AN ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY STATUS IN THE HHOHHO REGION OF ESWATINI

A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL

ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF

ESWATINI

BY

THABISO MNOTFO NYATABO

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF

SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT

LUYENGO CAMPUS, ESWATINI

October 2021

AN ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY STATUS IN THE HHOHHO REGION OF ESWATINI

Author: Thabiso Mnotfo Nyatabo

Signature: ………………………………… Date: ………………………….

Supervisor: Prof. T.T Awoyemi

Signature: ………………………………… Date: ………………………….

Approved for inclusion in the Library of the University of Eswatini, Luyengo Campus.

Head of Agricultural Economics and Management Department: Dr S.G Dlamini

Signature: ………………………………… Date: ………………………….

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 COPYRIGHT

Permission has been granted to the Library of the University of Eswatini to lend copies of this research project

report. The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the Research Project Report nor extensive extracts

from it

may be printed or reproduced without the author’s written permission.

Copyright © Nyatabo Thabiso Mnotfo (163076)

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 DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate my work to the Almighty God who made it possible for me to go this far. Also dedicated to

my parents who have always been there for me ever since I was born, my colleagues (the AEM 4 students) and to

all my friends who provided inspiration in times of difficulty. Without them I wouldn’t made it up to this far.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and for most, I would like to extend my unshared thanks to the almighty God for providing me the

opportunity and smoothening of all aspects regarding the program (AEM). My sincere gratitude and great thanks to

my supervisor

Prof. T.T. Awoyem for critical reviewing my manuscript and for his encouragement during the difficult period of

COVID 19. I am equally indebted to the AEM department for allowing me to undertake this study. Anyone cannot

travel alone up this far, so many people have contributed a lot and all deserve credit. My deepest thanks go to my

parents Sibusiso Nyatabo and Simelane Phumzile for their love and encouragement since my childhood and

offering me the opportunities they never had. I would like to also thank the Government of Eswatini for supporting

me financially. My thanks also go to my friends Mzwandiile Zwane, Ayanda Simelane, Kwanele Matsebula,

Sandiso Dlamini and Thabani Ginindza for their assistance. Indeed, you are my friends and I have learned a lot

from you.

Keep shining to the day of Jesus Christ.

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 ABSTRACT

Food insecurity in the Hhohho region is a serious problem facing humanity, Household face a repeated food

shortages most of which threaten their livelihoods and negatively impact on their wellbeing. The study examines

the food security status at household level using both descriptive and inferential statistics which include Binary

Logistic Model. In terms of sample design, a sample of 44 households from the study area were used. The study

revealed that access to enough food in the Hhohho region is unbalanced, only 31.8% of the households are food

secure and 68.2% of rural households are food insecure. The study revealed that household head, level of

education, marital status, age, farm size, are the key factors influencing food security. Furthermore, the effects of

food insecurity estimates using binary regression model proved that household head and household size are much

significant in food security status of rural households in the Hhohho region. The study then recommends that

government should assist with inputs and loans, awareness through educating rural household on family planning,

provision of market centre and develop a policy that will discourage financial institutions from excluding low-

income earners.

Key words; food insecurity, food security, food secure, food insecure, households

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................................................................1

1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Problem statement..............................................................................................................................................2

1.2 Research Objective.............................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Specific Objectives of the study.........................................................................................................................3
1.4 Research Questions............................................................................................................................................3
1.5 Significance of the study....................................................................................................................................4
1.6 Limitations.........................................................................................................................................................4
1.7 Justifications of the study...................................................................................................................................4
1.8 Hypothesis..........................................................................................................................................................5
Null hypothesis.........................................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................................................................6

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................................................6

2.1 Food security definitions and concept................................................................................................................6

2.2 The 4 pillars of food security.............................................................................................................................8
2.3 Measure of household food security................................................................................................................10
2.31 Key factors influencing food security status..................................................................................................11
2.32 Climate change...............................................................................................................................................12
2.33 Food insecurity...............................................................................................................................................12
2.4 Effects of food insecurity.................................................................................................................................13
2.5 Empirical literature review...............................................................................................................................14
2.6 FAO dimensions of food security....................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 3..............................................................................................................................................................20

3.0 METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................................................20

3.1 Description of the study area............................................................................................................................20

3.2 Data collection method....................................................................................................................................21
3.3 Data collection unit..........................................................................................................................................21
3.4 Sample design..................................................................................................................................................22

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 3.5 Logistic Regression Model (LRM)..................................................................................................................22
3.6 Explanatory variables.......................................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 4..............................................................................................................................................................25

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................................................................25

4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of farming households...................................................................................25

key factors influencing food insecurity of farming household..............................................................................32
The effects of food insecurity in the rural areas of the Hhohho region of Eswatini..............................................41
CHAPTER 5..............................................................................................................................................................43

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................43

5.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................................45
5.2 Recommendations............................................................................................................................................46
6.0 LITERATURE CITED........................................................................................................................................47

7.0LISTOFAPPENDICS...........................................................................................................................................51

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Analysis of objectives 22

2 Marital status 27

3 Marital status 28

4 Level of education 29

5 Challenges faced by farmers 32

6 Food availability 32

7 Food security status 36

8 Available markets 37

9 The effects of food insecurity status in the study 40

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure1 FAO dimension of food security 17

Figure2 A map of Eswatini showing the study area 20

Figure 3 Age of household head 25

Figure 4 Employment status of household head 26

Figure 5 Sex of respondent 27

Figure 6 Level of education 28

Figure 7 Occupation 30

Figure 8 Farm size 31

Figure 9 Land ownership 32

Figure 10 Family supporting other members 33

Figure 11 Crops grown 34

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Figure 12 Financial assistant from government 34

Figure 13 Food stability 36

Figure 14 Food utilization 38

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Figure 15 Water quality 37

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

PoU Prevalence of Undernourishment

NGO Non – Governmental Organization

WB World Bank

WFP World Food Program

WFP World Food Summit

WHO World Health Organization

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

NMC National Maize Corporation

Integrated Food Security Phase

IPC
Classification

EBQ Economic Bulletin Quarter

UN WFP United Nation World Food Program

GPA Grade Point Average

COVID 19 Coronavirus Disease

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 CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is intolerable that in a world that produces enough food to feed its entire population, more than

1.5 billion people cannot afford a diet that meets the required level of essential nutrients.

Moreover, over 3 billion people cannot even afford the cheapest health diet and people without

access to health diets live in all regions of the world (World Agricultural Organization (FAO) et

al., 2020). This indicates that indeed we are facing a global problem that affects us all.

Africa is the highest among all regions that is food insecure. According to estimates, the PoU in

Africa was 19.1 % of the population in 2019, or more than 250 million undernourished people,

up from 17.6 % in 2014. The majority of undernourished people in Africa are found in the sub –

Saharan sub region, which shows an increase of about 32 million undernourished people since

2015. This prevalence is more than twice the world average (8.9 %) (FAO, 2014)

Eswatini lies within one of the most food insecure region (Africa) in the world with a large

number of its population living in rural areas food insecure and poverty. In Eswatini around June

and September 2019, it was projected that about 205 000 people which is 22 % of the rural

population were undergoing severe food insecurity and required urgent humanitarian action. In

compares to 2018, the situation has worsened with two of the regions (Hhohho and Lubombo)

and shifting to more severe crisis (FAO 2020). However, between June and September 2020,

over 330 000 people, which is 29 % of the population were expected to experience high acute

food insecurity.

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Compared with 2019, the country’s food insecurity situation declined with an outstanding

increase in the proportion of the population’s crisis and higher. It is projected that the number of

people facing high acute food insecurity in Eswatini will likely to increase over 366 000 people

which is 32 % of the total population (IPC, 2020).

COVID 19 pandemic has potential to deteriorate the already worse situation whereby women and

rural population will suffer the most. Following the sharp declines in food production in 2018

and 2019 due to poor harvest, 232 000 people were projected to be food insecure during the

October 2019 to March 2020 lean season. Eswatini ranked 74 out of 117 countries in the 2019

Global hunger index thus its food classified serious [ World Food Program (WFP), 219]. WFP

(2020) further states that Eswatini is highly depended on imports to feed her people and she is

extremely food insecure. Exports are an engine of growth for Eswatini but have been declining in

the 2000s by 1.5% per year, with a significant decline of 12% in 2018. Trade is highly dependent

on South Africa (81% of imports, 67% of exports, World Bank, 2017). World Bank further

states that sugar manufactured goods, wood, honey and meats account for 80% of exports. Few

large firms do most exports, especially in sugar. A few small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are

also exporting from EU cooperation in horticulture and trade facilitation

1.1 Problem statement

Growing food for oneself is often one of the most reliable means of attaining the wide variety of

nutrients required for a healthy and productive life. However, Eswatini has been a net importer of

food since 1990 [Economic Bulletin Quarter (EBQ), 2020]. As a result, most households remain

vulnerable to food insecurity and people are forced to sell their valuable asset in order to survive.

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Consequently, this positioned the country at risk of getting no food during conflicts with

neighbouring countries or difficult times such as the current Cyclone Eloise and the COVID 19

pandemic where there were containment measures including stay at home orders, closing

borders, restriction of travel and transport. The issue is, will Eswatini be able to survive under

these conditions if boarders are closed for a period of two years with the food they produce? So,

this study seeks to examine the factors influencing food security status of farming households

and suggest potential methods that can be employed to address food insecurity in Eswatini.

1.2 Research Objective

The general objective of the study is to give insight into the food security status of farming

households in the Hhohho region of Eswatini.

1.3 Specific Objectives of the study

1. To examine socio-economic characteristics of farming households in the Hhohho region

2. To estimate the effects of food insecurity in the rural areas of the Hhohho region of Eswatini

3.To analyse the key factors influencing food security status of farming household in the

Hhohho region of Eswatini

1.4 Research Questions

1) What are the socio characteristics of farming households in the study area?

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 2) What are the key factors influencing food security status of farming households in the

study area?

3) How does food insecurity affect the rural areas of the study?

1.5 Significance of the study

Food security analysis will enable us to identify the food secure and insecure households in the

rural areas of the Hhohho region. Once the insecure households are identified and we know what

resources they lack, interventions can be designed to provide the household with those resources,

thus enabling them to get out of hunger trap. This study therefore provides an approach on what

can be done to help the current food insecure to be food secure and to reduce the likelihood of

the vulnerable from falling into food insecurity in the future.

1.6 Limitations

The study was conducted to analyse the household food security status of the Hhohho region of

Eswatini. The study covers only the Hhohho region of the country. Besides this, data were

collected at one time period and during the time of COVID 19 where household face severe

shortage of food due to restricted movement in the country. The scope of this study was limited

by Lockdowns, time and other resource limitation. However, in spite of these limitations, given

the experience of the author in the area of study and reliable data collected, these limitations were

circumvented and valid results were obtained.

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1.7 Justifications of the study

It is known fact that food insecurity causes poverty, vulnerability and livelihood insecurity and is

most basic of human needs for survival, health and productivity. Eswatini being ranked 74 out of

117 countries in the 2020 global hunger index and being a country, which is highly depended on

imports (WFP, 2020). Therefore, this study seeks to examine factors influencing food security

status of farming household and suggest potential methods that can be employed to address food

insecurity in the Hhohho region of Eswatini where most food crops are found to be produced.

Increasing productivity in this region will reduce food insecurity not in the region but to the

entire country.

1.8 Hypothesis

Null hypothesis

H0 : µ = 0 Farming households in the Hhohho region are not food secured

H1: µ≠ 0 Farming household in the Hhohho region are food secured

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 CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Food security definitions and concept

The definition of food security has evolved since 1990s and 70s. According to world Summit

1974 defined food security as the availability at all times of basic food stuff to sustain a steady

expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices. In 1983 FAO

focus on physical economic thus FAO defined food security as ensuring that all people at all

times have both physical and economic access to the basic food that they need. However, World

Bank Report in 1986 defined food security as the access of all people at all times to enough food

for an active health life. World Food Summit 2001/2002 further modified their definition as a

situation that exist when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary need and food preferences for an

active and health life while Life Science Research in 1990 defined food security as the access by

all people at all times to enough food for an active health life and includes at a minimum; the

ready availability of nutritionally adequate safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire accepted

food in socially acceptable way.

The definitions of food security continue to evolve as FAO 2008 and Pinstrup Andersen 2009

finetuned the definition of food security as when all people at all times, have physical and

economical access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food

preferences for active and health life. However according to Brussow at el., 2017 this definition

is based on availability, stability, access and utilization. He further states that these four

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components have to be accomplished to maintain or achieve food security at different levels,

either global, national and household food security. According to WHO (2010), each definition

of food security involves these four components (food access, availability, appropriate use of

food and food

stability

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2.2 The 4 pillars of food security

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1. Food availability – availability is a term used to indicate supply of food in terms of

quality and quantity to provide adequate energy, protein, carbohydrates and

micronutrients to the population of a country on a sustainable basis. Availability to

household is basically the capacity to acquire food it needs which primarily could be

satisfied by producing it. Any activity of a household that contributes to improve

agricultural production or food supply would be considered part of food availability

strategy. FAO (2006) defined food availability as the extent to which food is within reach

of households, both in terms of sufficient quality and quantity. Women play an important

role in the production of food. They are engaged in the production of food crops (World

Bank, 2009). Doss 2011 further states that the share of women in the labour force has a

significant impact on the nutritional food availability and positive influences domestic

food productivity.

2. Food access – This is the ability of household to purchase food i.e., the physical

availability of food commodities on the local market and ability of the household to

purchase food. FAO 2006 states that food access is considered to be archived when a

household has the opportunity to obtain food or sufficient quantity and availability to

ensure safe and nutritious diet. The quantity and quality of food that a household require

given its resources will depend on domestic food prices, which are generally determined

by food availability and aggregate food demand.

3. Food utilization – use of food describes the socio-economic aspects of household food

and nutrition security, determined by knowledge and habits. Assuming that nutritious

food available and accessible, the household has to decide what food to purchase and how

to prepare it within the household. Another aspect is the biological utilization. This

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 relates to the ability of the human body to take food and convert it. This gained energy is

very important when it comes to daily physical environment and adequate sanitary

facilities as well as the understanding and awareness of proper health care, food

preparation and storage process. The concept of food utilization was further defined by

[United Nation World Food

Progress (UN WFP), 2007] as an individual’s dietary intake his/her ability to absorb

nutrients contained in food that is eaten. Food consumed by individuals must be of

sufficient quality and quantity not merely subsistence needs but also energy needs for

daily activities, notably income generation.

4. Food stability - Food stability is the fourth component of food security that cuts across

the other three. Stability refers to the temporal dimension, or time-frame, of food security

as implied by the wording “at all times” in the USAID definition of food security.

Stability is defined as, “The ability to access and utilize appropriate levels of nutritious

food over time.”

2.3 Measure of household food security

According to Faridic (2020), household food security can be measured based on food balance

sheets and national income distribution and customer expenditure data. Linking hunger with

inadequate food intake allows the measurement of food insecurity in terms of the availability and

apparent consumption of stable food insecurity. This type of measure is measured by determining

whether a household required sufficient food over the time during the collection of data to meet

the dietary energy requirements of all of its members. A household is classified as food energy

deficient if the total energy in the food that the household acquires daily is lower than the sum of

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its member’s daily requirements. Maize remains the important stable food crop grown on Swazi

Nation Land for subsistence purpose and food security (MoA, 2016). It is also the measure of

food security in the country (FAO, 2005). According to National Maize Corporation (NMC), in

the past

40 years Eswatini has never met the population’s maize requirement (NMC, 2010)

2.31 Key factors influencing food security status

The major challenge of food security in Africa is its underdeveloped agricultural sector that is

characterized by over – reliance on primary agriculture, low fertility soils, minimum use of

external farm inputs, environmental degradation, significant food both pre-harvest and post-

harvest, minimum value addition and product differentiation and inadequate food shortage and

preservation that result in significant commodity price fluctuation (Angela, 2015). 95% of the

food in Sub – Saharan Africa is grown under rain fed agriculture; hence food production is

vulnerable to adverse weather condition (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2001)

Lack of adequate storage facilities for food items such as cereals yam, beans, ect automatically

leads to wastage thereby plugging the people into acute hunger. According to the Holy Bible,

Joseph stored up grain in such abundance, like the sand of the sea, that he stopped keeping tracks

of it; for it was beyond measure, thus ensuring security of food in the entire seven years of

shortage.

The FAO and WHO (2007) argue that HIV and Aids is a major factor to the country’s food

insecurity at the household level. HIV and Aids limits the ability of households to participate in

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Agriculture for food production and income generation by increasing the number of people that

need to be taken care of, and by taking the lives of traditional care givers. Waal and Whiteside

(2003) found that even though droughts and famine have afflicted a large part of Africa throughout history

leading to food crisis, the HIV/Aids pandemic in South Africa has its own contributing complexity on why

many households face food shortages with hopeless rejections of recovery.

They contribute the impact of food insecurity at the household level to adult morbidity and

mortality

2.32 Climate change

Furthermore, Eswatini experiences subtropical climate that is highly susceptible to drought,

floods winds, and storms. This weather patterns exacerbated by the effects of climate thus

affecting food production and water security in the country, although the country has a few major

rivers passing through to the Indian Ocean, 95.5 % of the renewable water is used for irrigating

sugarcane and not food production. Food crops particularly maize production in the Highveld

and midlevel are grown. The Agro – ecological differences and the use of water for agriculture

have applications on agricultural production (MoA, 2015)

2.33 Food insecurity

Food insecurity is different from hunger. Food insecurity is the underlying problem that stems

from the lack of nutritious food. The physical sensation of hunger is a symptom, not cause, of

food insecurity. While common sense is enough to appreciate the pain and uncertainty

experienced by children and adults who do not know when their next meal will be, the financial

12
impact of food insecurity on society and employers is less known. In a sense, food insecurity is

invisible to those not experiencing it.

Food insecurity exists when people lack sustainable physical or economic access to enough safe,

nutritious, and socially acceptable food for a healthy and productive life. Food insecurity may be

chronic, seasonal, or temporary. Food insecurity and malnutrition result in catastrophic amounts of

human suffering.

2.4 Effects of food insecurity

According to Hartline (2015), food insecurity vulnerable to poor nutrition and obesity due to the

additional risk factors associated with inadequate household resources as well as under resourced

communities. This might include lack of access to health and affordable food depression and

over eating; cycles of stress, anxiety and depression, fewer opportunities for physical activities,

greater exposure to marketing of obesity promoting products and limited access to health care.

A major impact of food insecurity is malnutrition, which refers to deficiencies, excesses or

imbalance in a person’s intake of energy and nutrients. Undernourishment, occurs when an

individual’s food consumption is insufficient to provide the amount of dietary required to

maintain a normal, active, or healthy food in particular as healthier diets are more expensive than

diets rich in calories but poor in nutrition (Darmon and Drewnowski, 2015)

According to Navarro-Colorado (2007), food insecurity may also result in severe social,

psychological, and behavioral consequences. Food-insecure individuals may manifest feelings of

alienation, powerlessness, stress, and anxiety, and they may experience reduced productivity,

reduced work and school performance, and reduced income earnings. Household dynamics may

become disrupted because of a preoccupation with obtaining food, which may lead to anger,

13
pessimism, and irritability. Adverse consequences for children include: higher levels of

aggressive or destructive behaviour, hyperactivity, anxiety, difficulty with social interactions

(e.g., more withdrawn or socially disruptive), increased passivity, poorer overall school

performance, increased school absences, and a greater need for mental health care services (e.g.,

for depression or suicidal behaviours).

2.5 Empirical literature review

A study done in Khamuan, Luos in the areas of Nam Theunz Hydropower Project using a linear

regression technique to identify the influence of household food insecurity of the area. The

results showed that household’s size, food price, drought, shock, household income per month,

number of laborers, gender of the household head and farmland areas are important factors for

household food insecurity (Phami, 2020 at al,.). Phami concluded that such variables are

negatively associated with a decrease in household food security status. He further states that

these factors not only influence household food security but negatively affect their livelihood.

According to a study conducted by Mohammed and Dlamini (2018) investigating the predictors

of food insecurity among households in Eswatini given the 2015/16 El Nino induced drought. A

logistic regression was used to identify the geographic and socioeconomic factors that predict

food insecurity during a drought in Eswatini. The results showed that households that have a

deteriorated health and disability status are three times more likely to be food insecure during a

drought than households that have no health or disability impacts. The study also finds that prices

of maize and rice are good predictors of food insecurity among household given that maize is a

stable food in Eswatini. Therefore, the study recommended that in the event of drought, the

14
government of Eswatini should prioritize intervention programs such as food distribution on

households living with disabilities and those with deteriorated health status.

According to a study conducted by Ijatuyi at el., (2018) investigating the food security

constraints of rural farming households in North West Province of South Africa Logistic

Regression was used to find the results showed that variables such as age of the household head,

household feeding rate, the total costs of production, farm income and health expenditure had

significant impact on the respondent’s food security. Therefore, they concluded that rural

farming households were witnessing different dimensions of food insecurity which affected

different aspects of their social and economic activities. The authors recommended that the

government should come up with a holistic approach to address the present discrepancy in the

national and grass roots food security status.

Zakari at el., (2014) investigates the factors affecting household food security in Niger. The

empirical results from Logistic regression revealed that the gender of the head of household,

diseases and pests, labour supply, flooding, poverty, access to market, the distance away the

main road and food aid are significant factors influencing the odds ratio of a household having

enough daily rations. The Authors further found that female headed households are more

vulnerable to food insecurity compared to male headed households.

According to a study conducted by Abi and Tolossa (2015) identifying household food security

status and its determinants in Girar Jarso Woredo, data were analysed using household food

balance model. The authors found that the main factors determining household food security

status were identified as household demographic factors and access to productive resources

(farmland, farm oxen, labour and inputs). The study suggests the need of short – term and long-

15
term activities from government bodies, donors and the households themselves to improve

household food security status on sustainable bases.

Rahim et al., (2010) applied their methodology to cross sectional study conducted on 2 500

households selected from Quareso region in the Northwest of Iran. The objectives of their study

were to determine the influencing factors on the household food security status. Their results

showed that severity of household food insecurity increased with increasing distance from the

city. It decreased with increasing centres that provides food, residential infrastructure, family size

and the presence of both parents in comparison the presence of single parent at home. They also

showed that mean per capita income had a significant inverse correlation with household food

insecurity status.

A study conducted by Reincke et al., (2018) investigating the key factors influencing food

security of smallholder farmers in Tanzania. In their study, regression models were constructed

and a multivariate analysis was run. Their results were that; archiving food security is constraint

by several factors including pests, missing markets, poor processing, social perception and lack

of knowledge.

According to a study conducted by Kuweyi (2014) identifying the fundamental factors that are

key determinants of rural household food security in Shiselweni region, using a cross sectional

data. The coping strategies, head count ratios and logistic regression model were used to obtain

the household’s food security, respectively. Their results showed that 51.7% of rural households

in the region are food insecure. Logistic regression showed that age, gender, land and livestock

ownership variables are significantly associated with household food security at 5%. Their study

also indicates that 46% of households are likely to employ different coping strategies as their

16
survival strategy. The authors recommended that policy makers should emphasize on improving

food availability and accessibility to rural households.

Molano at el., (2003) on a study determining the socio demographic and economic characteristics

of nutritional status influencing households who are food insecure where a logistic regression

model was used found that the probability of a household being food insecure is increased when

the child is underweight, stunted and when household size is increased. On the other hand, they

found that the probability of a household being food insecure is decreased when the household

has a vehicle, has many types of appliances, has more bedrooms, their toilet facility is water

sealed, the mother is employed. The authors concluded that socio economic and household

characteristics and nutritional status of the child is related to food insecurity and they can be used

to predict the likelihood of the household child and mother being food insecure.

According to a study conducted by Balta at el., (2015) assessing household food security coping

strategies in Wolaita Zone. The data were collected and analysed using descriptive statics. Their

results revealed that factors associated with size of farm, number of livestock and drought oxen,

off farm and non-farm incomes, dependency ratio, educational level of household head and use

of agricultural inputs are significantly related to household food security. The authors concluded

that 72% of the population of that area were food insecure and this is a result of limited farm and

land holding shortage of plough oxen, soil degradation, rainfall variability, poor quality of land

and soil erosion. Based on their findings, the authors recommended that the government

intervention should be imported at the initial stages to protect household assets and destination.

Furthermore, Deneshzad at el., (2015) applied their methodology to cross sectional data from

Noshahr, Iran. Their results showed that food secure students are less likely to choose technical

fields and more likely have higher GPA, father with secure and higher paid jobs and health
17
family members. The authors concluded that food insecurity was common health problem among

student.

The negative impact of food insecurity on student academic performance needs urgent attention.

They further recommend that nutrition education is necessary to improve the quality of lifestyle

and empower students to build a successful learning strategy.

From the reviewed literatures one may well see that there is a need to move a bit further in food

security analysis to add dimension of welfare so as to identify and characterized the current food

insecure as well as future secure. Hopefully this will add some insight that will help in designing

ways to allocate scarce resources towards the problem of food deprivation and its associated

evils.

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2.6 FAO dimensions of food security

Availability Access Stability Utilization

Food security

Drought Demographic

Social

Figure 1 Economic

Physical

According to FAO (1996), food security is a function of four major dimensions: Availability,

Access, Stability and Utilization.

Food availability – refers to the availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate

quality, supplied through domestic production or imports.

Food access – is ensured when individuals have sufficient resources to obtain appropriate food

for nutritious diet. Food access is a function of physical environment, social environment and

political environment which determine how effectively households are able to utilize their

resources to meet their food security objectives.

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Food stability – is ensuring enough food availability for those households that at high risk of

temporarily losing access to the resources needed to consume adequate food due to income

shocks, lack of enough reserves for adequate consumption or both (Shah and Dulal, 2015).

Food utilization – consists of plenty diet, clean water, sanitation and health care to reach a state

of nutritional well-being and this expresses the importance of non-food security (Timmmer,

2000)

CHAPTER 3

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This chapter introduces the brief description of the study area and discusses the sources of data

used in the study as well as the analytical model employed and the procedure followed to

accomplish the objectives under study.

3.1 Description of the study area

This study was conducted in the Hhohho region of Eswatini which is located in the North-

western part of Eswatini within: Longitude 31.3541631 and Latitude -26.136566. Hhohho is the

most economically advanced region of Eswatini. Being home to the capital of the country and

hosting a significant fraction of Manzini – Mbabane corridor, it has Eswatini biggest urbanized

population.

The economy is dominated by services, tourism and forestry. The area around the towns of

Pigg’s Peak and Bulembu is home to many planted forests and sawmills. The remaining

20
agricultural sector remains very small. Most rural dwellers continue to cultivate rain – fed crops

on Swazi Nation land and keep small amounts of livestock.

According to Dlamini et al., (2019), the Hhohho region is less prone to drought hence most rural

communities still practice rain fed subsistence agriculture alongside semi commercial to purely

commercial agriculture.

A map of Eswatini showing the study area (Hhohho region) highlighted in brown colour

figure 2

3.2 Data collection method

The data were obtained from primary source through a self-structured questionnaire based on the

objectives of the study. The questionnaire was sectioned into five parts; section (1), information

on demographic characteristics, section (2) farm-based information, section (3) marketing

information, section (4) household food security qualitative questions (during last 12 months),

section (5) information on government intervention in the study area.

21
3.3 Data collection unit

In collecting data, primary data from different constituencies in the Hhohho region were used

where both rural and urban areas of the kingdom of Eswatini were assessed. For the rural

household, the community leaders, Bucopho and ward cancellers were used as entry points, from

whom, cell phone numbers for potential participants in data collection exercise were obtained.

They were briefed on the new method and the importance of the assessment during the COVID

19 period.

3.4 Sample design

Primary data were used in the study. Structured mail questionnaire was used in the collection of

primary data with the household being unit of analysis. A set of structured questionnaires was

administered in Hhohho region. These included all the constituencies present in the region. This

was done using random sampling procedure. Data were collected on age, occupation, and sex of

household head as well as other household characteristics including income, household

occupation. The total sample size was 44.

3.5 Logistic Regression Model (LRM)

The logistic regression model was employed to determine the factors that influenced food

security status of farming households in the Hhohho region. The binary logistic regression model

is stated

as;

Yi = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + ……. + βnXn

22
Yi is a Binary variable which is zero if respondent is food secure and 1 otherwise. β0 is the

intercept (constant): β1, β2 to βn are the regression coefficient of predictor variables, X 1, X2 and Xn

respectively. (X1 = sex of household head, X2 = age, X3 = education level, X4 = household size and

marital. According to Kemalbay and Korkmazoglu (2014), the logistic regression model is

widely used to analyze data with dichotomous dependent variables. It was considered a suitable

model in this research because the depended variables were dichotomous in nature. This method

also allows for maximum – likelihood estimation even if there is a single response to the

category. It reduces the amount of computation required and directly estimates the probability of

an event, and is therefore considered commendable for this study.

3.6 Explanatory variables

Sex of household head; this is dummy variable in the food consumption model which takes a

value 1 if the household head is male and 0, if the household head is female. In view of the fact

that male-headed households are in a better position to pull more labour force than the female

headed ones, sex of the household head is an important correlate of food consumption in the

study area. One would expect that male headed households would consume higher food.

Household head level of education: These are dummy variables to represent different

categories of education level of the household head such as; illiterate, religious/traditional,

primary and secondary&/above secondary. Education equips individuals with the necessary

knowledge of how to make a living. Literate individuals are keen to get information and use it.

Hence, it is supposed that households who have had at least primary education are the ones to be

more likely to benefit from agricultural technologies and thus acquire more food.

23
Age of the household head: Age of household head also matters for household food

consumption. Rural households mostly devote their lifetime or base their livelihoods on

agriculture. The older the household head, the more experience she/he has in farming and

weather forecasting. Moreover, older persons may accumulate more wealth than younger ones.

However, if they have insufficient labor in their households, older household heads in rural areas

may be in a disadvantaged position economically in undertaking the heavy physical labour

required in agriculture this may result in food deprivation. Therefore, the effect of age on

household food consumption may be indeterminate a priority.

Household size: refers to the total number of members of the household irrespective of whether

related or not who normally live in the same housing unit and have common cooking

arrangement. As family size increases, obviously the number of mouths to feed from the

available food increases. Hence, it is hypothesized that family size and food consumption per

adult equivalent are negatively related.

CHAPTER 4

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of farming households

The study examined socio-economic characteristics of farming households in the Hhohho region

of Eswatini. The findings indicate that there were many factors that influenced food insecurity in

the county including; marital status of household head, status of respondents, age, household
24
size, education level and occupation thus correlating with different authors in the study. These

are discussed in the subheadings that follow

Age of household head

2.3%

43.2%

4.5%

1-19 years 20-35 years 36-60 years

Total 2 19 23

Figure 4

Figure 4 above depicts the following;

I. 4.5% respondents were aged 1 – 19 years

II. 43.2% respondents were aged 20 – 35 years

III. 52.3% were aged 36 – 60 years

25
This illustrates that most of the households who participate in farming are from 20 years to

60 years. The distribution shows that a majority of household participating in farming

activities are between the range of 36 – 60 years (are adults)

Employment status of Household head

11%
27%

Civil servant
not employed

62% private sector

figure 5

The employment status of the household head is also an indicator that is used in order to

establish household’s food security status. If the household head is employed, the

vulnerability of that household is said to be low compared to those with unemployed

household heads. The assumption if that most households consider paid employment as their

main livelihood. According to the chart above, most household heads, were found to be

unemployed (62%). This shows that a majority of the households are food insecure.

27 % were employed by the state while 11% are working in private sectors.

26
 Sex of the respondents

Male Female
52% Female
48%
Male

Figure 6 above illustrates that 48% of the respondents were male while 52% were female. This

proves that there are more female than male who engage in farming activities. the findings

correspond with World bank (2003), who concluded that women play an important role in food

production compared to male.

Marital status
Marital status Percentage

Divorced 4.55%

27
Married 38.4%

Separated 6.82%

Single 45.45%

Widow 4.55%

Table 2

Marital status

Mean 1.86

Standard Error 0.17

28
 Standard Deviation 1.15

Sample Variance 1.33

Count 44

Confidence Level (95.0%) 0.35

table 3

Table 3 shows that 45.45% of the respondents of the households were single (not married)

which shows that most of the household still have the potential to support themselves with little

they get from agriculture. Also 38.4% of the household head are married while 4.55% are

divorced and window with only 6.82% being separated. This also shows that heads of households

are less likely to divorce after marrying. Furthermore, the Standard error SE is 0.17, being

relatively small, gives us an indication that our mean is relatively close to the true mean of our

overall population

29
 Level of education
6, 14% 4, 9%
6, 14%
11, 25% illiterate
Primary
Secondary
17, 38%
High School
Tertiary

figure 7

Level of education Percentages

Illiterate 9%

Primary 14%

Secondary 38%

High School 25%

Tertiary 14%

Table 4

Education is an important factor that helps farm community to get access to agricultural

information. It largely influences the adoption of new technologies and improved techniques of

production. The educational level of the respondents ranges from inability to read and write to

having attained secondary level of education, high school or tertiary. This indicates that

households with relatively low level of education are more likely to be food insecure than those

households with better education level. Figure 7 and table 4 reveals that 14% of the heads of

households received primary school education, 25% obtained high school education, 14%

obtained tertiary education, 38% received secondary education and 9% never went to school.

This illustrate that a majority heads of households received some form of education and a

30
majority of them it was secondary and high school education. Food insecure households were

less among secondary or higher secondary educated people compared to the less educated or

illiterates. Literate households would have more capacity and ability to diversifying as well as

increasing their means of income in order to reduce food insecurity. The higher percentage of

illiterates and less educated among small holder farmer respondents in the study area is also of

serious concern which needs to be considered to improve the overall development of the people

and region.

OCCUPATION

Male
23
52%
Female
21
48%

Figure 8

The employment status of the household head is also an indicator that is used in the

study in order to establish household’s vulnerability. If the household head is employed

(either civil servants or private sector) the vulnerability of that household is said to be

low compared to those with unemployed household heads. The assumption if that most

households consider paid employment as their main livelihood. Figure 8 above shows

31
 that (62%) of the heads of households are not employed, this illustration shows that

most of the households depend on farming for survival, (27%) are civil servants, (11%)

work for private sector. This shows that majorities of the heads of the households are

farmers and another majority are civil servants.

key factors influencing food insecurity of farming household

The second objective was to evaluate the key factors influencing food insecurity of farming

household in the Hhohho region of Eswatini. A number of aspects were examined and the

findings indicate that there are many factors that influence food insecurity in the region of the

county. These are discussed in the subheadings that follow

Farm size

38.6%
31.8%
22.7% Total
4.5% 2.3%
More than 4
1 Ha 1/2 Ha 2 Ha 3 Ha
Ha
Total 2 1 10 14 17
farm size

Figure 9

Land size is one of the variables that was examined to establish its influence on food

insecurity. The respondents were asked to indicate their land sizes in terms of hectors.

The study revealed that, (4.5%) respondents owned 1 hector of land, (2.3%) owned 0.5

32
 hector, (22.7%) owned 2 hectors, (31.8%) owned 3 hectors and (38.6%) owned more

than 4 hectors of land. This implies that respondents who owned between 2 – 4 and

more hectors of land were more likely to engage in farming activities that would

produce sufficient food to sustain their households and some to be sold in the market.

However, those with less than 2 hectors of land would not manage to significantly

produce sufficient food due to the small size of the land.

Lannd ownership
75%

15.9%
9.1%

Other Own the land Renting

Total 4 33 7
LAND OWNERSHIP

According to the study findings in table 3 and figure 10 below, (75%) of the respondents

indicated that the land they had was family owned, (15.9%) indicated they owned the land

through leases while another (9.1%) indicated they owned it through other means (freehold

means). The results indicate that a bigger portion of the land was family owned and therefore the

respondents incur fewer leasing costs on land.

33
Challenges faced by Farmers
challenges faced Percentages

high transport costs 4.55%

Low market prices 47.7%

No market 25%
Perishability 22.7%

Table 5

A number of challenges were given to farmers to indicate all those challenges they face in the

farming industry. Table 5 above depicts the challenges, and it shows that most farmers are

challenged by the cost of transporting their produce from farm to the final user, other do not have

a reliable market to sell their produce. Also, perishability of produce still remain a key factor that

results to food insecurity of household in the farming industry.

Family supporting other members

70.5%

29.5%

No Yes
Total 13 31

34
Figure 11

Apart from supporting their own families, most of the respondents were found to be supporting

other members such as family members living abroad, family members living in urban areas or

other related members. Figure 11 above illustrates that 70.5% of the respondents were

supporting other members

Figure 12

Being crop stable is also another determinant of food security in a country. However, in Eswatini

maize is used as one of the determinants of food security. Figure 12 above shows a number of

crops grown by farmers. The finding shows that maize is the major crop grown in every

household.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANT FROM GOVERNMENT

Yes
35 25%
No
75%
figure 13

The chart above shows the role played by Government in assisting rural household. 75% of the

households responded that government is not assisting them in their farms to increase their

productivity while 25% of them the responded positively to the role played by government in

assisting them.

Food Availability

Maize in Eswatini is one of the measures of food security (FAO, 2005). Table 6 shows the

number of tons produced by farmers in the rural area of the Hhohho region. 45.5% of the

respondents produced 5-10 tons, 38.6% produced 1-5 tons and 15.9% produced 10-15 tons of

maize in the last three months. This shows that a majority of households are able to produce for

consumption and they do not have extra produce to sell so that they can buy food that they do not

produce.

tones of maize harvested in the

last 3 months
Percentages of respondents

10-15 tones 15.9%

1-5 tonnes 38.6%

5-10 tonnes 45.5%

Grand Total 44

Table 6

36
Food Security status

Food

Availability Percentages

Food insecure 68.2%

Food secure 31.8%

Table 7

The table above shows us data on food security status of households in the Hhohho region 31.8%

of the households were found to be producing enough food to sustain their live while 62.8% did

not have enough food to cope throughout the year which is a slight increase from Keweyi (2014)

study which was conducted in the Shiselweni region. Both the results proves that the country is

faced by a serious problem of food insecurity

37
Food stability

Income
E1000 -
E5000(6.82%)
E5000 - E500 - E1000(61.4%)
E10000(2.27%)

E200 -E500(22.7%)

E10 000 and

above(4.55%)
Number of respondents

Figure 14 above shows that 61.4% of households are earning between E500 – E1000 per month

from their farms which is less than the minimum wage in Eswatini. There are few individuals

who are earning more than E1000 – E10 000, this proves that most households can be

discouraged to engage in farming activities due to lower turnover resulting to a decrease in food

security. This result corresponds with Phami, 2000 et al who concluded that income is negatively

associated with a decrease in household food security status.

Market

Market Percentages

38
 Local market 63.6%

NAMBORD 22.7%

Other 2.27%
Outside the country 11.4%

Grand Total 44

Table 8

The table above shows a number of available markets where farmers after producing, they sell

their produced. More farmers did not have a market so they end up selling their produce to local

farmers at lesser prices. Few farmers were transporting their produce abroad and a number of

farmers were supported by NAMBOARD.

39
Food Utilization

Use of improved sanitation

54.5%

45.5%

Home toilet Open toilet

Total 24 20
Sanitation

Figure 15

Households’ access to and use of improved sanitation facilities is fundamental in the

prevention and reduction of the incidence of diarrhea outbreak and in breaking the

repeated and collaborative relationship between malnutrition and diarrhea. The results in

the figure above show that 54.5% of the households had access to improved toilets,

however, Eswatini has set a standard for basic sanitation facility to be a Ventilated

Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine with Slab. The results indicate that 45.5% of the households

have access to a basic sanitation facility or better.

40
 WATER QUALITY

GOOD

BETTER

BAD

NUMBER OF

RESPONDENTS Total

figure 16

Poor hygiene practices are a significant risk factor for poor health with high mortality

rates due to Diarrheal disease. In 2020, globally and in Eswatini, poor hygiene practices

have led to the significant spread of COVID-19. The figure above shows that (36.4%) of

households are practicing good hygiene and better hygiene respectively (27.3% of

household are practicing bad hygiene

The effects of food insecurity in the rural areas of the Hhohho region of Eswatini

The regression model was employed to estimate the effects of food insecurity in the rural

areas of the Hhohho region of Eswatini. A number of aspects were examined such as;

marital status of household head, status of respondents, age, household size, these are

discussed in the table below

41
 Standard Lower
Coefficients Error t Stat P-value 95% Upper 95%

Intercept 1.046379 0.684985 1.527595 0.135353 0.34283 2.435592

employment status 0.226728 0.127442 1.779065 0.083674 0.03174 0.485192

marital status -0.00535 0.069835 -0.07662 0.939347 0.14698 0.13628

household size -0.22278 0.114633 -1.94342 0.059815 0.45527 0.009706

gender -0.2169 0.154774 -1.40137 0.169666 0.53079 0.097001

age -0.05968 0.14628 -0.40797 0.685713 0.35635 0.236992

income -0.14858 0.088458 -1.67965 0.101686 0.32798 0.030823

education level 0.052577 0.066568 0.789813 0.434808 0.08243 0.187584

Table 9

The table above shows that employment status is significant at 10% level. This means

employment has an effect on food security, a unit increase in employment will result to an

increase in food. The table also shows that household size is significant at 10%. This means

household size has an effect on food security, a unit increase in household will result to a

decrease in food security by -0.15. All the other independent variables are significant

42
 CHAPTER 5

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The main purpose of this study was to explore the food security status of farming households in

the Hhohho region of Eswatini. Descriptive analysis and binary logistic regression were used in

the study. This chapter presents the findings in the following sections:

• socio-economic characteristics of farming households

• key factors influencing food insecurity of farming household

• Food security analysis (food utilization, availability, accessibility)

Based on the data, main findings of the study are as follows;

The problem of food insecurity is extensive in the study area. Among the sample in the

rural area of the Hhohho region, 68.2% were found to be food insecure whereas 31.8% of

the households were found to be food secured

The age categorization of vulnerability to food insecurity ratio indicates that in the

households headed by age-group 36 - 60, higher numbers of households are expected to

be food insecure in the future. While, fewer households in the other age groups will be

food insecure in the future. Households with large family size are more prone to be food

insecure in future. As household size increases, the vulnerability to food insecurity ratio

will increase. On the other hand, household size, age of household head, and ownership of

43
land and education status of household heads are individual factors that are significantly

correlated with rural household food consumption in the rural areas of the Hhohho region

Among the 44 respondents 52% were males while 48% were females. 4.5% of the respondents

were aged (1 – 19), 42.2% were aged (20 – 35), 52.3%were aged (36 – 60). 45.5% of the heads

of the households were single (not married) 38.4% were married, 4.5 were widowed, 6.8% were

separated and 4.5% was divorced. 22,7% of the heads of households receive an income that

ranges from E200 – E500, 61.4% of the heads of households receive E500 – E1 000, 6.82%

receive E1 000 – E5 000, 2.27% of household heads receive E5 000 – E10 000 and 4.55%

receive E10 000 and more. 14% of the heads of households received primary school education,

25% obtained high school education, 14% obtained tertiary education, 38% received secondary

education and 9% never went to school. 62% of the heads of households are unemployed, 27%

are civil servants while 11% work for private sector.

47.7% of farmers are challenged by low market prices. 25% without a market, 22.7% are

challenged by perishable of their produce and 4.55% do not have transport to move their

produce to the market, so they have a challenge of high transportation costs. 25% of the

farmers are receiving financial assistant from the government while 75% do not receive any

assistant. Tons of maize that was harvested in the last 3 months of data collection is (5 – 10)

tones were collected by 45.5%, (1 – 5) tones were collected by 38.6% and 15.9% harvested

(10 – 5) tons of maize. 54.5% of households had access to improved toilets and 45.5% have

access to basic sanitation facilities or better. 36.4% households are practicing a good and

better hygiene through the use of clean water and 27.3% of households are practicing bad

hygiene.

44
This study has also examined the determinants of food insecurity using binary logistic regression.

Some of the findings in descriptive analysis are consistent with the results of logistic regression

model. From the logistic regression model, it is found that factors such as marital status, gender,

age, level of education and income reduce significantly the likelihood of vulnerability to food

insecurity. Larger family size and employment status positively affects the probability of

vulnerability to food insecurity.

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study it may be concluded that the level of education, occupation,

household head, age and marital status are critical socio-economic characteristics of farming

households. Also, with regards to the factors influencing food insecurity, farm size, financial

assistant from government, family supporting other members, low market prices, high transport

costs, perishability of crops and shortage of market are major factors influencing food insecurity

of rural household in the Hhohho region. Furthermore, the logistic regression model was used to

identify the effects of food insecurity in the rural area and it is concluded that employment and

size of household are significant at 10% level. However, most households are practicing health

precautions, drinking good quality of water and they are food insecure due to low income

received and low quantity of food production. The results shows that Farming household in the

Hhohho region are food insecured thus they need special attention from government and other

private

institutions.

45
5.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, it is found that farmers encounter many problems from

production to consumption of their product which result to rural household being food insecure,

so it is recommended that;

1. Government should provide a market center in rural areas where farmers will spend less

cost transporting their produce before they perish to the market and buy for them at a

satisfying price.

2. NGOs and Government should assist farmers with inputs and loans without expecting

collateral. This will encourage farmers with huge amount of land to venture into farming

thus increasing efficiency, standard of living and reducing poverty at the same time.

3. Low income earned by rural households excludes them from some important services

provided by most financial institutions, so policy makers must form a policy that will

discourage institutions from excluding household with low income.

46
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www.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp290133.pdf

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(2020).

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WILMA L. MOLANO, ALLAN, GULLES, MARIA BELINA N. NUENA ASPANA,

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50
7.0LISTOFAPPENDICS

AN ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY STATUS IN THE HHOHHO

REGION OF ESWATINI

ACADEMIC RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

UNIVERSITY OF ESWATINI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ECONOMICS &

AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT

51
 Undergraduate Research Project Title………………………………………………….

I am conducting a study on the above-mentioned research topic. The study seeks to give insight

into the food security status of farming households in the Hhohho region of Eswatini. I therefore

request for sincere responses to the enclosed instrument. Please be assured that the responses and

on this paper will be strictly confidential and will be reported as group data.

Your participation in advance is highly appreciated.

Yours Faithfully

……………………………… ………………………………………

(Student ) Pro T.T Awoyemi (Supervisor)

GENERAL INFORMATION

Questionnaire number:

Name of respondent (Optional): ……………………………………………………...……………

Location: …………………………… Date of interview: ……………………………………..…..

52
A. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (Please tick where appropriate)

1. Gender of the farmer

i. Female [ ]

ii. Male [ ]

2. How old are you?

i. 1 – 19 years [ ] ii. 20 – 35 years [ ] iii.

36 – 60 years [ ]

3. Are you the household head?

i. Yes [ ] ii. No [ ]

If No, Relationship with household head

4. Age of the household head:

5. What is your marital status?

i) Single [ ] ii) Married [ ] iii) Widow [ ]

iv) Divorced [ ] v) Separated [ ] vi) Other

4. What is your household size? (Number of people)

5. Are family members used as a source of a labour?

53
i) Yes [ ] ii) No [ ]

How many of them?

6. What is your educational level?

i. Illiterate [] ii.

Primary education [ ]

iii. Secondary education [

] iv. High school

education [ ]

v. Tertiary education [ ]

7. Are you employed at the moment (Apart from working in the farm)?

i) Yes [ ] ii) No [ ]

8. If yes, please specify your job

9. Does the household support anyone living outside the home with money or food during last 12

months?

i. Yes [ ] ii. No []

If yes then tick all those that apply

54
 i. Other family member(s) living in rural area [ ] ii.

Other family member(s) living in urban area [ ]

iii. Other family member(s) living abroad [ ]

iv. Others

10. Assets at household home and farm

Asset Number value

Car

Motorcycle

House

Tractor

TV

Oxen

Refrigerator

Oven

Other farm equipment

11. What is the source of drinking water? (Please tick where appropriate)

Ground Water [ ] Canal Water [ ] River water [ ]

12. What’s your opinion about the quality of drinking water you use?

i. Good [ ] ii. Bad [ ]

13. Are you using water after boiling?

55
 i. Yes [ ] ii. No [ ]

14. Are you using home toilet or open toilet?

i. Home toilet [ ]

ii. Open toilet [ ]

15. Where do you put waste water and toilet waste: Pond (Gutter) [ ] Sewerage [ ]

16. What is the situation of cleanliness at your home? Good [ ] Bad [ ]

17. Are the household members wash hands with soap after using toilet: Yes [ ] No [ ]

1. What is the frequency of illness in household members e.g., diarrhea or other diseases?

i. Once in a week [ ] ii) Once in a month [ ] iii) Once

in 3 months [ ] iv) Once in 12 months [ ]

B. FARM INFORMATION

1. Which major crops do you grow for survival?

2. Land ownership

i) Own the land [ ] ii) Renting [ ] iii) Other (specify)

56
3. Location of the farm

4. Number of years in crop production

5. Sources of capital

i. Member subscription

(equity) [ ] ii.

Loan [ ]

iii. Both [ ]

6. Income received

i. E200 – E500 ii. E500 – E1 000 iii. E1 000 –

E5000 iv. E5 000 – E10 000

v. E10 000 >

7. Do you get extension services if yes from who?

8. Size of the farm

9. Is the food you grow enough for your family and others [ ] Yes [ ]No

C. MARKETING INFORMATION

1. Where do you sell produce?

57
2. How far is the market? Kilometres

3. How do you transport your produce to the market?

i. Hired transport [ ]

ii. Private transport [ ]

iii. other means (specify)

4. Challenges faced when selling the Produce

i) Perishability [ ] ii) Low market prices [ ]

iii) No market [ ] iv) Other (specify)

5. Suggest solutions for the challenges faced

D.HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY QUALITATIVE QUESTIONS (DURING LAST 12

MONTHS)

1. What do you consider as basic daily food requirement for your household?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

58
2. Considering basic daily food requirements as minimum food intake required for life: do you

think that the basic daily food intake of your household has improved? i) Yes [ ] ii) No [

If yes, to what extant?

a. Slightly better [ ]

b. Better [ ]

c. Much better [ ]

If no, then?

a. Same [ ]

b. Worse [ ]

c. Much worse [ ]

3. Did you or other household members ever skip a meal because there was not enough money

to buy food over last 12 months?

a. Once a week [ ]

b. Once a month [ ]

c. Once in 3 months [ ]

d. Once in 6 months [ ]

e. Never skipped the meal. [ ]

59
f. Don’t know [ ]

4. Did you or other household members ever not eat for a whole day because of lack of money to

buy food? a. Once a week

a. b. Once a month [
]
[
b. Once in 3 months
]
[
c. Once in 6 months
]
[
d. Never happened.
]
[
e. Don’t know ]
5. Did you or other household members ever eat less than you or they would have needed to eat?
a. Once a week [
]
[
b. Once a month
]
[
c. Once in 3 months
]
[
d. Once in 6 months
]
[
e. Never
]
[
f. Don’t know ]
6. Sometimes people lose weight because of not having enough to eat. In the past 12 months did

you lose weight due to not enough food?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

c. Don’t know [ ]

60
7. Did you ever cut the size of children’s meals due to not enough food available?
a. Once a week [
]
[
b. Once a month
]
[
c. Once in 3 months
]
[
d. Once in 6 months
]
[
e. Never
]
[
f. Don’t know ]
8. Did any of the children ever skip a meal due to not enough food?
a. Once a week [
]
[
b. Once a month
]
[
c. Once in 3 months
]
[
d. Once in 6 months
]
[
e. Never ]

9. Did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because of lack of money to buy food?

a. Once a week [ ]

b. Once a month [ ]

c. Once in 3 months [ ]

d. Once in 6 months [ ]

e. Never

f. Don’t know [ ]

61
10.“I am worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more”.

What was the frequency of this situation?

a. Once a week [
]
[
b. Once a month
]
[
c. Once in 3 months
]
[
d. Once in 6 months
]
[
e. Never
]
[
f. Don’t know ]
g. 11. In your opinion what is a balanced meal?

________________________________________________________________________

______ __________________________

12. “We could not afford to eat balanced meals” what was the frequency?

a. Once a week [ ]

b. Once a month [ ]

Once in 3 months [ ]

c. Once in 6 months [ ]

d. Never [ ]

e. Don’t know [ ]

62
13. “We could not feed the children a balanced diet due to lack of money” what was the
frequency?

a. Once a week [
]

b. Once a month

[
c. Once in 3 months
]
[
d. Once in 6 months
]
[
e. Never
]
[
f. Don’t know ]
14. How you dealt with such situation (food shortage) over last 12 months? (Tick all that apply)

a. Borrowing from friends, neighbours, relatives, etc. [ ]

b. Stick to simple food [ ]

c. Reduce expenditures on health [ ]

d. Reduce expenditures on education [ ]

e. Adults skip meals once a day [ ]

f. Selling assets [ ]

g. Others (Please specify)

E. GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION

1. Do you receive any financial assistance from the government?

63
 i. Yes [ ]

ii. No [ ]

2. Have you ever been visited by an extension officer?

i. Yes [ ]

ii. No [ ]

3. Government assistance services

i. Farmer’s training

64
Subsidized inputs [ ] iii. Irrigation [ ]

iv. Other (specify)

4. Which crops have you grown in last 12 months? (Tick all that apply)

i. Wheat [ ]

ii. Barley [ ]

iii. Rice [ ]

iv. Cotton [ ]

v. Sugarcane [ ]

v. Maize [ ]

vi. Vegetables [ ]

5. Please mention the fertilizers you applied for the mentioned crops above

a.

b.

c.

d.

65
6. Please mention the seed rates you used for each of these crops

a.

b.

c.

d.

7. Do you have electricity access at your farm?

i) Yes

ii) No

8. Do you have access to market information?

i) Yes [ ] ii) No [

If yes; to what extent

i) Negligible [
]
[
ii) Very less
]
iii) less [

66
 ]
[
iv) Enough
]
[
v) Full
]

If no; then what are the reasons

67