oni 19 Ane roi an Parenting Through Change: An Effective Prevention Program for Single Mothers Marion S. Forgatch and David S. DeGarmo ‘Oregon Social Learning Center “Tis randomized experimental prevention sty (a) evaluated the effectiveness of a parenting program in sample of 238 divorcing mothers wih ons in Grades 1-3 and (b) provided an experimental tes of eoercion theory. The intervention produced reductions in observed coercive parenting, prevented dscay in postive parenting, and generally improved effective parenting practices in comparisons of mothers in experimental and comzol groups. Moreover, coercion theory was supported. Improved parenting practices corlaed significantly with improvements in teacher reported School adjustment, ‘hid reprted maladjustment and mother rpored maladjustment, The intervenon indirectly benefited ‘hid cotcomes thraogh improve parenting paces fora made based on child report and, 0a lesser extent om teacher report. The intervention did noe produce direct effects on child outcomes. (Children from divorced families are at risk for diverse short and long-term negative outcomes. Problems include difficulty with externalizing behaviors, academic performance, peer relationships, depression, and anxiety (eg, Chase-Lansdale, Cherlin, & Kieran, 1995; Hetherington, 1992: Zill, Morrison, & Coiro, 1993). Pro- spective longitudinal studies have found that (a) most youngsters from divorced families develop normally, (b) some youngsters have problems before separation that continue after the divorce, and (c) some youngsters develop new problems following divorce (Amato & Booth, 1996; Block, Block, & Gjerde, 1986; Chase- Lansdale etal, 1995; Cherlin etal, 1991; Furstenberg & Teil, 1994; Shaw, Emery, & Tuer, 1993). A current focus of divorce research is the identification of processes that account for these differences in child adjustment Furstenberg & Seltzer, 1986). Coercion theory specifies a set of parenting practices that are presumed to shape children’s behavior and contribute to short: and long-term adjustment outcomes (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992), These parenting practices (ie, discipline, postive involve- ment, monitoring, and problem solving) are also at risk for dis- ruption in divorced families (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Brody, Neubaum, & Forehand, 1988; Capaldi & Patterson, 1991; DeGarmo & Forgatch, 1999; Peterson & Zill, 1986; Vuch- inich, Vuchinich, & Wood, 1993) Cross-sectional and longitudi- ral studies using multiple methods of assessment that included direct observation with divorced sarmples have found moderate to strong paths from ineffective parenting to children's adjustment Marin S. Forgatch and David S. DeGarmo, Oregon Social Leeming (Center, Eugene, Oregon. "This project was supported by Orsnts ROL MH3S318 and ROI MHL {54703 from the Preveation Research Branch, Division of Epidemiology and Services Research, National Insite of Mental Health, U.S. Pubhe Health Service ‘We thank Gerald R. Paterson for his collaboration throughout the say nd bis thoughtful and exitical reviews ofan eater version ofthis acl (Carespondence concerning this article should be aresed to Maron S. Forth Oregon Social Learning Center, 40 East 4th Avene, Eugene, ‘Oregon 97401. Elecuonic mail may be sent to marion @esle or. problems (Anderson, Hetherington, & Clingempee!, 1989; Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, & Wierson, 1990; Forgatch & DeGarmo, 1997; Forgatch, Patterson, & Ray, 1996; Hetherington, Stanley- Hagan, & Anderson, 1989; Simons, Beaman, Conger, & Chao, 1993), Taken together, these findings support the hypothesis that parenting problems may be causal mechanisms for the develop- ‘ment and maintenance of child deviancy in divorced faralies. However, because these data were obtained from passive longitu: inal studies and were therefore correlational, cause-and-effect relations cannot be disentanged. ‘A plausible way totes the status ofa putative causal mechanism is to manipulate the mechanism within an experimental ongitudi- nal study. Tis gene of experiment requires that several conditions ‘be met (Coie eta, 1993; Durlak & Wells, 1997; Forgatch, 1991; Kazdin, 1993; Kellam & Van Horn, 1997; Kessler & Price, 1993) Firs, of course, such studies must use controlled, randomized designs. Second, the intervention must be based on a clearly specified theory that articulates a putative causal. mechanism. ‘Third, the intervention must produce change in the hypothesized ‘mechanism and the more distal outcome. Fourth, change in the ‘mechanism must correlate with change in te distal outcome. Fifth, adequate statistical power is required to detect differences berween experimental and conttol conditions. Finally, muliple-method ‘measurement should be used to assess the mechanisms and out come variables. These procedures can be conducted using either prevention or clinical trials. Iris important ro note that thee are subtle differences between clinical and prevention trials, In clinical trials, the sample is screened to ensure that participants are reasonably homogeneous with respect to diagnosed problems. Prevention trials use samples that are heterogeneous in the topography and intensity of problem behaviors (Coie et al, 1993). Clinical tals are designed to reduce specific symptoms (Kazdin, 1993). Prevention programs address multiple goals: (a) to ameliorate existing problems, (b) to prevent the development of new problems, (c) to prevent the decay of existing prosocial behavior, and (4) t0 promote new prosocial development (Coie etal, 1993). Prevention trials require a great deal of power (larger samples) and relatively long follow-upm2 FORGATCH AND DEGARMO periods to achieve effects (Goldklang, 1989). Furthermore, effect, sizes for the distal variables ae likely to be smaller than in clinical tals (Durlak & Wells, 1997). Because of the homogeneity, sin- agularty of purpose, and intensity of the treatment, greater effets fan be achieved with smaller samples in clinical wials. In preven- tion studies that use risk samples to test interventions, the type of risk is also a critial factor. Divorce places boys at risk for many troubles, not just one (e.g, academic failure, peer relationship problems, exiemalizing behavior. and interalizing problems). Furthermore, most youngsters from divorced Families are likly to escape these problems. Thus, the challenge to achieve positive child outcomes with a divorce sample is quite daunting. The present report describes an experimental test of coercion theory in controlled, randomized prevention design with a sam= ple of divorcing families. The parenting practices targeted for intervention were discipline, positive involvement, monitori problem solving, and skill encouragement (Forgatch & Patterson, 1989; Paterson & Forgatch, 1987). Longitudinal analyses using ‘multiple-method assessment and path models have shown these parenting practices to be important predictors of a wide range of child adjustment problems. These negative outcomes include a tisocial behavior, poor academic performance, deviant peer ass0- Ciation, delinquency, depressed mood, and anxiety (Capaldi, 199 ‘Capaldi & Patterson, 1991; Conger, Patterson, & Ge, 1995; De Baryshe, Patterson, & Capaldi, 1993: DeGarmo, Forgatch, & Mar tinez, 1999: Dishion, Andrews, & Crosby, 1995; Forgatch et al. 1996; Paterson, 1997). An experimental test of coercion theory would require altering parenting practices. which in cur would ‘benefit these child outcomes. The present study was conducted witha sample of 238 recently separated single mothers of sons in Grades 1-3. Mothers were ‘randomly assigned to either an experimental or @ no-intervention, control condition, Parenting practices were assessed through direct, ‘observation of mother-child interactions in the laboratory. Mea- sures of child adjustment were based on ratings provided by teachers, children, and mothers. ‘The hypotheses evaluated (a) the effectiveness ofthe interven- tion at proximal and distal levels and (b) provided a test of coercion theory. The first set of hypothesizes required improve: ‘ment for the experimental condition relative to contol condition, inthe parenting practices (proximal effects) and the child adjust- ment variables (distal effects). The second set of hypotheses re~ (quired that benefits to boys" adjustment be produced through the Positive effects of the intervention on the parenting practices These hypotheses were evaluated using process models, Hypoth- exes were lested with a general linear model (GLM) repeated ‘measures multivariate analysis of variance and structural equation models. METHOD Participants “Two hundred thiny-cightrecenly separated single mothers and thei sons were recruited ffom a medium-sized city inthe Pacific Northwest through media advertisements, fiers distibated thoughout the comms: rity, and divorce court records. In eligible families, mothers had been ‘Separated from their parner within the poe 31024 moths, esided with, ‘ological on in Grades 1-3, and id not cohabit witha new partner. The Sample was restricted to Boys Beause they are more Hikely than gis 0 exhibit adverse effets of dvore as preadolesents (Gudubald& Pery, 1985; Hetherington, 1991) [Mast mothers had been married atleast once @D%); 775% were sepa ng frm the foal boy's biological father and 14% were not mared to ‘he person from whom they Were separating. At baseline, mothers hd been separated for an average of 92 months Mothers’ mean age wae 34.8 years (SD = 54; range = 214 to 496). boys’ mean age was 78 Years (SD = 0.93 range = 6.1 (0 10), The meialletnic composition ofthe boys he sample was #65 White, 1% African American, 2% Latino, 2% [Native American, ad 9% from other minority groups, Tis sproximated the rail distribution inthe community. The mean annul family income vas $14,900, which was similar wo that reported for oterfemale-Rewed ‘households with children i the county (.., $15300; U.S. Deparment of Commerce, Burean of Census, 1993). Seventy-sx percent ofthe families were receiving poblic assistance, Families tended to be smal. with 2.1 shildon onthe average. ‘Mosher were fuely well edveate and working although thei fobs were within the lower ranges of occupational status. Most mothers had some scademie or voatonal sing beyond highschool (76%), altho only 19% had completed a4year college degre or higher. Approximately 20% of the women completed their education with high shoo gradation: 4% hd not completed high schoo, The mother” jo classifications (Holi shead, 1975) were 36 follows: 32% unskilled, 21% semis, 235 .10, The univariate Group x Time effects indicated marginal trend for the teachers’ report of adaptive functioning, F(1, 166) = 2.13, p < 10. The means indicated that the experimental group was slightly lower in adaptive functioning at baseline and improved to the level of the contol group by 12 168 ills race omits malariae effect, FC, 168) = 1.12 forte and FY, 164) = 1.05 for ‘months. There were no cross-sectional meun differences between the groups on the teacher-ated measures None of the mother- or child-eported measures of child adjust ‘ment showed a significant Group X Time effect at the univariate or multivariate level, FC, 47) = 1.01, p > 10 Interestingly, all ofthe measures shoved relative improvement overtime, given that all of the univariate F tests showed a significant linear end. This possibly indicates a steady adjustment to divorce over a 1-year period for both the intervention and control groups as rated by the mothers and their sons, The cross-sectional comparisons of means showed a marginal tend forthe boys in the experimental group to Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations for Child- and Mother Rated Child Adjustment Measures by Group Condition Experimental (2) Contr ) = 100) ce) Time Group Group x Time = — —“—_Signicant _tinearetfect mean eect ‘linear elect, Variable and time nea eSD yt et oerat FUL) FUL 18S) Fa, 155) Peer adjustment (ik) sm 033 om Baseline ole one ry | 6 months Be 62 mI $59 12 months mi Sst ay $98 Depressed ipod (child) arse 033 ost Baseline 3 $0 Tsk as 6 months 6m 5271 gt 12 months Py Ant (motes) 43s 03s 0.08 Baseline 033033036 oa 6 months 02503302906 12 months om ©0373 036 Depressed mood (meee) rau 003 oss Baseline 04 037 ome months Osi 2035 20a51 | t030] 12 months 03036 =o as, Bxeralizing (other) aioe 04 006 ‘Baseline ssoe 981540129 6 months ig age (oases 10 12mm S186 1058 SLES 104 ‘Note. N = 157 Pll’s trace omnibus moliveriae effec, (10, 47) = 5.06, p = 001, for ime and FLD, 147) = 1.0 for Group X Time. +p 10 (marginally sguiieant)* p'= 05. "= p= 0, *** p= 001718 FORGATCH AND DeGARMO score lower on the CDI compared with the boys in the contol sroup at the 6-month assessment, shorly after termination of the intervention (M = 6.28 vs. 7.62). Path Analysis In the final stp, we tested the hypohesis that improvements in the targeted parenting mechanisms would be esoeated with in- provements in the more distal child adjustment variables using SEM path analysis, We concluded tht there were no direct effects of the intervention on child adjustment, contrary to expectations ‘Therefore, we dd ot specify tests of mediation. We then specified the path models to tet indirect associations ofthe intervention on ‘hil adjustment through the parenting mechanisms. The first step ofthe path analysis wast specify latent factors of change using indicators of parenting practices that changed to- gether over time. We computed linear slope scores for the six parenting outcomes and conducted factor analyses om the slope Scores. A prinipal-components factor analysis produced two sep- arate factors, one representing prosocial parenting practices (pos- itive involvement, skill encouragement, and PSO) and the other, coercive parenting practices (negative reinforcement and negative reciprocity). The child PSO obtained factor loading of 48 on the Postve factor and. 40 on the coereive factor therefore, this slope Score was eliminated from further analysis. All oz slope scores ranged from .65 10 85, For the SEM factor models, we created indicators for prosocial parenting and coercive parenting using factor scores produced from forced single-factorsoltions ofthe respective variables noted above Forthe child adjustment factors, we evaluated the independence ofthe factors assessing child adjustment. We fst an preliminary ‘incipal-components factor analysis onthe change variables, The results produced three factors with eigenvalues greater than |. The factors were defined by reporing agents (ie, teacher, chil and sotherzepote dimensions). Previous rescrch has shown prob- Jems of obtaining convergence for reporting agents of child out comes in early development, particulary when mothers are subject to depression (Fergusson, Lynskey, & Horwood, 1993; Fisher & Fagot, 1996) We then modeled series of SEM confirmatory facto analyses on the dependent vaiablesasessng change. The change in teacher reported adjustment was comelated with the change in the mother-eponcd factor (r = 26, p <.05) and with the child-reponed factor (7 = ~ 38, p <0). The mosber- and ctuld-reprted factors of child adjustment were corelated (r= 1 p< 05). Next, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis, onstaining the factor variances at 1 and the covariances at 1 10 specify ane fator solution. The mode didnot tthe data, x20, N= 143) = 88.11, p = 00 Specifying a hierarchically nested three-factor solution fit he data, x17, = 143) = 852, p = 95, and produced a significant improvement in chi-square, 3, N= 143) = 79.59, p ~-O0, Therefore, we conducted the separate path analyses on teacher mother and child-ated variables. “The frst process model tested the effect of chenge in parenting on change in school adjustment rated by teachers. The latent ‘aiable factor for teacher report of school adjustment comprised externalizing, prosocial behavior, and adapive functioning. ‘The Intent variable change factors for parenting and school adjustment were composed of slope scores. The majority of the missing data in tho listwise sample for model analysis was ateibuable 19 teacher data, an average of 15% overtime, Results ae shown in Figure 1 in the form of standardized coeflciens The model showed goo ft to the data, with adequate measure- ment factor loadings, 738, N = 155) = 3896, p = 43. The effects foe group assignment and SES on change in effective parenting ate onthe righthand side ofthe model. The intervention predicted increases ineffective parenting (8 = 0.18), controlling for SES; baseline levels of effective parenting: and baseline school aujustment. Higher level of SES predicted increases in observed patenting practices from baseline to 12 months (B = 0.34), In creases in effective parenting predicted improvement in school adjustment ( = 0.37), thus supporting the parenting model. The ‘ros-lag paths indicate that baseline levels of effective parenting predicted increases in school adjustment (B = 0.32). Over, the model in Figure 1 explained 315 of the variance in teacher- reported school adjustment ‘The second model tested the parenting process mode fr child repor of depressed mood and peer adjustment. The resus are showa in Figure 2. “The model it the data, and the hypothesis was supported, x(20, N= 187) = 1988, p = 47. Conwoling for SES, we found that group assignment predicted increases in effective parenting (B = 0.29, which in turn predicted decreases in boys" maladjust- ment (B '~0.38). There were no significant crossla ships for baseline parenting or boy maladjustment. Overal, the model explained 37% of the variance in boy report of naladjusment The final model tested the parenting hypothesis for mother reported boy maladjustment. Specifying the model with general factor of effective parenting didnot suppor the hypothesis the standardize path coefficient rom change in effective parenting 10 change in maladjustment was not significant (B = ~0.08). Addi- tionally, some ofthe fit indexes sed o evaluate the made dd not demonstrate adequate fit tothe data, (38, N = 187) = 82.63, 00. The comparative fit index (CFI) was high and close 10 1.00, (98) however the p value was less than 05 and the chi-square riimaton ratio was greater than 2.00 (lf = 2.17). Arbuckle (1997) recommended ratio of less than 2.00 for adequate fi ‘We next ran the model separately for the two parenting dimen- sions. We specified te latent parenting factor as perfectly mea- sured by coeteve parenting in one mode! and prosocal parenting in the other by fixing the measurement loading at 1 with no ror variance. Specifying the parenting factor as change in prosocal parenting supported the hypothesis. The result ofthe ftal model for motherrepored hoy maladjustment are shown in Figure 3. The prosocal parenting model for mother report of eld out comes showed better fit to the data than a. general effective parenting model, (23, N = 183) = 43:72, p= 01. The CF was high (99) and the chi-square ratio. was less than 200 (y'/ 4f = 1:90). Contoling for SES, we found that group assignment predicted improvements ineffective parenting (B ~ 0.16), which in tum predicted changes in maladjustment (B = ~0.18). The ‘model explained 28% of the variance in maladjustment change. In the final step of the analyses, we conducted a series of models using a dosage Variable for group assignment. We examined 2 dae variable fortwo reason, Fist, we wanted fo examine the effects of the intervention, conoling for families who were assigned tothe experimental condition but who di not participate inthe intervention. Second, we teste the indizet eects of sroupPARENTING THROUGH CHANGE n9 orange, || change Prosocal || Coercive prosoca || coercive parenting || parentng parenting |} parenting Baseline Effective Parenting Effective Parenting Change ‘Schoo! Adjustment Eemalzng || proses || Adaptive ora ‘nage | cnn saeeing exeraling || osoda |] age shebang Faure 1. Seu eqution modeling process mode of parenting mechanism preicing schol ausment repored by teachers, conmoling for Socioeconomic comparative fit index = 1.0, yf = 1.00, *p <0 assignment to change inthe distal child outcomes. Tests of indirect influence of the intervention make most theoretical sense for those families that received te intervention, Dosage was coded 0 forthe control group, 1 for experimental-group mothers who did not participate, 2 for mothers attending fewer than four sessions, and 3, for mothers attending four or more sessions. From practical expe- rience withthe intervention, we decided thatthe essential compo- nents of the parenting curriculum could not be covered with fewer than four sessions ‘The results of the dosage models replicated the substantive findings in the models shown above. As expected, each of the models showed stronger prediction from group assignment t0 change in effective parenting using dosage (8 = 0.25, 0.35, and 0.20, respectively, for teacher-, child, and mother-reported ‘outcomes). The indirect effect of the intervention on change in child outcomes showed @ marginal rend for the teacher reported ‘outcomes (8 for the indirect effect = 009, p = 058) and a significant effect for boy-reported outcomes (B = —0.14,p <5). ‘The indirect path was not significant for the model based on ‘maternal report Consumer Satisfaction Mothers provided positive ratings of their group experience each week (M = 4.24, SD = 0.50), indicating that they tended to participate, felt accepted, and enjoyed the meetings. The mothers” ratings of home practice assignments suggested that they were trying out the procedures and finding them worthwhile (M = 3.56, stats (SES). 78, N= 138) = 3896 p = 3, ‘SD = 0,88). At completion ofthe intervention, in ratings about the overall usefulness of the program, 67% of the mothers rated it “very useful,” 30% “quite useful,” and 3% "Somewhat useful.” When asked if they would recommend this program to other divorcing mothers, 88% said “very much so,” 10% said “quite a Jot.” and 2% said “somewhat” DISCUSSION Divorce is a risk factor for the adjustment of parents and children (Amato & Keith, 1991), With more than half of modern ‘marriages predicted to end in divorce (Bumpass, 1984; Marin & ‘Bumpass, 1989), we need programs that can prevent and amelio. rate the problems of divorcing families. Inthe present study, we tested an intervention program (Parenting Through Change) de- signed to change maternal parenting practices and indiectly 1o ‘change child outcomes. The intervention was conceptualized 38 an experimental test of coercion theory. ‘Three aspects of parenting were affected. Of these, coercive discipline demonstrated the greatest improvement. Over a. 12- ‘month period, mothers inthe experimental condition educed their use of negative reinforcement and negative reciprocity, whereas ‘mothers in the contol condition increased thers. In this manner, the intervention seems to have both ameliorated these parenting problems and prevented them from becoming worse. Positive parenting also benefited from the program. Whereas mothers in both groups showed a decline in positive involvement with their sons over 12 months, experimental-group mothers showed signif-70 FORGATCH AND DeGARMO Prosocial parentog hangs |[ Change prosogs! Parenting parenting Baseline Effective Parenting Baseline i ‘Change Effective Parenting Change Maladjustment Boy Report Depressed |[ Peer ‘mood || Adiusment| ‘change, |[ change aopreseed || “poe ‘mood || adsiment Figure 2 Structural eqution modeling process model of panting mechsnism predisting maladjustment reported ty boy. contaling fer socceconomic sate (SES). (20, 8 fit inde 100, df = 9. "p= 05 ‘cantly less decline than did control-group mothers. This appears to have prevented the decay ofan existing form of positive parenting We combined five aspects of parenting 10 form a single-factor construct, which we labeled effective parenting. We found that effective parenting improved for mothers in the experimental con «ition compared with mothers inthe control condition in the SEM, models, even when controlling for baseline levels of effective parenting and the mothers’ SES. The second goal of the study was to show that change in parenting led to change in child adjustment. SEM path models, ‘were performed with three constructs for child outcomes based on diferent reporting agents. Teachers reported on school adjustment in terms of prososial behavior, adaptive functioning, and external- izing behavior. Boys reported on maladjustment in terms of de~ pressed mood and peer relationship disruption. Mothers reporced ‘on maladjustment in terms of anxiety, depression, and exteraliz~ ing behavior. In each of the three models, the intervention was, associated with improvement in parenting, which in turn predicted improvement in child adjustment. The fact that three different agents noted these changes makes the findings especially notewor- thy, We conducted tests for indirect effects, which traced the path from experimental and control groups to change in parenting and from there to change in child adjustment. These indirect paths held for models based on reports by the boys and their teachers, The indirect path for the model based on boy report was significant. ‘The indirect path was marginally significant (p = 058) for the model based on teacher report In Keeping with findings from other prevention studies, the short-term effects forthe intervention yielded no direct benefit to 187) = 1988, p = 47, comparative child adjustment in the Ist year. Contemporary thinking about universal and selective design in prevention studies leads one to expect this as an outcome. For example, in several studies, there were few short-term changes (Dishion, Andrews, Kavanagh, & Soberman, 1996; Kellam & Anthony, 1998; Kellam, Mayer, Re bok, & Hawkins, 1998; Reid, Eddy, Ferow, & Stoolmiller, in press; Tremblay ct al, 1992). As the follow-up proceeded, there was evidence for change in an ineressing spectrum of outcomes, At frst glance, such Findings seem counterintuitive. However, ‘when viewed fram the perspective ofthe single mother involved in, the prevention trial, the child outcome data make a good deal of In the present study, mothers leamed a set of parenting strate- ties. A key assumption was that each mother would tailor these procedures to fit her child's needs. Presumably, each mother ‘would apply the newly acquired skills to child problems that ‘concemed her and develop her own sequence of application. In this, sense, each mother designed a unique course for the intervention to fellow for her child, For example, mothers could decide to use an incentive program to promote any of several prosocial behaviors (ea, schoolwork, sibling cooperation, or chores) Similarly, she could decide to use the discipline strategies to target the problems ‘that most concerned her (e.g, noncompliance, verbal or physical aggression, or rule violation). In her role as change agent, she ‘would continue to apply the techniques to one child problem after another during follow-up. At any given point in time, only a fraction of the mothers would be invested in altering a specific ‘outcome, such as untsocial behavior or school achievement. OverPARENTING THROUGH CHANGE Prosocal parenting Baseline Effective Parenting nm Change, prosogs! Parenting Sarat || any] Dereed Grnge [crane || creme es eatin || aR || Sees, ae Few 3. Seumeleuane medeng pcs modelo ening mean ping maladjumen reported by mother, contain for soioeeonomie tatu (SES). (23, N= 183) = 48.72, p = 01, comparative fiindex = 99, Sidf = 190. *p < 05. time, each child outcome should accumulate power to approach significance "To reduce prevalence rates for children's underachievement, interalizing problems, or antisocial behavior in divorcing fami lies, a different design would be required. The present approach used the mother’s status as divorcing parent. A better approach ‘may be to target populations of divorcing mothers with children clearly exhibiting difficulty at school or with antisocial behavior problems. The present prevention design may serve asa prelude to more selective programs for divorcing families. ‘The study featured multiple methods with aonoverlapping meth- ‘0 in adjacent constructs in the SEM models. Parenting was based fn direct observation of mother-child interactions; three separate agents reported on child outcomes. Although this measurement strategy leads to effets likely to generalize across diverse samples, it also contributes to smaller effect sizes (Durlak & Wells, 1997), ‘The effects ofthe intervention on parenting change were moderate to small, and the paths from parenting change to change in child outcomes were moderate at best (38), Because we achieved the primary goal of altering the parenting practices forthe experimen: tal group, we expect that there will be increasing child outcomes that will become significant as follow-up proceeds. ‘The measurement of parenting practices presented several cal- lenges. One problem emerged with respect to monitoring. In several passive longitudinal studies, monitoring measures for chile dren before preadolescence have demonstrated restricted range problems. Parents tend to report that they supervise young children ‘most of the time, We attempted to overcome this measurement problem by designing @ new assessment procedure based on re- peated structured telephone interviews with mothers, Restricted range was still a problem: Mothers reported supervising. their children 95% of the time. Thus, we did not include the measure in the findings for this study. Parental discipline proves to e a very complex parenting pro- cess. We used negative reinforcement and negative reciprocity as ‘wo indicators of coercive discipline. We would like to be able to assess effective discipline as well, but good discipline is hard to observe. For example, parents who discipine well seldom have to apply sanctions, and ineffective parents seldom use appropriate sanctions. Thus, effective discipline practices tend to be low base- rate events. Nevertheless, our measures of coercive discipline are carefully tied to our theory, which states in part that parents inadvertently train their youngsters to use coercive tactics. 10 achieve their aims. One way parents do this is with their own aversive behavior. They start unnecessary conflicts (perhaps with criticism or an angry command), and then they negatively rein- fore their youngsters for using aversive behaviors to escape the unpleasant situation (Le., negative reinforcement). Once the coer- con process is in place, itis very difficult wo change. I fact, a the ‘mother is trained to apply mild contingent discipline, it produces @ temporary increase in conflict bouts In the present study, mothers in the experimental group showed an unexpected significant in- crease in conflict ous relative to contgol-group mothers, and we ere concerned that this was an iatrogenic effet, However, by them2 FORGATCH AND DeGARMO 12:month assessment, experimental-group mothers made a precip- itous drop in their use of negative reinforcement toa level below that observed at baseline, which is a negative quadratic shape for the patter of change. The use of negative reinforcement by control-group mothers, on the other hand, steadily increased, This complex process is almost an exact replication of what we have previously found in our clinical interventions. In an obser vational study of therapy process during paren-taining tretment, substantial subset of families showed a similar negative quadratic Shape in the form of resistance to the program procedures. Some ‘parents increased their resistance from baseline o the midpoint of therapy and then decreased resistance by the end of therapy. This, negative quadratic shape of resistance to the parent-training pro- cedures predicted reduced likelihood of arrests and out-of-home placement 2 years later for the focal children of the teatment (Stoolmiller, Duncan, Bank, & Patterson, 1993). If there was no increase inthe struggle, there was no change in the outcome. The negative quadratic form of change has been labeled the seruggle- work through hypothesis nthe prevention tral, a mothers began, confronting the child in discipline bouts, the struggle increased, ‘This is a common occurrence in behavioral interventions wen parents begin using effective discipline strategies. At fist, children resist and problems can escalate. However, with consistent use of the discipline strategy, children accede and problems diminish Several decades of research have shown that parenting practices fre malleable and that programs based on parent-training proce- {dures benefit children’s conduct problems (Chamberlain & Reid, 1998; Dishion, Patterson, & Kavanagh, 1992; Forgatch, 1991; Kazdin, 1987; Lipsey & Wilson, 1993; Patterson & Forgatch, 1995; Reid etal. in press; Webster Straton & Hammond, 1997; Wolchik etal, 1993). Few such studies, however, have tested the effect of change in parenting practices on change in child out. comes in controlled, randomized designs using moltiple-method. assessment, Each of the above-cited studies achieved one or sev= eral elements (e., change in parenting or change in child out- come), bu they missed at least one critical component, For exam ple, Dishion et al. found their intervention to alter coercive discipline, and termination levels of discipline correlated with reductions in adolescent behavior problems. Change in parenting, however, was not the predictor for change in child outcome. Inthe Forgatch study, the design was only quasiexperimenta. 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