CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature and studies that bear significance to the study.

Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study

was related (Calderon, 1995). It composed of materials that deal with job satisfaction. These

materials were classified as local and foreign.

Foreign Literature

The journal entitled “Exploring Horticultural Employees’ Attitudes toward Their

Jobs”, it is a qualitative analysis based on Herzberg’s theory on job satisfaction. It is included

in the journal of agricultural and applied economics by Bitsch, Vera, and Michael, December,

year 2005.

Job satisfaction is likely the most studied work-related attitude and is assumed to

influence a variety of behaviors. This study analyzes the job satisfaction of agricultural

employees using Herzberg's theory, which is broadly employed in management. Fourteen

horticultural businesses participated in case studies of labor-management practices. Fifteen no

supervisory employee interviews were analyzed regarding job satisfaction. Components of job

satisfaction relevant to horticultural employees were family-busi ness values, achievement,

recognition, work itself, involvement, personal life, interpersonal relationships, job security,

supervision, working conditions, organization, safety, compensation, and information. While

support for Herzberg's theory is weak, it is useful for classifying employees' attitudes.

Job satisfaction is a general attitude toward an individual s current job and organization

that encompasses the feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about that job. Job satisfaction is likely the

most studied attitude in organizational behavior (Cranny, Smith, and Stone 1976). Most people
believe that job satisfaction is closely associated with performance and numerous other

important work behaviors, including absenteeism, turnover, and organizational citizenship

behavior. Employees' job satisfaction is both a goal in itself and a proxy for an organization's

capacity to retain and motivate its employees (Fisher and Locke; Locke 1966).

Job satisfaction has been studied in many different ways and theories on job

satisfaction are numerous, including theories of motivation and organizational behavior that

have been interpreted as theories of job satisfaction in various empirical studies (for a historical

overview see Locke; for a more recent discussion, see Cranny, Smith, and Stone). In the

practice of human resource management, the theory of motivation and job satisfaction put forth

by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (see also Herzberg 1966), widely know as Herzberg's

theory, has been very influential and underlies many current management guidelines. The

continuing broad interest of management practice in Herzberg's theory has been underlined by

a recent republication in the Harvard Business Review's "Ideas with Impact" series (Herzberg

2003).

Based on a review of job attitude research, Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman devised

a study of work attitudes to test the assumption that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are

not two extremes of a continuum, but are caused by different underlying job factors and cannot

substitute for each other for practical purposes. Their seminal study used the critical incident

method of data collection, which is a

 semistructured, open-ended interview technique focusing on exceptional experiences.

After a brief introduction of the nature of the project, research participants were told that the

interviewer was primarily interested in hearing about actual experiences. Then respondents

were told to start with "... any kind of stoiy you like-either a time when you felt exceptionally

good or a time when you felt exceptionally bad about your job . . . " (p. 35). After the first

sequence was explored, respondents were asked for the second. For the second round, they

were given less freedom. If the first story had been "a high," the respondent was then asked for

"a low" (p. 35) and vice versa. Some respondents went on to tell a third story and a few even

told a fourth one. Details of the procedure were tested in two pilot studies.

Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (2003) found that, indeed, there are two clusters of

factors involved in motivation and job satisfaction. They identified five factors as strong

determinants of job satisfaction: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and

advancement. These factors appeared only infrequently when respondents described events that

were dissatisfying. They describe an individual's relationship to what he or she does, the

content of the job, and were labeled motivators (Table 1). Another cluster of factors describes

the situation, the context, or the environment in which the job is done. These factors can

prevent or cause dissatisfaction, but not cause satisfaction. Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman

labeled these factors hygiene factors, dissatisfiers, or maintenance factors (Herzberg 1966).

Significant hygiene factors in the original study included company policy and administration,

supervision-technical^ salary, interpersonal relations-supervision, and working conditions. Later

studies referenced in Herzberg (1966) found evidence for these and other factors of
 IK

the original coding scheme outlined in Tabic I. Factors presented in the results varied widely, depending on

the researched populations.

Analysis: This study was included in review related literature because it analyzes the job satisfaction

using Herzberg's theory. It tackles the broader sense of satisfaction experiencing by the employees. It

also talks about on how to motivate them and have the drive and desire at work.

The literature of Employer - Employee Relationship for pay for personal services

to qualify as wages, there must be an employer-employee relationship was included in

review related literature, (http://www.irs.gov/businesses/small/international/ article/0*

,id=10627 2. 00.htmn.vear 2000.

Under the common law rules, every individual who performs services

subject to the will and control of an employer, both as to what shall be done and how

it shall be done, is an employee. It does not matter that the employer allows the

employee considerable discretion and freedom of action, as long as the employer has

the legal right to control both the method and the result of the services.

If an employer-employee relationship exists, it does not matter what the parties

call the relationship. It does not matter if the employee is called a partner, coadventurer,

agent, or independent contractor. It does not matter how the pay is measured, how the

individual is paid, or what the payments are called. Nor does it matter whether the

individual works full-time or part-time.

 The existence of the employer-employee relationship under the usual common law rules

will be determined, in doubtful cases, by an examination of the facts of each case.

Employee

An employee generally includes any individual who performs services if the

relationship between the individual and the person for whom the services are performed the

legal relationship of employer and employee. This includes an individual who receives a

supplemental unemployment pay benefit that is treated as wages. No distinction is made

between classes of employees. Superintendents, managers, and other supervisory personnel are

employees. Generally, an officer of a corporation is an employee, but a director acting in this

capacity is not. An officer who does not perform any services, or only minor services, and

neither receives nor is entitled to receive any pay is not considered an employee.

Employer

An employer is any person or organization for whom an individual performs or has performed

any service, of whatever nature, as an employee. The term "employer" includes not only

individuals and organizations in a trade or business, but organizations exempt from income tax,

such as religious and charitable organizations, educational institutions, clubs, social

organizations, and societies. It also includes the governments of the United States, the states,

Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia, as well as their agencies, instrumentalities, and

political subdivisions.

Two special definitions of employer that may have considerable application to nonresident
aliens are:

1. An employer includes any person paying wages for a nonresident alien individual,

foreign partnership, or foreign corporation not engaged in trade or business in the

United States (including Puerto Rico as if a part of the United States), and

2. An employer includes any person who has control of the payment of wages for services

that are performed for another person who does not have that control.

For example, if a trust pays wages, such as certain types of pensions, supplemental

unemployment pay, or retired pay, and the person for whom the services were performed has no

legal control over the payment of the wages, the trust is the employer.

These special definitions have no effect upon the relationship between an alien

employee and the actual employer when determining whether the pay received is considered to

be wages.

Analysis:

This was included in foreign literature for it tackles the relationship of employee and

employer, which was related to our facet: public relation which was an organizational, philanthropic,

or social function of managing communication between an organization and its audiences. There are

many goals to be achieved by the practice of public relations, including education, correcting a

mistruth, or building or improving an image.

Waiters and waitresses, a writings included in Career Discovery Encyclopedia vol.6

sec z, by E. Ruse 11 Prinun III, 1990, was included in foreign related literature. The primary

function of the waiters and waitresses is to serve food and beverages to customers in

restaurants and other food establishments. In addition to this task, waiters and waitresses
 also take customers’ orders, make out bills and collect money.

Informal waiters and waitresses works in small, casual food establishment. These

include diners, fast food restaurants, grills, cafeterias, and sandwich shops. There other

regular duties, they may also be required to clear and clcan tables and counters. As part of

servicing the customers, they may prepare salads and beverages, dish out prepared foods

such as soups and stews, replenish supplies, and set up tables for future customers. In some

establishments, waiters and waitresses are also expected to clean equipment, sweep and

mop the floor, and carry out trash.

Large restaurants employ formal waiters and waitresses, many of whom perform specific

tasks. For example, there is often a headwaiter or headwaitresses who greets arriving

customers, checks on their reservation, and escorts then to their table. These employees are

sometimes called “captains”. The waiter or waitress who takes the diners’ orders may make

suggestions about which dishes are especially appetizing. They may also recite a list of

specials (dishes that the chef has prepared for that evening and that do not appear on the

menu.

Some waiters and waitresses specialize on dispensing alcoholic and nonalcoholic

beverages. These employees are called bartenders. Many formal restaurants also employ

waiters and waitresses whose sole responsibility is to serve wine. These wine stewards

present a list of available wines to the diners and may make suggestions about

which wines would be appropriate with the food the diners have ordered. The wine stewards

then brings the diners’ selection to the table, opens the bottle and pours the wine. Periodically

through out the meal, the wine steward will return to refill the diners’ glasses.

Waiters and waitresses do not work just in restaurants. Some work in bars, in hotels
dining rooms, and in the dining cars of trains. In large hotels, room service waiters and

waitresses bring food from the hotels’ kitchen to the rooms of the hotel guest.

Analysis: The above writing was also included in foreign related literature for it tackles about waiters

and waitresses, their works and their duties which are the counterpart of service crews.
Local Literature

A book of Public administration, the business of government, second edition by Jose P.

Leveriza, 1990, published by the National Bookstore, was included in local related literature.

The theory of Chris Argyris suggests that humans develop from a status of complete

dependency during infancy to strong desires for independence just when the time comes to enter

the world of work which treats them as dependents and psychological immature. The workers

react negatively, sometimes with acts of sabotage or open rebellion, frequently by becoming

apathetic and in management’s view, very difficult to motivate.

The process theory of Victor Vroom utilizes the concept of instrumentality. Implicit in

his theory is the notion that behavior is perceived as instrumental for the
 23

achievement of some outcomes and the evaluation of the outcomes. In his study he found

a negative relationship between job satisfaction and the probabilities of resignation, absences,

and accidents. He found no simple relationship between satisfaction and performance, but he

did state some clues to the relationship. (1) Level or performance seems to vary directly with

the strength of need for achievement, particularly when the tasks is presented as difficult and

challenging; (2) Workers paid on an hourly basis perform at a higher level if they believe they

are being over-compensated. (3) Workers perform better if they believe the task requires

abilities which they value or believe they possess; (4) Workers given feedback about their

performance, or who are given an opportunity to participate in making decisions which will

affect them, perform at a higher level.

The study of Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler III makes three significant

qualifying statements. Their study has shown that: (1) Job satisfaction is often associated with

high performance; (2) High satisfaction is associated with low employee turnover and low

absenteeism; and (3) It may be more fruitful to think about job satisfaction as a result rather

than a cause of high job performance.

The research of Martin Patchen shows that one cannot expect an employee to be

strongly satisfied unless the following conditions exist simultaneously: (1) An employee inner

need for achievement; (2) The degree of achievement principle in his job and; (3) the

probability that increased effort on his part will lead to greater achievement. According to

Patchen, the level of performance by an employee who has inner satisfaction for achievement

can be raised by the following features in the work situation; (1) A degree difficulty in his job

that is great as to induce stress; (2) A considerable degree of control over his own work methods;

(3) The existence of appropriate standards for measuring performance; and (4) feedback that he
 24

regards as relevant and reliable as to his degree of success. When these four work situational

variables appear in combination, their effect on satisfaction is multiplicative rather than merely

additive.

Bradford D. Boyd attempted to summarize the ramification of research findings as they

pertain to supervisors at every level; (1) the job of manager is to get things done through people.

(2) Most employees expect to work, want to work, and are most satisfied in a department where

they are producing. (3) Employees by and large would rather please their boss rather than to

displease him. (4) For most people work is one of the most meaningful aspects of their lives.

They can find in work both dignity and personal satisfaction depending upon how the supervisor

presents it to them. (5) The individual can control how hard he will work-indeed, whether he will

work at all. This raises the question of who really is the boss. The challenge to supervisors is to

continue to create a climate in which a man will want to continue to give his best.

Analysis: This study was included in review related literature because it suggests that humans develop

from a status of complete dependency during infancy to strong desires for independence just when the

time comes to enter the world of work which treats them as dependents and psychological immature. It

found also a negative relationship between job satisfaction and the probabilities of resignation,

absences, and accidents.

Review Related Studies

A related study on the other hand is studies, inquiries or investigations already

conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has bearing similarity (Calderon,

pp.35). These may be classified into two: Local and Foreign.

Foreign Studies

A study of Employee satisfaction tied to emotions, company beliefs at_Hotel & Motel

Management, Nov 15, 2004 by Jonathan Qarsky, Lenny Nash was included in
Foreign related studies

The emotions a hotel employee experiences at work and the beliefs he or she has about

the overall company are the strongest drivers of employee loyalty. An analysis of more than 4,000

responses collected through Market Metrix employee surveys this year revealed that certain

aspects of the work experience have the biggest impact on employee loyalty.

Employee satisfaction questions were organized into seven categories, each measuring a

specific aspect of the work experience. For this study, the category scores for each employee were

tested to determine which most impacted employee loyalty. A loyal employee was defined as one

who responded that he would recommend his hotel as a place to work and that he planned to

remain with the company for at least three years.

Of all seven categories tested, the emotions category was the strongest predictor of employee

loyalty. This category included questions about whether employees experienced 12 different

emotions in their work. Employees who report feeling "powerful, 111 "appreciated,” "proud" and

"important" at work are more likely to remain loyal employees [see "Employee's sense of stature

strong driver of retention, loyalty," July 5, 2004 issue, page 12].

The company category, which included questions about company mission and policies,

had the second strongest correlation with employee loyalty. Employees who agreed, "I am excited

about the growth of the company" were most likely to be loyal

employees. Other questions in this category included, "The home office cares about the

staff at my hotel," and "1 understand the company's mission."

I he job category, which included questions about scheduling, pay and benefits, had the

next strongest link to loyalty. Employees who agreed with the statements "1 feel I have

the opportunity to advance," and "Compared to similar jobs in this area, my pay is fair,”

were more likely to be loyal employees.

One surprise finding was that direct supervisors had less impact on employee

loyalty than the more removed influence of company mission and values. But studies of

employees in other industries have supported the notion that employee satisfaction is

heavily dependent on an employee's sense of understanding of the company's mission

and direction, and the employee's specific contribution to achieving company success.

Loyal employees are emotionally connected to their work. It makes sense that they need

to feel important and proud of their work because their work is such a meaningful part

of their lives.

Loyal employees also are more willing to accept short-term downturns because

they believe in long-term success. Their positive attitude can be incredibly valuable not

only in affecting overall employee morale, but also in impacting the guest experience.

Analysis: This study was included in review related literature because it tackles about the

aspects of the work experience that have the biggest impact on employee loyalty. The emotions

category was the strongest predictor. Employee satisfaction is heavily dependent on an

employee's sense of understanding of the company's mission and direction, and the employee's

specific contribution to achieving company success. Loyal **ptoyets are emotionally

 27

connected to their work It makes sense that they need to feel

important and proud of their work became their work is such a meaningful part of their lives.

Local Studies

A study made by Melvin G. Calimag, Newsbytes News Network, Jan.14,2002. A

study is entitled “Most Filipino Web Developers Unhappy with Pay Survey. These study

was included in local related literature.

An informal survey conducted among Filipinos engaged in Web development

work has found a majority of respondents feel they are not paid enough. The survey,

entitled "Profile and Job Satisfaction of Filipino Web Development Workers" which is

due for release next month, based its conclusions from 73 respondents that were selected

from 109 individuals who were initially polled.

The survey covered Web developers mostly employed by local information

technology companies, though when the date it was conducted was not given. More than

50 percent of the respondents whose responses were counted said they were dissatisfied

with the financial rewards they were getting. Sixty-three percent of those interviewed

said they earn between 8,000 Philippine pesos ($155.64) and 20,000 pesos ($389.11)

weekly - a salary range considered low in the IT field.

Although not included in the study, other IT areas such as system administration

and computer programming reportedly pay much higher, with weekly salaries fluctuating

between 40,000 pesos ($778.21) to 80,000 pesos ($l,556.42).The compensation disparity

may be because Web development is a "disparate field," where a host of skills are

required unlike in other areas, said Selwyn Alojipan, an IT columnist.” Web developers

in the Philippines usually have only one or two skill sets. Rarely do we see people who
are good in technical work to be also good in tackling graphics and editorial tasks - all of

which are needed to create an effective Web site,” he argued.This is the reason, Alojipan

pointed out, that companies are forced to hire additional personnel and distribute an

otherwise hefty wage to a larger pool of people. The same set of respondents claimed

they have supportive working conditions. However, most workers said they would be

happier if their physical working conditions would be improved to include bigger and

better workspaces and having more powerful computers and cutting-edge technologies.

The respondents also acknowledged their job was mentally challenging, with Web design

emerging as the toughest part of their work. Ironically, it is also in that category where

most of the Web developers felt they excelled in. The study also gave a profile of the

Filipino Web developer: single; in their 20s and early 30s; with one to three years of

work experience; some have undergraduate degrees while others pursued further

education through certificate and graduate courses Janette Tonal, a Manila-based Web

developer who contributed data for the survey, said the study provides a glimpse of the

typical traits of a Filipino Web developer, though it may not depict conditions in the

Philippines as a whole.” This is just a small Web survey that was done primarily to give

us a bird's eye view on this new field of work," said Torral of the study, which was

commissioned by the Graduate Studies Office of De La Salle University in Manila.

Analysis: this study was included in review related literature because it tackles about are first

facets: salary/pay. It show there how important the salary was and how it affects the job

satisfaction of Filipino web developers. It is related in our studies for we tackle about the job
satisfaction of service crews.

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This portion of the study contains perspective of the procedure the step

undertaken, necessary in the conducts of the research work. It includes the research

design/method employed description of the respondents, construction and validation of

the research instruments, description of instrument used, data gathering procedures

employed in findings solution to the problem of study.

RESEARCH METHOD USED

This is a descriptive study that describes the level of job satisfaction in service

crews in selected fast food chain in the city of Mandaluyong during school year 2006.

The use of the descriptive method lies in the fact that the main purpose of this study was

to evaluate the level of job satisfaction of service crews. The description of data included

the profile of service crews in selected fast food chain in the city of Mandaluyong. The

profile looked into some selected variables.

The descriptive research method was the survey, which was a non-experimental.

Surveys can be useful when a researcher wanted to collect data or phenomena that can’t

be directly observed. Surveys are used extensively in the library and information science

to assess attitudes a characteristic of then wide range of the subjects, from the quality of

user-system interfaces the library user reading habits. Surveys can use qualitative like ask

open-ended questions or quantitative that use forced-choice questions measures. (Babbie,

2002)
DESCRIPTION OF THE RESPONDENTS
 The respondents were the service crews of local fast food chains. It is also

concerned with the gender (male and female), educational attainment (high school and

college), ages in range of 17-28 years old, civil status (single and married) and the

amount salary ranging to P2,000 to PI0,000 up.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENT USED

Researcher made instrument was used in the study. In making these necessary

questions, the researchers read books regarding the construction of the study. The

questionnaire was constructed on the thesis, of the purpose of the study and formulated

in the way that each item would gather the necessary data that would answer the specific

problem of the study. Part I of the questionnaires include the profile of the respondents

which are age, sex, civil status, educational attainment and amount of salary. Part II is

composed of the different facets of the Job satisfaction, which are benefits and

incentives, working condition, workload, public relation, security of tenure, system of

promotion, reward and recognition, and schedule of shifting.

POPULATION FRAME AND SAMPLING SCHEMES

The basis for the selection of the respondents for these investigations was the

preparation of service crews in selected fast food chains in the city of Mandaluyong. The

population size of each food chains are MCDO-Barangka: 45 service crews, Jollibee-

Acacia Lane: 35 service crews, KFC-Edsa Central: 27 service crews, Greenwich-Food

court Megamall: 35 service crews and Chowking-Starmall: 30 service crews. The total
population all in all is 172 service crews. Considering the formula of Calderon and

Expectacion (1993), the sample size was computed as follows: n = N

1 + in
Where:
 n = the size of the sample N= the size of the population e= the margin

of error

The ideal margin of error is 3% ( Calderon and Expectacion, 1993)

The service crews are group of five categories (MCDO-Barangka, Jollibee-Acacia

Lane, KFC-Edsa Central, Greenwich-Food court Megamall and Chowking-Starmall) according

to the food chain they were work into. Stratified random Sampling was used. The ff. formula

were used for stratified random sampling (Calderon and Expectacion, 1993).
Sample proportion (%) = n
N

Where:

n = the size of the sample N= the size of the population

The computed sample proportion is .86 rounded to .90 that was converted to 90

%. The computed sample size for each food chains are: MCDO-Barangka: 41 service

crews, Jollibee-Acacia Lane: 32 service crews, KFC-Edsa Central: 24 service crews,

Greenwich-Food court Megamall: 32 service crews and Chowking-Starmall: 27

service crews. Therefore the total sample size is 156 service crews.

The researcher will use the stratified random sampling technique for the service

crew respondents. Stratified random sampling, according to Calderon (1993), was the

process of selecting randomly, samples from the different strata of the population used in

the study.

VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT USED

Through the submission of the data gathering instrument to our adviser and other

expert at the Rizal Technological University (RTU), the effectives of it was ensured and

it was validated. Suggestions had been incorporated, thus the revision of the instrument
had been done.

10 service crews of selected fast-food chains who were not respondents of the

study, for the dry run, substantiated it. These 10 service crews were able to answer the

queries in data gathering instrument.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURES

In data gathering procedures, the following steps were had been undertaken: The

first step was the pursuance of permission of the managers in Selected Fast Food Chains

for the distribution of questionnaires. After getting the permission, distribution of

questionnaires had been conducted in Selected Fast Food Chains in the City of

Mandaluyong. A week after the distributions of questionnaires, gathering of it will take

place. The data gathered were tallied, tabulated and analyzed.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables

of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research

questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. While methods vary by discipline, the

emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.

 33

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

The following are the formulas that used in statistical treatment of data:

A. Treatment used in problem no. 1- the profile of the respondent.

percentage
Percentage means a numbers of parts taken from 100. The word percent comes from

the latin word “ PER CENTUM” which means “for every hundred.” (A. del Rosario, 2003,

p.93)
Formula:

P = F x 100 (http://en.wikipedia.org)
N

Where:

P = percentage

F = frequency

N = population

100 = constant
Ranking

Ranking was the process or method of determining the relative positions of values,

measures, or scores according to some bases such as magnitude, worth, quality, importance, or

chronology. It is an arrangement of values or scores from the highest to lowest. (Calderon, 1993)
Formula:

R = nl +n2 + n3
Where:

R = ranking N=
frequency
Percentage and Ranking were used in solving Problem no. 1. the profile of the
respondents.
 34

p. Treatment used in problem no. 2- the level of job satisfaction of the

service crews. Weighted Mean

The weighted mean was used to determine the level of job satisfaction of

service

crews in 10 facets. (Calderon, 1993, p. 46)

Formula:
WM = TWF N
Where:

WM = weighted mean

TWF = the product of frequencies and

weights N = total frequency

Weighted mean was used in Problem no. 2, the level ofjob satisfaction of service
crews.

Verbal Interpretations using 5 point rating scale:

4.1- 5.0 = very much satisfactory

3.1- 4.0 = very satisfactory

2.1- 3.0 = satisfactory

1.1- 2.0 = slightly satisfactory

0.1-1.0 = not satisfactory The 5pt. rating scale was used in Problem no. 2, for

verbal interpretation of the level of job satisfaction of service crews.

C. Treatment used in problem no. 3- the significant relationship of the level of job
satisfaction and selected variables.

CHI SQUARE (x2)

 35

The Chi Square was used to determine the association between two independent

variables; the chi-square of independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used.

(Calderon, 1993, p. 200)

Formula:
X2 = y ffo-fe^2 fe = RK
fe T

Where:
fo = observed frequencies
fe = expected frequencies
R = Raw total K = Column
total T = Grand total

Chi-square was used in solving Problem no. 3, the significant relationship of job

satisfaction of service crews to the selected variables as to age, sex, civil status,

educational attainment and amount of salary.