MS - Quality For Manufacturing

11/9/2021 10:04 PM
QUALITY PROGRAMS FOR MANUFACTURING
B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

1 Dr. Shahul Hamid Khan
11/9/2021 10:04 PM
 The production processes are not perfect!

 Which means that the output of these processes will
not be perfect. (non identical and non-deterministic)
 Successive runs of the same production process will
produce non-identical parts.
2
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 Alternately, similar runs of the production process will vary, by some
degree, and impart the variation into the some product characteristics.

 Because of these variations in the products, we need probabilistic models
and robust statistical techniques to analyze quality of such products.
 As quality measurements will vary from item to item, and there will
be a probability distribution associated with the population of such
measurements.
3
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This is a traditional definition

This is a modern definition of quality
4
Meaning of Quality
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1. FITTNESS FOR PURPOSE (JURAN)
2. CONFORMANCE TO REQUIREMENTS or SPECIFICATIONS

(Philip Crosby )
3. QUALITY is a measure of how closely a good or service conforms to
specified standard.
5
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PLAN: Design or revise business process components to improve
results
DO: Implement the plan and measure its performance
CHECK: Assess the measurements and report the results to
decision makers
ACT: Decide on changes needed to improve the process 6
11/9/2021 10:04 PM B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM
7
TWO DIFFERENT APPROACHES
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An equivalent definition is that quality improvement is the
elimination of waste. This is useful in service or transactional
businesses.
8
“Statistics is a way to get information from data”
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Data Statistics

Information
Data: Facts, especially Information:

numerical facts, Knowledge
collected together for communicated
reference or concerning some
information. particular fact.
Statistics is a tool for creating new

understanding from a set of numbers. 9
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STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
Population
A population is the group of all items that possess a

certain characteristic of interest.
Size: very large; sometimes infinite.
Sample
A sample is a set of data drawn from the population.
Size: Small (sometimes large but less than the
population)
10
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Parameter
A descriptive measure of a population.

A parameter is a characteristic of a population,
something that describes it.
Statistic
A descriptive measure of a sample.
11
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Population Sample

Subset
Statistic
Parameter
 Populationshave Parameters
 Samples have Statistics 12
STATISTICAL METHODS
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Statistical

Methods
Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics
Hypothesis
Estimation
Testing
13
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 Descriptive Statistics describe the data set that is being
analyzed, but doesn’t allow us to draw any conclusions or
make any interferences about the data.

Hence we need another branch of statistics: inferential
statistics.
 Inferential statistics is also a set of methods, but it is used to

draw conclusions or inferences about characteristics of
populations, based on data from a sample.
14
DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES
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 Measures of central tendency
 Mean, median, mode, etc.
 Quartile

 Measure of variation
 Range, inter-quartile range, variance and standard
deviation, coefficient of variation
 Shape
 Symmetric, skewed, using box-and-whisker plots
 Coefficient of correlation
15
STATISTICAL INFERENCE
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 Statistical inference is the process of making an estimate,
prediction, or decision about a population based on a sample.
Population

Sample
Inference
Statistic
Parameter
16
INFERENCE PROCESS
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Estimates Population

Sample
Statistics
Sample
17
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
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ESTIMATION PROCESS
I am 95%
Population Random Sample confident

Mean that  is
Mean, , is
unknown X = 50
between
40 & 60.
18
MEAN (ARITHMETIC MEAN)
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Mean (arithmetic mean) of data values
Sample mean

Sample Size
n
 X i
X  X   X
X  i 1
 1 2 n
n n
Population mean
Population Size
N
X i
X1  X 2   X N
  i 1

N N 19
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MEAN (ARITHMETIC MEAN)
 The most common measure of central tendency
 Acts as ‘Balance Point’

 Affected by extreme values (outliers)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
14
Mean = Mean =
5 6
20
MEDIAN
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 Robust measure of central tendency
 Not affected by extreme values

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
14
Median = Median =
 The value of Middle when the observations are ranked.
5 5
Property:
50% of the values are Less than or equal
to it.
21
MODE
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A measure of central tendency
 Value that occurs most often
 Not affected by extreme values

 Used for either numerical or categorical data
 There may be no mode or several modes
Mode = 9 No Mode
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 22
ENGINEERING EXAMPLE FOR MODE
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A hardware store wants to determine what size of circular
saws it should stock. From the past sales data, a random
sample of 30 pieces are below (In mm)

80 120 100 100 150 120 80 150 120
80 120 100 120 120 150 80 120 100
120 80 100 120 120 150 120 100 120
120 100 100
Mode 120
23
RANGE
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 Difference between the largest and the smallest

observations:
 Ignore the way in which data are distributed

Range  X Largest  X Smallest
Range = 12 - 7 = 5 Range = 12 - 7 = 5
7 8 9 10 11 7 8 9 10 11 24
12 12
QUARTILES
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Q1, the first quartile, is the value such that 25% of the
observations are smaller, corresponding to (n+1)/4
ordered observation

Q2, the second quartile, is the median, 50% of the
observations are smaller, corresponding to 2(n+1)/4 =
(n+1)/2 ordered observation
Q3, the third quartile, is the value such that 75% of the
observations are smaller, corresponding to 3(n+1)/4
ordered observation
25
EXAMPLE
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You’re a financial analyst for Prudential-Bache
Securities. You have collected the following closing stock
prices of new stock issues:

17, 16, 21, 18, 13, 16, 12, 11, 17.
Measure central tendency and variation using

quartiles.
26
QUARTILES
Split Ordered Data into 4 Quarters
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
25% 25% 25% 25%

 Q1   Q2   Q3 
1 9  1 12  13
Position of Q1   2.5 Q1   12.5 i n  1
4 2 Q i  
4
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21
Q2 = Median = 16, Q3 = 17.5
27
INTERQUARTILE RANGE (IQR)
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 Also known as mid-spread

Spread in the middle 50%
 Difference between the first and third quartiles
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17

17 18 21
Interquartile Range  Q3  Q1  17.5  12.5  5

 Not affected by extreme values 28
BOX-AND-WHISKER PLOT
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Graphical Display of Data Using 5-Number
Summary.

Xsmallest Q1 Median Q3 Xlargest
4 6 8 10 12
29
30
31
VARIANCE
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Important measure of variation
Shows variation about the mean

Sample variance: n
 X X
2
i
S 
2 i 1
n 1
Population variance:
N
 X 
2
i
2  i 1
32
N
STANDARD DEVIATION
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 Most important measure of variation
 Shows variation about the mean
 Has the same units as the original data

Sample standard deviation:
n
 X X
2
i
S 
Population standard deviation:
i 1
n 1
N
 X 
2
i
 i 1 33
N
DATA COLLECTION
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To control or improve a process we need information or Data.
Data on quality characteristics is described by a random

variable

Random variable
1. Discrete variable
2. Continuous variable
Discrete variable
No of defective rivets in assembly
No of satisfied customers in a retail shop
34
Continuous variable
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Thickness of a plate
Viscosity of an oil

Diameter of a shaft
35
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
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1. Discrete Distributions
2. Continuous Distributions
Discrete Distributions
Binomial Distribution

a.
b. Hyper geometric Distribution
c. Poisson Distribution
Continuous Distributions
1. Normal Distribution (quality control)
2. Exponential Distribution (to model the failure rate during
life cycle of product)
3. Weibull Distribution (failure rate in mech and electrical
components)
36
The following data represent the heights (in
inches) of a random sample of 50 two-year old
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males.
36.0 36.2 34.8 36.0 34.6 38.4 35.4 36.8
34.7 33.4 37.4 38.2 31.5 37.7 36.9 34.0

34.4 35.7 37.9 39.3 34.0 36.9 35.1 37.0
33.2 36.1 35.2 35.6 33.0 36.8 33.5 35.0
35.1 35.2 34.4 36.7 36.0 36.0 35.7 35.7
38.3 33.6 39.8 37.0 37.2 34.8 35.7 38.9
37.2 39.3
37
38
COMPARING STANDARD
DEVIATIONS
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Data A
Mean = 15.5
s = 3.338

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21
Data B
Mean = 15.5
s = .9258
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21
Data C
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 s = 4.57
39
20 21
40
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL FOR THE VARIANCE
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Chi-square distribution

Confidence Interval for the Ratio of two variances
F distribution
41
42
Quartiles
Quartiles
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A random sample of 20 observations on welding time is
given (in mins). Find IQR for these data
2.2 2.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.6 1.8 2.3

2.0 2.1 2.6 1.9 2.0 1.8 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.2
Location of Q1 = 0.25 (n+1) = 0.25 (21) = 5.25
Location of Q3 = 0.75 (n+1) = 0.75 (21) = 15.75
Q1 = 1.825
Q2 = 2.275
IQR =Q3-Q1= 0.45 43
MEASUREMENT OF KURTOSIS AND SKEWNESS
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Skewness
coefficient

44
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Kurtosis
coefficient
Kurtosis is a measure of Peakedness of data set

45
GRAPHICAL METHODS OF DATA
REPRESENTATION AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
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TOOLS
 Check sheet and Histogram

 Cause and effect diagram
 Pareto diagram
 Run chart
 Box plot
 Scatter diagram
 Control charts
46
HISTOGRAM
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Histograms or frequency histograms are a graphical
representation of data

The shape of the histogram can give insight to the
nature of distribution of data.
Common steps
1. Collection of data (50 or more)
2. Find number of class intervals
3. Find the class width
4. Find the frequency in each class and draw the 47
histogram
HISTOGRAM………..
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 Determining number of class intervals K
K = 1.5 ln N + 0.5 (N- number of observations or
data)

 Determine class interval width
Interval width = largest value – smallest
value/ K
* Begin with first interval :

The first interval will be (smallest value – ½
Interval width) 48
EXAMPLE
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33.2 43.2 35.9 35 33.9
46.4 38.1 43.5 36.4 42.9
40.4 47.1 38.6 29.9 39.3
45.7 41.1 44.2 33.2 41.5

29.9 33.8 47.3 34.7 37.1
37.9 29.7 41.6 38.7 29.6
31.7 38 30.8 29.7 42.3
29.8 39.6 39.3 39 41.7
35.9 33.1 43.1 41.2 38.3
30.5 39.4 38.3 46.3 42.8
Number of Observations are 50
K = 1.5 * ln 50 +0.5 = 1.5 (3.912) + 0.5 = 6.368 = 7 49

(Approx)
Interval width = largest value – smallest value/ K
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= (47.3 – 29.6) / 7 = 2.58 = 2.5 say
First interval = 29.6 – ½ (2.5) = 29.6 – 1.25 = 28.3
Check sheet

28.3 - 30.8
33.2 43.2 35.9 35 33.9
30.8 - 33.3 46.4 38.1 43.5 36.4 42.9
33.3 - 35.8 40.4 47.1 38.6 29.9 39.3
35.8 - 38.3 45.7 41.1 44.2 33.2 41.5
38.3 - 40.8 29.9 33.8 47.3 34.7 37.1
37.9 29.7 41.6 38.7 29.6
40.8 – 43.3
31.7 38 30.8 29.7 42.3
43.3 – 45.8 29.8 39.6 39.3 39 41.7
45.8 – 48.3 35.9 33.1 43.1 41.2 38.3
30.5 39.4 38.3 46.3 42.8
50
51
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION DATA
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29 39 56 50 48
54 47 75 39 29

35 42 56 44 42
68 29 60 41 41
55 51 41 72 34
49 61 54 44 55
49 59 41 40 50
40 40 55 51 52
55 61 53 36 49
36 35 52 55 59
52
Cause- and- Effect Diagram (Ishikawa Diagram)
 It helps to determine the root causes of a problem using a

structured approach.
 It encourages group participation and utilizes group

knowledge of the process.
 Easy-to-read format
 It indicates possible causes of variation in a process.

PRODUCT/MANUFACTURING
Ma
n
Machine Methods
Five Key
Sources of
+ Environmen
Variation t
Material Measuremen
s t
Use cause and effect diagram to single out variation sources within
the “5M’s + E” 54
TRANSACTIONAL/SERVICE
People
Policies Procedures
Five Key
Sources of
Variation
+ Environmen
t
Place Measuremen
t
Use cause and effect diagram to single out variation sources 55

within the “4P’s + M&E”
Causes Effect
Main Category
Problem
Cause
Root
Cause
56
Reference: International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management
Volume 12 issue 4
“Implementing a quality maintenance system in a military

organization”
BOX-WHISKER PLOT
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Steps
1. Determine first quartile Q1. This value determines the lower

edge of the box

2. Determine Third quartile Q3. This value determines the upper
edge of the box
3. Find IQR
4. Find median of the set Q2. Draw a line at median to divide the
box
5. Two lines known as whiskers, are drawn outward from the box.
one end extended from Q3 -- to either a Maximum data value
59
(or) Q3+1.5 (IQR)
(whichever is lower)
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Other end extended downward from Q1 -- to either a Minimum data
value (or)
Q1-1.5 (IQR) (whichever is greater)

6. The values falls outside the plot are represented by asterisks (*)
60
BOX-WHISKER PLOT
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The Rockwell hardness value of metal wheel Nuts are
found for randomly chosen sample of 20 parts. The values
are below.

After ranking all the data, we get,
61
11/9/2021 10:04 PM
i  n  1
 Qi  
4
Q1 = 21/4 = 5.25 i.e 5th position Q1 = 33.0 ;

Q3 = ¾ (21) = 15.75 16th position Q3 = 37.0
IQR = 4
Top edge -- Maximum point = 49.2; Q3+1.5 (IQR) = 37 + 1.5(4) = 43

(whichever is lower)
Choose 43
Bottom edge - Minimum point is 30.1 ; Q1-1.5 (IQR) = 33 – 1.5*4 =

27 (whichever is greater)
62
Choose 30.1
63
Rockwell
hardnes
s
Box and Whisker Plot Example
Suppose you wanted to compare the

performance of three lathes responsible for the
rough turning of a shaft.
The design specification is 18.85 +/- 0.1 mm.
Diameter measurements from a sample of

shafts taken from each roughing lathe are
displayed in a box and whisker plot.
APPLICATIONS
Lathe 1 appears to be making good parts, and is
centered in the tolerance.
Lathe 2 appears to have excess variation, and is

making shafts below the minimum diameter.
Lathe 3 appears to be performing comparably to

Lathe 1. However, it is targeted low in the
tolerance, and is making shafts below
specification.
Data Set # 1
1 18.883 26 18.832 51 18.839 76

2 18.847 27 18.847 52 18.849 77
3 18.855 28 18.841 53 18.824 78
4 18.844 29 18.81 54 18.819 79
5 18.845 30 18.854 55 18.842 80
6 18.868 31 18.9 56 18.833 81
7 18.863 32 18.818 57 18.855 82
8 18.856 33 18.871 58 18.894 83
9 18.847 34 18.864 59 18.849 84
10 18.869 35 18.843 60 18.869 85
11 18.823 36 18.816 61 18.828 86
12 18.849 37 18.878 62 18.874 87
13 18.821 38 18.875 63 18.844 88
14 18.843 39 18.877 64 18.831 89
15 18.875 40 18.794 65 18.848 90
16 18.81 41 18.792 66 91
17 18.781 42 18.796 67 92 Data Set # 1
18 18.867 43 18.909 68 93 Lower Quartile 18.828
19 18.848 44 18.831 69 94 Minimum 18.781
20 18.849 45 18.824 70 95 Median 18.847
21 18.876 46 18.858 71 96 Maximum 18.924
22 18.839 47 18.924 72 97
Upper Quartile 18.866
23 18.861 48 18.826 73 98
24 18.859 49 18.824 74 99
25 18.803 50 18.866 75 100
Data Set # 2
1 18.802 26 18.794 51 18.81 76 18.801

2 18.814 27 18.82 52 18.826 77 18.798
3 18.798 28 18.821 53 18.775 78 18.834
4 18.831 29 18.735 54 18.785 79 18.765
5 18.734 30 18.751 55 18.789 80 18.767
6 18.734 31 18.834 56 18.781 81 18.895
7 18.843 32 18.727 57 18.796 82 18.857
8 18.807 33 18.835 58 18.888 83 18.804
9 18.786 34 18.773 59 18.817 84 18.858
10 18.754 35 18.844 60 18.783 85 18.772
11 18.782 36 18.764 61 18.768 86
12 18.782 37 18.809 62 18.831 87
13 18.886 38 18.845 63 18.831 88 Data Set # 2
14 18.796 39 18.799 64 18.834 89 Lower Quartile 18.779
15 18.792 40 18.863 65 18.78 90
Minimum 18.727
16 18.78 41 18.784 66 18.823 91
17 18.779 42 18.808 67 18.878 92 Median 18.799
18 18.868 43 18.774 68 18.841 93 Maximum 18.895
19 18.843 44 18.778 69 18.779 94 Upper Quartile 18.834
20 18.798 45 18.857 70 18.828 95
21 18.854 46 18.77 71 18.841 96
22 18.779 47 18.738 72 18.851 97
23 18.783 48 18.796 73 18.765 98
24 18.838 49 18.803 74 18.81 99
25 18.744 50 18.793 75 18.845 100
18.95
18.9
18.85
Lower Quartile
18.8 Minimum
Median
18.75
Maximum
Upper Quartile
18.7
18.65
18.6
Data Set # 1 Data Set # 2
Scatter Plots
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The Scatter plot is another problem analysis tool.
Scatter plots are also called correlation charts.
A Scatter plot is used to uncover possible cause-and-

effect relationships.
It is constructed by plotting two variables against one
another on a pair of axes.
A Scatter plot cannot prove that one variable causes
another, but it does show how a pair of variables is
related and the strength of that relationship.
Used to find out Empirical Equations 70
71
72
SCATTER PLOT OF TOOL WEAR VS DEPTH OF CUT
73
SCATTER DIAGRAM
PARETO ANALYSIS
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 The Pareto Principle, or 80-20 Rule, is a general
guideline that says that 80% of the effects stem from 20% of
the causes.
 Vilfredo Pareto originally observed that in Italy, 80% of the
land was owned by 20% of the people.

Pareto Principle is a guiding principle used in
business for
 Customer Complaints (e.g. 80% of the complaints come
from 20% of the customers)
 Management (e.g. 80% of the results come from 20% of the
group)
 Sales (e.g. 80% of the profits come from 20% of the
products)
74
 Quality Management for identifying the most important
causes for defects (e.g. 80% of the problems come from 20%
of the causes)
11/9/2021 10:04 PM
PARETO DIAGRAMS
Pareto Analysis is used to assist in prioritizing or focusing
activities.

Procedure
• Decide the objectives of Pareto analysis
• Develop list of the responses to be classified
• Collect data
• Rank the categories
• Compute cumulative frequency
• Plot the diagram

75
Purpose: PARETO CHARTS
Prioritize problems.
How is it done?
 Create a preliminary list of
problem classifications.
 Tally the occurrences in
each problem classification.
 Arrange each classification
in order from highest to
lowest
 Construct the bar chart
PARETO CHARTS
Benefits:
120
 Pareto analysis helps
graphically display results 100
so the significant few
problems emerge from the 80
general background
Quantity
60
 It tells you what to work
on first 40
20
0
Dent Scratch Hole Others Crack Stain Gap
Defects 104 42 20 14 10 6 4
11/9/2021 10:04 PM
PARETO DIAGRAMS
 Pareto Analysis is used to assist in prioritizing or
focusing activities.

Procedure
• Decide the objectives of Pareto analysis
• Develop list of the responses to be classified
• Collect data
• Rank the categories
• Compute cumulative frequency
• Plot the diagram

78
PARETO DIAGRAMS
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NONCONFORMITIES IN A TEXTILE MILL

B
C
D
E
F
G
79
80
81
RUN CHART
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A line graph of data points plotted in chronological order that
helps detect special causes of variation

Numbe
r
of
defects
82
Samples
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A run chart is a graph that shows the changes in
a process measurement over time.

It can help us to
 Recognize patterns of performance in a process
Document changes over time
83

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11/9/2021 10:04 PM

QUALITY PROGRAMS FOR MANUFACTURING

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

not be perfect. (non identical and non-deterministic)

 Successive runs of the same production process will

produce non-identical parts.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

2. CONFORMANCE TO REQUIREMENTS or SPECIFICATIONS

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

3. QUALITY is a measure of how closely a good or service conforms to

elimination of waste. This is useful in service or transactional

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Data: Facts, especially Information:

Statistics is a tool for creating new

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

 Inferential statistics is also a set of methods, but it is used to

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

 Ignore the way in which data are distributed

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Measure central tendency and variation using

25% 25% 25% 25%

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Q2 = Median = 16, Q3 = 17.5

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17

Interquartile Range  Q3  Q1  17.5  12.5  5

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

 Has the same units as the original data

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Data on quality characteristics is described by a random

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Location of Q1 = 0.25 (n+1) = 0.25 (21) = 5.25

Location of Q3 = 0.75 (n+1) = 0.75 (21) = 15.75

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Kurtosis is a measure of Peakedness of data set

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

 Check sheet and Histogram

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM