philosophy and the Code Approach Introduction Earthquake loading and the design process Design criteria and analysis options Design criteria Analysis options Australian earthquake codes Building regulations ‘The SAA Earthquake Code AS 2121 (1979) The new earthquake code Page 24 22 25 31 32 38 41 48 48 4.12 4.20 425 431 439 S.A SL ae 53 54 58 5.8 5.8 SALAustralian Earthquake Engineering Manual Foreword Engineering practice evolves in response to society’s needs and our understanding of the forces of nature. The former occurs at a reasonably predictable rate while the latter is more erratic. “The observations we have of natural phenomena are well documented, butextend over arelatively short time of only 100 to 150 years. Do they include all likely events? Have we encountered the largest flood, the biggest cyclone or the most damaging earthquake? Only time will tell. In 1969, the Institution of Engineers, Australia held an earthquake engineering symposium in Melbourne which brought together contributors from the USA, UK and New Zealand as well as others from all over Australia, It was recognised that Australian experience indicated we are one of the leastseismic of continents but our earthquakes have shallow crustal foci and tend to produce maximum intensities for their magnitude. Over the last 20 years structural engineers have come to realise that earthquake loading should be considered in the design and detailing of structures. The time is now right toreview and update our knowledge. In particular, ground-structure interaction needs to be given more attention, Itistherefore timely that the Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual, produced by contributors from both sides of the Tasman, is now available. The contributors’ collective insights and experience will add reality to the knowledge on this subject and bring us all up to date with the present state of the art. Itis therefore with pleasure that I recommend the Manual to you for your earnest study. Roy Hardcastle Immediate Past President Association of Consulting Engineers, Australia November, 1990Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Chapter I = Introduction The recent Newcastle earthquake has focused attention on the importance of earthquake resistant design and construction principles being widely understood by the engineering profession in Australia. Although damaging earthquakes are relatively rare, it is obvious that the country has alevel of seismicity that can no longer be ignored. The Standards Association of Australia is currently reviewing the Earthquake Code AS 2121 (1979). The new Code will, in all probability, be available in draft form for public scrutiny in the early months of 1991. One likely result, once the Code has been ratified, is that many Australian engineers will be required to apply the principles of earthquake engineering in the design and construction of civil engineering structures. ‘This manual has been prepared as a supporting document for a number of workshops that are to be given in the major centres in Australia during the 1990-1991 summer. The purpose of the ‘manual is to explain some of the background to seismicity and the nature of ground motions on the one hand, and of earthquake engineering analysis and design practice on the other. ‘The material presented represents the distillation of many years of experience, both in research and in practice, on the part of the authors. It also represents a distillation of the very large amount that has been learned by the international professional community over the last three decades conceming the principles of earthquake resistant design and construction. The manual is by no means comprehensive but, by the same token, it is believed that most issues of potential importance to Australian engineers, given the Australian context, have been addressed. However, a manual such as this is not and should not be a static document. Itis likely that it will be updated from time to time as additional material is introduced and other processes, of consolidation, forexample, occur. In writing this manual the authors have attempted to strike the right balance, a balance in which important basic principles are emphasised while, at the same time, recognising that great detail oradvanced techniques, which may be appropriate in other parts of the world (where the levels of seismicity are higher) need not, indeed should not, be unduly emphasised. Chapter 1 Introduction Page 1| Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual [od eaAustralian Earthquake Engineering Manual Earthquakes do occur at locations away from the plate boundaries. Such events are known as intra-plate earthquakes and they are much less frequent than inter-plate earthquakes. They are also much less predictable than events at the plate margins and they have been observed to be far more severe. For example, the Eastern United States, which is located well away from tectonic plate boundaries of California, has recorded the largest earthquakes in the history of European settlement in that country. These major intra-plate earthquakes occurred in the middle of last century in South Carolina on the East Coast and Missouri in the interior. However, because of the low population density at the time the damage caused was minimal. Itis significant to note, however, that these intra-plate earthquakes, although very infrequent, were considerably larger than the moderately sized inter-plate earthquakes that frequently occur along the plate boundaries in California, (It is thought that because tectonic plates are not homogeneous or isotropic, areas of local high stress are developed as the plate attempts to move as a rigid body. Accordingly, rupture within the plate, and the consequent release of energy, are believed to give rise to these intra-plate events). Similarly, in Australia significant intra-plate earthquakes have occurred although in relatively unpopulated areas. The 1989 Newcastle earthquake was in fact a relatively small intra-plate event, but the events in Tennant Creek in 1988 were quite large by world standards and would have caused considerable damage in a major urban area of the country. Itis important, therefore, to view the seismicity of Australia in the correct context. The continent is indeed surrounded by countries straddling the edges of the tectonic plate on which Australia is located, These countries, New Zealand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines all suffer from relatively frequent inter-plate earthquakes. Australia, on the other hand, is subject to much less frequent intra-plate events. The Newcastle event has demonstrated that the seismicity of Australia cannotbe entirely ignored andcarthquakes should be treated as another environmental loading to be accounted for during design. 2.2 Characteristics of Ground Motions The point in the carth’s crustal system where an earthquake is initiated (the point of rupture) is called the hypocentre or focus of the earthquake. The pointon the earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicentre and the depth to the focus is the focal depth. Earthquake- occurrence maps usually indicate the location of various epicentres of past earthquakes and these epicentres are located by seismological analysis of the effect of earthquake waves on strategically located receiving instruments called seismometers. Chapter 2. Seismicity and Ground Motion Page 2‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual When anearthquake occurs several types of seismic wave are radiated from the rupture. The most importantof these are the body waves (PandS waves). P waves (or Primary waves) areessentially sound waves travelling through the earth causing particles to move in the direction of wave propagation with alternate expansions and compressions. They tend to travel through the earth with velocities of up to 8000mY/sec (up to thirty times faster than sound waves through it). $ waves (or Secondary waves) are shear waves with particle motion transverse to the direction of propagation. S waves tend to travel at about 60% of the velocity of P waves so they always arrive at seismometers after the P waves. The time lag between arrivals often provides seismologists with useful information about the distance of the epicentre from the recorder. As seismic waves approach the surface the amplitudes of vibration tend to increase as the stiffness (or impedance) of the rock decreases near the surface, especially in the case of the sediments or alluvium (ie, amplification of vibration occurs). Also, the velocity of the seismic waves is considerably slowed near the surface and the S and P waves are refracted towards the vertical (see Fig2.1). Thisresults in the longitudinal P-wave motion being mainly vertical, if recorded on soft rock, and the corresponding S-wave motion is mainly horizontal. Fig 2.] Refraction of P and S waves ‘The total strain energy released during an earthquake is known as the magnitude of theearthquake and itis measured on the Richter scale. Itis defined quite simply as the amplitude of the recorded vibrations on a particular kind of seismometer located at a particular distance from the epicentre, ‘The amount of earthquake energy released is logarithmically related to the Richter number such that each unit increase in the Richter number means that the energy released increases 32 times and the amplitude of ground motion is increased ten-fold. The only practical limit to the scale is the fact that to produce magnitudes larger than about 9.5 the earth would probably split in two! Chapter 2. Seismicity and Ground Motion Page 3‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual In general “strong motion” earthquakes are associated with Richter magnitudes greater than 5 - such earthquakes have the potential to seriously damage structures that are close to the epicentres of such events, ‘The magnitude of an earthquake by itself, which reflects the size of an earthquake at its source, is not sufficient to indicate whether structural damage can be expected at a particular site. The distance of the structure from the source has an equally important effect on the response of a structure, as do the local ground conditions. The local intensity of a particular earthquake is measured on the subjective Modified Mercalli scale which ranges from I (barely felt) to 12 (total destruction). The Modified Mercalli scale is essentially a means by which damage may be assessed after an earthquake. In a given location, where there has been some experience of the damaging effects of earthquakes, albeitonly subjective and qualitative, regions of varying seismic risk may be identified. The Modified Mercalli scale is sometimes used to assistin thedelineation ofthese regions. A particular earthquake will be associated with a range of local intensities which generally diminish with distance from the source, although anomalies, due to local soil and geological conditions, are quite common, ‘Traditionally earthquake motions have been recorded using seismometers which essentially consistofa penduluminside arigid housing. Itis possible, by appropriately choosing the: iffness of the pendulum arm and the associated damping, to ensure that, when the housing is subjected toan earthquake motion, the movement of the pendulum mass, relative to the housing, is directly proportional to the acceleration being experienced by the base of the housing (see Ref 4.5). Moder seisometers (or scismographs) are sophisticated instruments utilising, in part, electro- magnetic principles. These instruments can provide digitised or graphical records of earthquake- induced accelerations in both the horizontal and vertical directions at a particular site. Unfortu- nately, the distribution of instruments in Australia is limited. In the past, seismometers have usually only been installed around large reservoirs to check on the possible seismicity induced by the reservoirs themselves. Consequently there is no “national grid” of seismometers, and information from seismicity maps must be interpreted with a great deal of care as the data precision, accuracy and resolution normally varies over the area of the map and with time, It should be noted that even in highly seismic areas of the world, appropriate networks of seismometers are often absent. The basic lack of data worldwide, and particularly in Australia, means that information concerning the influence of such factors as magnitude, distance and local soil condition on the characteristics of earthquake motions is still rather scarce, Chapter 2. Seismicity and Ground Motion Page 4Accelerometers provide records of earthquake accelerations at a particular site and the records ‘may be appropriately integrated to provide velocity records and displacement records, Peak accelerations, velocities and displacements are all in turn significant for structures of differing stiffnesses (see Section 3.1). Because of the double integration required, ground displacements can become strikingly inaccurate unless care is taken. Typically, in Australia, peak ground accelerations would be of the order of 0.05¢ and the duration may be as much as 30 seconds, although 5 - 10 second durations seem more common. The frequency content of the ground motion is measured by the number of zero crossings of the acceleration record and is thought to be largely a function of the earthquake source mechanism, Also, there is a tendency for the predominant period to lengthen the further the site is from the epicentre. This occurs because shorter period vibrations attenuate (or dissipate) more rapidly than fong period vibrations. It should be noted that earthquake motions are rarely conducive to the establishment of resonant vibration conditions in structures. This sets them apart from some other major environmental londings (see Section 3.3). 2.3 Influence of Local Site Conditions Local geological and soil conditions will have a significant influence on the ground motions experienced at the site during an earthquake, be ita major or minorevent. These conditions affect the earthquake motions experienced (and hence the structural response) in one, or more, of the following ways: a) interaction between the bed rock earthquake motion and the soil column will modify the actual ground accelerations input to the structure. This manifests itself by an increase in the amplitude of the ground motion over and above that at the bed rock, and a filtering of the motion so that the range of frequencies present becomes very narrow with the high frequency components being eliminated. This condition particularly arises in areas where soft sediments and alluvial soil overly bedrock. The degree of amplification is dependent on the strength of shaking at the bed rock. Because of non-linear effects in the soil the amplification ratiois less in strong shaking than under base motions of lower amplitude. b) the soil properties in the proximity of the structure contribute significantly to the effective stiffness of the structural foundation. This may be a significant parameter in determining the overall structural response, especially for structures that would be characterised as stiff underAustralian Earthquake Engineering Manual other environmental loadings. ©) the strength (and response) of the local soil under earthquake shaking may be critical to the overall stability of the structure. (A detailed discussion of the effects of an earthquake on a soil deposit is presented in Chapter 7). It is also important that information on relevant geological features such as faulting be assessed. Geological information on suspected active faults near the site can assist in providing a basis for evaluating the intensity of a likely earthquake. It is usual to use this information, together with the regional seismicity data to determine the likely level of seismic activity. ity and Ground Motion Page 6 Chapter 2. Seismi‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Chapter 3: Response | of ‘Structures It is helpful to identify the major categories of structures to which the analysis and design principles embodied in this manual apply as their applicability is structure-dependent, It is also useful to identify common characteristics and briefly discuss the skeletons that enable the structures to function. Buildings and other engineered structuresmay have toresistearthquake attack fromany direction. ‘The maintenance of structural integrity in an earthquake will assume greater or lesser importance depending on the function of a structure (particularly any post-earthquake disaster relief function). Structures may provide protection, or support, they are used as containers, they may occur singly or as part of a linked system and they may forma part or portion of another structure. ‘One major category of engineered structures takes the form of cantilevers and this group is particularly susceptible to earthquake loading. Many buildings and most towers and chimneys fall into this category. Structures of horizontal extent, such as bridges, long span roofs, pipelines and transmission lines form another major category, as do retaining structures such as water tanks (both ground supported and elevated) and bins and silos used for storing a multitude of materials, One of the particular difficulties associated with retaining and containing structures lies in the determination of the extent to which the contained mass participates in the structural response under earthquake attack. It is also essential to ensure that machinery incorporated in structures in any of the above categories is adequately designed to resist earthquake loading. In particular, the mountings of machinery and electrical equipment are susceptible to damage. This is especially so if the ‘equipment is located in parts of supporting structures which may themselves be strongly excited during an earthquake, 3.1 The Effect of Ground Motion on Structures ‘The effect of ground motion on the various categories of structures is dictated almost entirely by the distribution of mass and stiffness in the structure. It is important to appreciate that, in an earthquake, loads are not applied to the structure. Rather, earthquake loading arises because of accelerations generated by the foundation level(s) of the structure intercepting and being influenced by transient ground motions. Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 1‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Specifically, the product of the structural mass and the total acceleration produces the inertia loading experienced by the structure. This is an expression of Newton's Second Law. It is important to appreciate that the total acceleration is the absolute acceleration of the structure; namely, the sum of the ground acceleration and that of the structure relative to the ground. If the structure is stiff there is litle, if any, additional acceleration relative to the ground motion, and, therefore, the earthquake loading experienced is essentially proportional to the building mass, ie FeqatM For structures which are flexible, for example those in the high-rise or long-span category, the absolute acceleration is low. This occurs because the ground acceleration and the acceleration of the building relative to the ground tend to oppose one another. In this case the earthquake loading is approximately proportional to the square root of the mass ie Feq a MOS For structures in the cantilever category, which are essentially vertical, it is the horizontal accelerations that are significant, whereas for structures that are largely horizontal in extent the effect of the vertical accelerations is dominant. Moreover, if the plan distributions of mass and stiffness are dissimilar in vertical structures, significant twisting motions may arise. ‘The peak ground acceleration is of importance in the response of stiff structures and peak ground displacements are of importance in the response of flexible structures, with peak ground velocity being of importance for structures of intermediate stiffness. Stiff structures tend tomove inunison with the ground while flexible structures, such as high-rise buildings, experience the ground moving beneath them, their upper floors tending to remain motionless. 3.2 Structural Configurations Fig. 3.1 shows a typical floor plan of a simple building. A column is located at each corner and a “nominal” shear wall, which may actually take the form of an internal stair or lift well, is also shown, When an earthquake strikes the columns and the shear wall will provide the lateral tesistance to the earthquake-induced loading. Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 2‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Centre of mass fa F WW _ & Earthquake F Z YQ \ Y Centre of stiffness Fig 3.1 Typical floor plan of simple building The force resulting from the earthquake may be considered to act through the centre of mass of the floor (see Fig 3. 1). Similarly, the force resulting from the contributions of the resisting elements (ie. the columns and shear wall) may be considered to act through the centre of stiffness (orshear centre) of the floor, The two points are not coincident because the distribution of column and shear wall stiffness is asymmetric with respect to the distribution of mass. In addition, various “accidental” eccentricities may be introduced in the real structure by live loads - which alter the Gistribution of mass - and by internal partitions, etc, which also contribute to resisting the earthquake induced loading, It may be seen from Fig 3.1, therefore, that under earthquake loading the building is not only subjected to the expected lateral motion but is also subjected to a twisting or torsional effect. Statics would imply that the torsion has a magnitude of Fe, where ¢s is the distance between the centre of mass and the centre of stiffness for the particular floor. However, because of tie dynamic characteristics of buildings, influenced by both the magnitude and the distributions of mass and stiffness, the torsional effectis amplified and the real torsion may be considerably greater than the simple product of F and es, Earthquake codes around the world, including the Australian code, recognise this effect and include an amplification factor for torsional effects. Even a building which may appear symmetrical from the design drawings will have “accidental” cocentricities associated with it. Earthquake codes usually recognise the presence of accidental Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 3Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual eccentricities - in the current Australian Earthquake Code the “accidental” eccentricity is taken a 10% of the maximum lateral dimension of the building perpendicular to the horizontal loading direction under consideration. This concurs with other earthquake codes of practice. A multi-storey building, with perfectly regular, identical, floor plans as shown in Fig 3.2(a) is considered symmetrical if the centre of stiffness of lateral resisting elements is co-incident with the same vertical line that connects the centre of mass of each floor slab. However, because of the presence of accidental eccentricities, such multi-storey buildings tend to have different eccentricities associated with each floor. Accordingly, since such eccentricities vary in magni- tude and sense from floor to floor, the overall effect may not be as severe as the code wouldimply. Service Core GxuaWells_ Service Core a) Z a | Earthquake ae eee (a) Symmetric - (a) Eccentric - twist (a) Eccentric - anslation only plus translation translation no twist © Centre of mass © Centre of stiffness Fig 3.2 Plan views of simple idealised building models Chapter 3 Response of Structures Page 4Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Fig. 3.2(b) shows a typical floor plan for a common type of building with marked eccentricity in that the servicecore of the building has been iocated against one face. In responding to earthquake attack from the direction indicated, (the resultant force of which passes through the centre of mass) the building will obviously twist as well as translate, ie the building is torsionally eccentric. However, it is possible to effectively remove the twisting effect by placement of walls as shown in Fig 3.2(c) and although the eccentricity still remains, it does not directly affect the response provided the wallls are properly designed and detailed, The extra walls effectively remove the twisting effect by developing an opposing torque which, because these walls are stiff, does not give rise to significant rotation in plan. Another commonly occurring form of structure are 3 to 4 storey walk-up blocks of flats constructed either as unreinforced masonry structures or as lightly framed structures with in-fill walls. Usually, the ground floor of such buildings is extremely torsionally flexible while the upper floors tend to be quite rigid. This form of construction is very common in Australia and will not perform well, even in minor earthquakes, because of the torsional motion that may be induced. SC aoe Fig 3.3 Elevation of typical stepped building Fig, 3.3 shows an elevation of a building and another, perhaps more subtle, way in which eccentricities may be introduced into a structure. Even though cach floor may be nominally symmetric, the overall effectof the stepping of the floors in elevation results ina gross asymmetry, with all its consequences, when under earthquake attack. Chapter 3. Response of Structures PageAustralian Earthquake Engineering Manual thas already been noted that towers may be particularly susceptible to the effects of earthquakes. As a rather extreme example picture a thin-walled steel tower. ‘The tower supports a large and rather massive battery of lights and has a cut-out, in the form of an access door atits base. In order to minimize torsional effects from earthquake loading (and, of course, wind loading) when the direction of attack is parallel to the face of the battery, the cut-out should be on the opposite face of the tower to that of the battery. This helps ensure that the shear centre and the centre of “loading” are more or less on the same vertical line. By introducing a cut-out, the tower has suffered a significant local loss of torsional stiffness so it is as well to attempt to minimize the torques generated by earthquake attack. Significantchanges in the vertical distribution of massand stiffness ina structurecan dramatically affect the structure’s response to earthquake attack. Industrial buildings tend to have few secondary components thus, in many cases, minimising twisting effects due to accidental eccentricities. However, such structures may have quite dramatic changes in mass and stiffness, particularly if, as shown in Fig 3.4 (a), aheavy silois supported in the structure, Fig 3.4 (b) shows thedramaticchangesin seismically-induced shear forces that may occur because of the silo mass and the stiffer members required to support it. Fig 3.4 (a) Framing system Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 6Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual —— Curve 1 — Absolute summation of first 3 modes Curve 2— SRSS combination of first 3 modes —-— Curve 3 — Mode 1 contribution —-— Curve 4 — Mode 2 contribution Fig 34 (b) Seismically-induced shear forces ‘Theoretically, dramatic reduction in a storey stiffiness (soft storey concept) provides a spongey layer which effectively isolates structure from ground motion. In particular, an otherwise stiff structure could be protected from short period (ie, high frequency) ground motions by making the bottom storey relatively flexible, Indeed, this sometimes happens as architectural requirements often call for large column free spaces at ground floor level. Experience has shown, however, that many modem buildings of this type perform badly in earthquakes and the so-called soft-storey concept has now been shown to be flawed, both theoretically and practically. It appears that soft storeys should, if possible, be avoided because the earthquake response in terms of forces is concentrated in relatively few structural elements, the capacity of which may be insufficient to meet the demands placed on them. Nobwithstanding this, the not unrelated technique of base isolation, which has grown in popularity over the last two decades (chiefly as a result of research and development in New Zealand and California) has many attributes. Some of the characteristics of base isolators are described in Chapter 6. Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 7Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual 3.3 Comparison with other environmental loadings Inthe Australian context the majorenvironmental loadings likely to be encountered by structures include thermal loadings, wind and wave loading, and earthquake loadings, Cyclonic winds tend to dominate structural design in the northern half of the continent, and the potential severity of wave loading on off-shore structures in Bass Strait, for example, is now well known. Moreover, 4a temperature range of at least 50 degrees Celsius, causing significant thermal loadings in some types of structure, is possible in mostparts of the country. These loadings or combinations thereof would unquestionably be regarded as significant in a world context. (On the other hand, on the bestavailable evidence, the Australian land mass is an area of relatively low seismic activity. ‘This implies a low risk of (damaging) earthquake occurrence, although it does not necessarily follow that low risk means no risk, nor that low risk implies small magnitude events. For example, the three consecutive Tenant Creek (intra-plate) earthquakes of January, 1988, had Richter Magnitudes of approximately 6.7. ‘The most obvious comparison to be made from adesigner's point of view is usually that between the lateral loads caused by wind and earthquake. Wind loading has a mean component with fluctuations about that mean: earthquake loading is represented by fluctuations abouta zero mean. Extremes of wind loading, which may be as much as three or four times the loading associated with the mean result, are possible and a significant contribution to this extreme is often supplied by the resonantcomponent in the turbulence of the wind. Resonancerefers toa condition in which the periodicity of forcing i identical to that of the structure, with a consequential amplification of response that is limited only by the level of damping the structure. A typical wind contains a wide range of frequency components in its turbulence so it is always possible that the peak response has a resonant component. Earthquake ground motions are characterised by a series of rather random spikes, with the range of frequencies present (ie, the range of intervals between zero crossings on the ground acceleration record) being somewhat narrower than for normal wind turbulence. Structures that are stiff will move essentially in unison with the ground motion. For more flexible structures responseisanalgous to that froma series of impulses, with the dominant frequency in theresponse. being that of the structure itself. This frequency, the natural frequency of the structure, is dependent on the mass and stiffness of the system, Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 8Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Wind loading depends on exposed area: earthquake loading depends on the (hidden) mass of the structure, Structures attract wind loadings which increase steadily with the major dimension (height or span, say) The earthquake loading experienced by such structures increases much less rapidly with the result that, for high rise structures, wind loading is almost always the dominant lateral loading, ‘This assumes elastic responses for both regimes of loading. Chapter 3. Response of Structures Page 9‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques 4.1 Natural Frequencies and Modeshapes The first step in any dynamic analysis of a civil engineering structure, once a satisfactory model has been constructed, is the evaluation of certain properties of the structural system which are independent of loading, at least insofar as response remains within the elastic regime, or where the risk of local or global instability is low. ‘Two quantities of importance are the natural frequencies and the associated natural modes of vibration: the adjective natural signifying that their evaluation depends on determination of system propertiesalone- in this case the properties of stiffness and mass, Therelationship between the two is manifested in a structure vibrating with a characteristic, unchanging shape when forced to do so at a frequency which is one of the natural frequencies of the system. Any structural system has an infinity of natural frequencies and associated modes. These may be ordered from the lowest to the highest- the lower being those typically associated with movement (recall, the ubiquitous example of the street lighting standard in the shape of an [and the way it moves in the wind), while the highest will be the ringing modes associated with the passage of sound-waves in and around the structure. Fortunately, in most of civil engineering practice, and in almost the whole field of earthquake engineering, itis only the first few that are of structural interest. Very often we are interested only in the fundamental mode: at most the first three modes are required . Weeshall see the way in which these fundamental properties of the system arc fed into the dynamic analysis process when we come to look at response to transient loads. A single degree of freedom model is shown in the figure below. That single degree of freedom is the displacement A(t) representative of a simple structure in which one displacement quantity suffices to describe the motion. Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 1Australian Karthquake Engineering Manual M Figure 4.1 Schematic of a single degree of freedom model Ifthe mass M is pulled to the rightan amount Ag, and released from rest, it will undergo sinusoidal harmonic motion of the form ce 2mt A(d) = do sin 2H 20 or = Ao sin 2nft or = Ao sin @t where the characteristic time of the system, the period T, is related to the natural frequency f and. to the natural circular frequency @ by = 2nf = 2h = Ont = 22 where the units of @ are radians/second, and those of f are cycles/second, There are 2m radians ina circle so dividing radians/second by 2m gives cycles/second. Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 2‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual Structures for which earthquake loading may be important have (fundamental) periods in the range0.1 second to 10 seconds, approximately. Sydney Tower is a structure characteristic of the upper end of this range, while a Paddington terrace fits in at the other end. In the absence of damping this free vibration motion would be repeatable as shown below. ‘Undamped Structure Figure 4.2 Effect of damping on free vibration Overlain on thisis the true free vibration response - that when damping is included, Even for quite large levels, of damping, such as that shown here, the period of the structure is relatively unchanged, but it is a matter of cornmon observation that damping, even the small levels typically inherent in civil engineering structures stressed below the elastic limit, eventually wipes out free vibrations, Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 3Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual So, in the absence of dissipative agents such as damping (which is the third important system property after mass and stiffness), we may establish the formula for the natural period as follows: Atpoint A the strain energy stored isa maximum being, since the mass is momentarily stationary, 1K AS 2 On the other hand, at B, the situation is reversed with the spring momentarily unloaded and the kinetic energy at its peak, which is Ima’ dM a"max Further since, energy is conserved we have that and because A@ = acy) = dt we have _ Ao 2m max = 8 leading to the period T which is the time scale of this process T=2n fH Units of mass in tonnes, and of stiffness in kN/m, lead to the unit of the period being seconds, as required. In assuming the spring and mass system of Figure 4.1 to represent a structure we have set aside the crucial question of just how an actual structure is rendered into this single degree equivalent. ‘Therefore, for purposes of illustration, we shall treat a simple cantilever structure, a structure which is slender and, for which bending action is the dominant means of resistance of the loading. Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 4Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual The structure in mind is the reinforced concrete wind shield for the flues of a coal-fired power station, The structure is a thin-walled tower with the wall thickness increasing as the base is approached in order to maintain stress levels, under self weight and lateral loads, which do not vary significantly over the height of the structure, The structure is shown in the figure below 2R Ie A@=Adlpp Figure 4.3 A tower and its associated fundamental mode of vibration. ‘The curve of deflection in response to distributed lateral loads for such flexing structuresis given toa very good degree of precision by the parabola A(z) =o (2 ‘hi and this represents an excellent choice for the (approximate) shape of the fundamental mode of vibration. Weare thus choosing the tower tip deflection Agas the degree of freedom of this system, Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page SAustralian Earthquake Engineering Manual a system undergoing free vibration of the form Alz.) = Ao(t) (AP = Ao sin cat (2P The peak velocity of the tower is given by EN 2 Sno off and so the peak kinetic energy is h where Me is the effective mass of the tower. It is a great deal less than the total mass which is bh M -| m(z) dz 0 the ration M:Mg being 5:1 for a tower of uniform mass, rising to 15:1 for one in which the wall tapers completely. ‘The reason is, of course, that not all the tower is vibrating with the same acceleration as its tip. At another phase in the vibration the strain energy is greatest and this occurs when Chapter 4. Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 6Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual ‘h 2. PA SE=1] E12)|SS} dx é j | a 4 El)dz- Ag ie orS.E.= 1K As where Ke is the effective stiffness of the tower. On account of conservation of energy we have /& where we have, now, the crucial information relating to the appropriate stiffness and mass to use in making an appropriate single degree of freedom model of the structure. While most information of importance to the earthquake engineer is contained in the first mode of vibration and its associated natural frequency, all structures have a multitude of modes. For cantilevers such as multistorey buildings, the first three modes of vibration look like those shown in the figure below. 1.94 0.8} ous ona] weterT aaTio 0.2] 0 Oo Figure 4.4 Typical modes for multistorey buildings in which both bending and shear are important rom Reference 4.8), Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 71n Earthquake Engineering Manual ‘The modes indicate that some shearing action is occurring (notice, for example, the curvature of the first mode which is largely reversed from that for true flexure), and is typical of multistorey buildings in which frame action is important. For pure shearing structures the periods of the higher modes are approximately h=TB .H=TW65 while for pure flexural structures, the ratios are, approximately, h=Ti16 ,T3=Tihs Depending on the type of structure (ie, the degree of shear/flexure in the modes), estimates of reasonable quality can be made as to the periods of the higher modes. Forexample, T2~T1/6, would bea good estimate for the period of the second mode of the slender chimney wind shield, whereasa value of T2=T/4.5 would bean appropriate estimate fora typical 20-25 storey building in which the lift and service core provided the majority of the resistance to lateral loads. The walls of such cores exhibit a reasonable amountof shearing deformation in their response, as well as the bending traditionally associated with shear wall structures. 4.2 Analysis Techniques 42.1 Equations of motion for SDOF systems The model below is representative of a typical structural element, such as a pier which carries tributary portions of span ata hammer head, say Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 8‘Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual M stiffness, K damping, C % 0 Model Figure 4.5 SDOF Model of a typical civil engineering structure ‘The mass of the structure, M, the stiffness, K and the damping level, C, are all assumed known, ‘The ground displacementas aresult of strong shaking, ug(t), is assumed known, something which can never be the case since we are talking of the future. The displacement of the mass relative to the foundation, A(t), is the quantity to be calculated. To begin to find this we must first write the equation of dynamic equilibrium (when this equation is solved we find A(t) and so, for example, the spring force KA(t) - or, for that matter, the seismic shear force in the pier may be found). From Newton’s second law we have i, +A) +CA+KA =0 where the first terms the inertia force (note that we must use the total acceleration (tig + A) when writing this term), the second is the damping force (this is a an idealisation of the actual mechanisms of energy dissipation in a vibrating structure - the phrase “equivalent viscous damping coefficient” is sometimes used to describe C), and the third term is the spring force. Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 9Australian Earthquake Engineering Manual This equation is usually rearranged into the form A+ 2Cad + oA =— iy where «@ =1K7M = natural circular frequency in radians per second and ¢ = CA2VKM)= fraction of critical damping. Critical damping (© = 1) refers to the situation when, for example, the mass is just able to return to its position of equilibrium, after being drawn to one side and released, in one gradual non-oscillatory movement. A self-closing door is a good (qualitative) example. Damping levels are problematic as they are certainly dependent on material type, vibration amplitude levels and, ultimately, during strong shaking, on damage levels. Values of of 0.01 - 0,02 - 0,03 might be typical of well - detailed structures of steel - prestressed concrete - teinforced concrete under modest shaking. However, when cracking and some limited inelastic action occurs, as it probably will under moderate to strong shaking, values of 0,02 - 0,04 - 0.06 might well be judged appropriate. Stiff structures founded on soft soils show lengthened natural periods on account of the foundation system, which also provides enhanced damping perhaps as muchas 0,05 under strong shaking. The mechanics of damping includes the energy thatisradiated away from the structure into the surrounding soil and, also, inelastic behaviour in the soil. For significant inelastic action that occurs in a controlled ductile manner in a structure a different approach is considered appropriate and we shall address this later. Records of strong ground motion taken with an appropriate accelerometer suggest that the forcing, M iig(t), may be considered as an essentially random series of spikes, or impulses. From the following diagram, where a well known accelerogram (and integrated ground velocity and displacement curves) is portrayed Chapter 4 Dynamic Analysis Techniques Page 10