PART ONE

URBAN LIVING
} Transport
How do we keep people moving?
} Floods

How can Cities Prepare for Floods?

Reference:

Lay Hoon, G., Clarke, M.C., Yu, S. & Wong, P. P. (2015). All about geography: Urban Living.
Singapore: Pearson.

•
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A feature of cities is their rapidly increasing population, either due to natural increase or rural-urban
migration. As cities become more crowded, commuting can become a challenge. If traffic is not
well-managed, it leads to traffic congestion, causing economic loss and environmental pollution.

Managing traffic ·congestion is an important task. Some cities try to reduce traffic congestion by
building more roads and highways. Others have chosen to solve the issue by developing an efficient
public transport system. Singapore faces challenges such as a limited land supply and a growing
population. Hence, we need to consider carefully some ways to improve the traffic situation.
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In this chapter, we will investigate the issue of traffic congestion in cities. The diagram below shows
the questions that we will be asking during this investigation.

• What istraffic congestion?

• Where is traffic
• How do some cities congestion found in
manage traffic the city?
congestion? • Why does traffic .;

congestion occur?

• How does traffic congestion affect

people and the environment?

What features of our public transport help to ensure a safe and

comfortable journey?
To learn more about public transport and the features that make journeyssafe and comfortable for commuters, a
geographical investigation can be carried out. Thisgeographical investigation provides you with an opportunity
to explore the features of public transport and understand that commuters may have different views about such
features in ensuring a safe and comfortable journey.

To complete the investigation. your tasks will involve:

>- generating questions to unpack and understand the focusof the geographical investigation
>- identifying relevant information via library and online research
>- taking photographs
>- making use of random and systematic sampling
>- constructing aquestionnaire and conducting interviews
>- interpreting and representing data
>- analysing data to reach reasoned conclusions to the investigation
>- reflecting on the investigation
 In this section, you will learn to:
What is traffic o describe the characteristics of urban transport
congestion? using photographs and sketches
o define traffic congestion

Mobility refers to the movement of people and goods from place to place, in a reasonable amount
of time and at an acceptable cost. There are many reasons why people need to move about.
For instance, fJeuJJie need to commute between work, school antl their homes. Goods need to be
delivered to different locations Crin yoll think of other reasons why people need to move about?

In c1t1es where there are large n11mhers of reople moving about. traffic conyesliun rnay occur. Let
us take a luuk dl lhe d JCJJ'8ctenstics of urban transport to understand the issue of traffic congestion.

106
 Characteristics of urban transport
Cities have a wider variety of transport modes, higher density of transport networks and better quality
transport infrastructure, compared to rural areas.

Variety of transport modes

Modes of transportation refer to the types of transport used to facilitate ~
the movement of people or goods from one place to another. In Chapter 1, you learnt that
cities have large population
Modes of transportation can be classified as either private or public. Private sizes and high population
transport refers to transport owned by individuals, such as motorcycles densities. One challenge that
cities face is transporting
and cars. Public transport refers to transport provided by the government
large numbers of people
or private companies, such as buses, trains and taxis. efficiently to wherever they 0
want to go. ~
In cities, there are different types of transport modes such as trains and ~-

buse_s, which carry a large number of passengers in a shorter period of 0

time. There are also transport services available in cities that are not found in rural areas, such as z
rental car and shuttle bus services. Some cities have developed unique modes of transportation such )>
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as the 'tuk-tuk' in Bangkok. as these vehicles are able to weave in and out of traffic. Figures 4.2 to
4.6 show some common modes of transportation found in cities. ,
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Modes of transportation in cities vary to cater to the different needs of people. For example, taxis
provide a customised and speedy journey, and buses provide a cheap mode of transportation. z --
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Figure 4.2 Ahigh-speed bullet train in
Japan. Hullettrams have a maximum
operating speed of 320 k ilometrP.~
per hour and carry about 151mill ton
r~s~P.nQP.rs ~nnu~lly Sur.h trains cover
IUII\J tl t~\JtH;(::. ,IIIII ."II (! oltr.n II ~.P.f1 10
travel between Cttles (inter-rity tr;wP.II
Figure 4.3 A tram in Basel. Switzerland.
Trams are a type of rat I vehicle that run
along tracks on streets and arc powered
by electricity. Thoy aro u~ually lightor
and shortP.r t h~n r.onvP.ntion~l tr~ ins
Figure 4.4 A jeepney in the Philippines
is a private transport that carries up to
18 passengers

107
u
Figure 4.5 A taxi in New York. United States of Figure 4.6 An auto rickshaw. locally known as
America. The pick-up and drop-off locationsare 'tuk-tuk'. in Bangkok. Thailand. A 'tuk-tuk' is a
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determined by the passengers. type of taxi.
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ct: Density of transport networks
A transport network refers to a system of transport routes connecting a set
of nodes. A node refers to a place where lines in a network cross or join.
The nodes are junctions and terminals. A route refers to the connection
B!t•!i
Space
between two nodes. The number of routes and nodes determines the Transport networks are
density of transport networks: the greater the number of routes and nodes. unevenlydistributed across
0 acountry. Denser transport
z the greater the network density (refer to Figure 4.7). networks with more
connections develop in cities
A dense transport network is one which is highly developed and to serve the population. In
0 well-connected. Such a network makes it easier for people to get around contrast. rural areas have
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the city. transport networks which are
_, less dense.
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Figure 4.7 A lr ~ uspml u~ lwur k is made up of routes and nodes.

108
Figure 4.8 shows part of a dense subway network in the city of Seoul, South Korea, while Figure
4.9 shows the less dense train network of Wellington, New Zealand.

Wairarapa Connection

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Solway

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Woodside

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Figure 4.9 Map of the train network of Wellington, New Zealand.

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Figure 4.8 Part of the subway mapof Seoul. South Korea. m

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Figures 4.8 and 4.9 show the different densities of the subway/train networks of Seoul and Wellington.
Using Figures 4.8 and 4.9. we can say that there is a dense transport network in Seoul because of the high
number of nodes and routes. In contrast. Wellington has a less dense transport network with fewer nodes
and routes.

Let's try it!

1. With reference to examples. explain the difference between privateand public transport.

2. Refer to Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Describe and compare the density of the subway/train network in Seoul and Wellington.

109
 Quality of transport infrastructure
Transport infrastructure refers to facilities such as roads. railway tracks and bus terminals.
The quality of transport infrastructure can be measured by indicators such as capacity, efficiency,
reliability, safety and comfort level.

An example of a high-quality transport infrastructure is a well-paved and well-lit road with many lanes
for vehicles to pass through quickly and smoothly (refer to Figure 4.10(a)). In contrast. an example
of a poor-quality transport infrastructure is a road with potholes (refer to Figure 4.10(b)). Figure 4.11
shows the characteristics of a high-quality transport infrastructure.

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Figure 4.10(a) Well-paved roads with multiple lanes Figure 4.10{b) Apoorly maintained road in Boston.
z in Singapore. United States of America.

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large capacity Efficient
.... • Able to move large • Frequent services to
< numbers of people at move people quickly
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any one time
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Comfortable
• Clean travelling
environment allows
for a comfortable
commute

Safe
• Little danger of car accidents. bus collisions or even train derailing
• Presence of safety features such as track barriers and emergency
buttons on trains

Figure 4.11 Characteristicsof a high-quality transpon infrastructure.

110
Traffic congestion
Traffic congestion is a situation where there are more vehicles than rnr.wm:~
the road can handle. Some characteristics of traffic congestion are slow Visit http//wwwtraffic-
travelling speeds ·and vehicular queues that last for more than 15 minutes. simulation de to see how
During traffic congestion, the travelling speed of a vehicle may be as slow a variety of factors affect
as 10 kilometres per hour in comparison to a usual speed of about 80 traffic flow
kilometres per hour. Slow travelling speeds, combined with a large number
of vehicles, cause a build-up of vehicles on the road, resulting in vehicular queues. These queues may
sometimes stretch anywhere from a few hundred metres to several kilometres. In some instances,
traffic may be so congested that vehicles do not move at all.

Figure 4.12 shows a situation where there are long queues of different vehicles on the road, with
motorcyclists weaving in and out of traffic. 0

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Figure 4.12 Traffic congestion in Bangkok. Thailand.

Traffic congestion reduces mob1l1ty, makmg it more difficult and time-consum1ng tor people to move
about and also to deliver goods. In the next section, we will look at where traffic congestion usually
occurs in a city.

111
 Let's try it!
1. Refer to Figure 4.13. Do you thrnk !he photographs show good quality rnfrastrucwre? Explain your answer

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2. Define traffic congestion.

3. Describe the characteristics of trafficcongestion.

112
 Where is traffic
congestion found In this section, you will learn to:
o describe the distribution of traffic congestion in the
in the city? city using maps

f Where does Farid encounter traffic congestion,daiiy .as he drivestov.iorkf ·--·"·-----·~-. -~--,... - . ,. . .,. . ,.,.
! Suggest other reasons why traffic co~gestion may occur.

Hello there. My name is Farid and I live in

Woodlands. Every morning, I have to wake up early to ,.
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reach work. at Raffles Place on time. I do this because I
often run into traffic as I drive to work.. The route from 0
my home to the expressway is quite clear. except near z
the traffic junctions. But when I get to the expressway, >
my car slows down as I join the long queue of cars
waiting to get onto the expressway. The drive along the
expressway is relatively smooth, but I cannot drive as
fast as I could over the weekends.
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Traffic congestion can occur for different reasons. It can occur due to accidents on the road or road >
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works. It can also occur during peak hours when a large number of people travel to and from work at
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the same time. As a result. traffic congestion is likely to be concentrated in specific parts of the city. 0
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Concentration of traffic congestion in the city ()

The central business district (CBD) is the commercial centre where businesses such as financial
institutions are concentrated in the city. Hence. the CBD has to be readily accessible to everyone. The
CBD is thus the most well-connected part of the city to cater to high pedestrian and vehicular flow.

There is usually a high flow of traffic on the roads within the CBD because many people commute
to and from the CBD. As a result. large numbers of buses. taxis and private cars enter and leave the
CBD daily. Traffic congestion is thus common in the CBD. especially during peak hours.

For example. there is a huge difference between the dayt1me population and nighttime population
of Manhattan. the CBD of New York City, Un1ted States of America. During weekday work hours.
Manhattan's population nearly doubles to 3.1 mill1on from 16 million. according to a 2013 study by
the United States Census Bureau The huge difference in population is due to commuters travelling
into Manhattan to work.

113
 Traffic congestion tends to occur during peak hours when many people are on their way to work 111
the mornings or on their way home from work in the evenings. Peak hour refers to a part of 1he
day during which traffic volume is the highest. The roads that are congested during peak hour are
usually those leading to and from the CBD such as major expressways. Roads running through or
within the CBD are also congested. Figure 4.15 shows a real-time traffic map of a part of Singapore's
CBD during the morning peak hour at 9 am on a Monday.

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Building :;; Government building 8 Shop ~ Hostel 1' Food ~:,. Park A Roadworks
MRT Station y .·:: ~ m:rn [mil) miD - Slow ..... Moderate - Fast

Figure 4.15 Areal· time traffic map ofa pan of Singapore's CBD. taken during peak hour at 9 am on Monday. 11May 201 5.
Adapted from: Google (2014}.

11 4
 One useful way of finding out where traffic congestion occurs in a city is via live traffic maps. Livetraffic
maps show traffic information in real time. The information is updated regularly and it is easy to seewhere
traffic congestion is occurring. People can use these mapsto helpthemplan their commute. The map in
Figure 4.15 uses coloured roads to symbolise different traffic speeds. Just like the colours of traffic lights,
green means that traffic is smooth, orange means there is moderate congestion and red shows heavy
congestion or slow traffic. According to themap, congestion occurred in areas such as Raffles Place and
Marina Boulevard. Traffic flow was mostly fast on the expressways surrounding the CBD.

The advantages of usinga live traffic map are that information is updated regularly and it is easy to see
where traffic congestion is occuring. Astechnology progresses, more people can use live maps to help them
plan their commute.

Figure 4.16 shows a list of cities in the United Kingdom and time wasted t:ttt:tl "t. mtftt:-
in traffic congestion in these cities. London is the capital city of the visit http://www. 0
United Kingdom where there is a concentration of economic activities mapsyng.com to view a z
and people. websitethat maps out )>
traffic-related information
in Singapore. such as .,
congestion. traffic incidents
and parking availability. You 0
can also download an app
Glasgow
version of themap on your z
21 hrs wasted smartphone. 0

Greater Belfast Gr·eater

31 hrs wasted EdlnbuJgh
28 hrs wasted
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Greater 0
Manchester Leeds Bradford )>
45 hrs wasted 27 hrs-wasted 0
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Greater Leicestershire ()
Birmingham 21 hrs' ~st.ed
32 hrs wasted
LONDON
Portsmouth- Comlmit~r zone
Fareham 79 hrs wasted
25 hrs wasted

Figure 4.16 lime wasted 10 traffic per month. tn vanous Ctttes 10 the United Kingdom.
Source.· INRIX Traffic Scorecard 2013

115
 Let's try it!
1 Describe the change in traffic flow along the major roads between 8 am and 9 am on 16 April2014 in the CBD.

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Figure 4.17(a} Traffic conditions at 8 amin the CBD.

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Figure 4.17(b} Traffic conditions at 9 am in the CBD.

2. Refe1 lu Fig111~ 417 <:t nd suggest reasons for traffic congestion

3 Refer tn FiamP. 4 I fi. ;mrt suggP.st rP.<lsons why morP. tlmP. 1s W<lStP.r1 m trathr. r.oogP.sllnn 10 london compared
to other cities in the United Kingdom.

In the next section, we will learn about the causes of traffic congestion and what measures can
be taken to ease it
116
 In this section. you will learn to:
o explain the causes of traffic
Why does traffic congestion in the city, with
reference to Singapore andnamed
congestion occur? examples

Causes of traffic congestion in Singapore and

other cities
In cities, traffic congestion may be due to the distance between workplaces and homes and inadequate
transport infrastructure. Traffic congestion may also be due to one-off events, such as poor weather
conditions, road construction or accidents. 0
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Separation of work and residential areas 0
People often work and live in different parts of the city. Places of work are often located away from housing z
areas. The separation of work and residential areas results in the need for people to commute to work. l>
To commute means to travel some distance between one's home and place of work on a regular
basis. ...
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According to a 2011 report published by the United States Census Bureau. a total of 132.3 million
people in the country commute between their work and residential areas daily. In 2013, the average z
daily traffic volume entering the CBD in Singapore was 289,000 vehicles. 0

Commuting can be done via private or public transport. However. many people would prefer to
drive a private vehicle because it is convenient and allows for flexibility. Therefore, in most cities,
car ownership is high, leading to massive numbers of cars that drive in and out of the CBD daily.
This contributes to the problem of traffic congestion. For example, in the United Kingdom, there has
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been a steady increase in car ownership (refer to Figure 4.18). The number of families owning one 0
car or two or more cars has increased over time. l>
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Figure 4.18 The increase in household car ownershrp rn the United Kmgdom from 1951to 2011.
Adapted from.· Transport Statisrics Great Britam (2008 and 2013)

117
 Figure 4.18 is a comparative line graph which shows different sets of data in one graph. Thisallows
comparisons to be made between the data. in this case. household car ownership. The x-axis shows the
years. and they-axis shows the percentage of households not owning a car. and owning one or two or more
~ars. For instance. the percentage of households with one car increasedfrom 12 per cent to 44 per cent
between 1951and 1971. Then, it remained stable at 44 per cent until2006. Thereafter. it experienced a
slight dipto 42 per cent in 2011 .

let's try it!

1. Refer to Figure 4.1 9. whichshows the time taken to Time taken to get to work in
get to work in London compared to other cities in the the United Kingdom
United Kingdom.
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(a) What is the percentage of people in Londonwho
take more than 30 minutes to get to work?
(b) What is the percentage of people in selected
cities in the rest of the United Kingdom who
take 30 minutes or less to get to work?

2. Suggest reasons why people might wish to own cars.

1-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 >60

Minutes
I• London • Rest of United Kingdom I
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Figure 4.19 Length of commute time in the United Kingdom.
z Adapted from: Office for National Statistics. United Kingdom (20 I IJ
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Movement from one part of the city to another to obtain
or provide goods and services
People may need to move about within the city to obtain
goods and services. For instance. they may need to purchase
goods from specialised stores or attend classes in a different
part of the city. There is a wider range of goods and services
available in the city compared to rural areas.

People might also need to tmvP.I within the city to provide

goods and services. For instance. wholesalers deliver to
retail shops, and home delivery services deliver products to
homes. The delivery of goods to different parts of the city
is carried out using different vehicles including freight trucks Figure 4.20 Afreight truck at a pon.
and motorcycles {refer to Figure 4.20).
118
 Inadequate transport infrastructure and poor provision of
transport services
Inadequate transport infrastructure means that a city's transportation facilities are not capable of
handling the amount of traffic it receives. Roads may not have enough lanes or the network may
not be well-connected. For example. some roads may be congested due to lack of alternative routes,
especially when there has been an accident or during peak hours.

Transport services refer to services provided to move people and goods from one location to
another. Poor provision of transport services means that a city only has a small fleet of public buses
and rail and does not have enough of them to carry commuters. This results in overcrowded trains
or buses. It may also result in buses that do not arrive frequently and on time. People may therefore
try to avoid taking the bus or rail and buy cars to drive to work instead. This leads to more vehicles
on the roads. contributing to traffic congestion. 0
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In Mumbai, India, trains are often filled to many times their capacity. Buses caught in traffic congestion
are often filled with passengers. Therefore. many people turn to driving their own cars to have a more 0
pleasant commute (refer to Figure 4.21). z
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The Times of India, Wednesday, 15 May 201 3 0

Car population increases by 51% in six; years z

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• by SOMIT SEN
MUMBAI -The number of cars in Mumbai Transport experts cautioned that the city's
has grown by 51% in the last six years, roads are bursting at the seams and unless the ,...
contributing significantly to the rise in air government takes corrective measures urgently
pollution ·and unyielding snarl-ups in the the future will be bleak. )>
metropolis. "Our public transport machinery is (')
A total of 1.5 million vehicles, including inadequate; Mumbaikars hence have to rely on )>
460,000 cars, were registered with regional private cars and two-wheelers," said transport 0
transportation offices unti12006--07. This grew expert Ashok Datar. m

to 2. 16 million vehicles and 700,000 (for cars
alone) by 2012- 13. Worse, next to no roads
were added to the city during the six-year
period.
Datar noted that the ratio of private cars to
public transport is an alarming 90 to I 0 in parts
(')
of the city. This imbalance was demonstrated by
data collated by the Mumbai Transport Forum.

Figure 411 An anicle about how people buy cars to avoid taking pe!J1i;: transport.

In the next section, we will look at how traffic congestion affects people and the environment
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119
 Let's try it!
1. Describe one cause of traffic congestion in cities.

2. Refer to Figure 4.21. Explain the causes of traffic congestion in Mumbai.

3. Refer to Figure4.22. How does the lack of a public train system affect traffic in Jakarta?

Saturday, 22 February 20 14
1

Weighing the cost of Jakarta's MRT system

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Many of the stately trees that once
lined Jalan Sudim1an, Jakarta's busy main
w thoroughfare, disappeared so quietly in recent
0 weeks that it is clear workers used the early
.q:
morning hours to commit environmental
(J
carnage .
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Sadly, it is the necessary price the City of
Starting with an initial over-and-under
27 kilometre corridor stretching from the
southern suburb of Lebak Bulus to North
Jakarta's historic Kota district, the MRT
network will eventually cover I08 kilometres
when it is completed in 2030.
It is long overdue. Jakarta is the largest

Tough Love has had to pay for the building
..... of a new mass rail transit (MRT) system, the
single biggest infrastructure project in the
now-traffic-clogged metropolis in its 400-
year history.
L
city in the Asian region that still does not
have a modern rai l-based people-mover.
Transportation experts are predicting total
gridlock by 2020 unless it can get commuters
out of their cars and onto public transport
Figure 4.22(b) Morning
peak hour traffic in Jakarta.

Figure 4.22(a) News article adapted from straitstimes.com. Source: SPH - straitstimes.com
©Singapore Press Holdings Limited. Adapted with permission.
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.... Take photographs of safety and comfort features of public
II-
transport
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Walk to the bus interchange. MRT or LRT station nearest your school and look out for features that ensure a safe
and comfortable journey for commuters. Refer to Chapter 2 for more details on taking photographs.

Equipment needed: Cameras. Clipboard. Pens. Paper. Map of neighbourhood

1. Take photographs of features that help ensure a safe and comfortable journey. Examples of such features
are:
> covered overhead bridges
> designated areas for passengers to board or to alight
> handrails
> emergency buttons
2. Ensurethat your photographs are labelled or annotated.

120
 How does traffic
In this section, you will learn to:
cong~stion affect o describe the impact of traffic congestionon people
and the environment using graphs. tables and text/
people and the quotes
o show concern for people who live in cities with
environment? severe traffic congestion

Have you ever felt that sitting in traffic congestion was a waste of time? You are not alone.
The infographic below shows the time wasted by drivers in various cities in the United States_. ___ .. __
of America due to traffic congestion.
•
! What is the general pattern in the annual number of hours wasted per driver in the cities
shown from 2001 to 2011? -

TRAFFIC CONGESTION
Yearly delay per auto commuter
 Impact of traffic congestion on peopie
Traffic congestion is a common problem faced by people living in cities. People may be concerned
with the negative impacts of traffic congestion. Some impacts include reduced productivity and
increased stress on physical and mental health.

Reduced productivity
Productivity refers to the rate at which goods or services are produced. It is measured in output
per unit of labour. Productivity involves engaging in activities that bring about economic benefit. Traffi c
congestion reduces productivity because people have to spend more time commuting. This wastes
time that could be spent on productive work.

Productivity goes down when the transport system is inefficient. This leads to an economic loss for
u the country as a whole. In Singapore. the economic loss from inefficient transport amounts to 9 per
cent of the country's annual income per person. according to a 2014 study by Siemens. In other
w cities such as Lagos. Nigeria. it can be as much as 28 per cent of the country's annual income per
person. An efficient transport system can provide a city with up to US$238 billion in economic value
annually by 2030, according to the same report.

Figure 4.24 shows a news report about economic losses from reduced productivity due to traffic
_, congestion. Figure 4.26 shows the economic losses in the United States of America as a result of
traffic congestion.

0
z Philippine Daily Inquirer, Saturday, 6 July 2013

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...
Traffic costs P2.4 billion daily
• by MICH_ELLE V. REMO
_,
<{ If time is money, then the Philippines is losing 2.4 billion
z pesos (S$70 million) a day in potential income due to traffic
0 congestion that eats up time that could have been used for
productive pursuits, Socioeconomic Planning Secretary
Arsenio Balisacan said.
0 Balisacan, National Economic Development Authority
(NEDA) chief, was quoting a study by the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) that the government has tapped
to help come up with a transportation development road map
for the country.
"It's a no-brainer that we need to boost infrastructure. We
have a huge backlog in almost all types of infrastructure," Figure 4.24(b) Traffic congestion
Balisacan said, adding that the government intends to invest in Manila, Philippines.
i111110rc roads. bridges. railways, airports. and sea ports during
tlu.: ICIIIuiml~.:l uf P1esident Benigno Aquino III's term.

Figure 4.24(a) A news report about the economic costs of traffic congest1on.

122
Let's try it!
1. Refer to Figure 4.25.

Annual impact of
2011
traffic congestion
Delay per auto commuter 16 hours 38 hours

Total travel delay for the

1.1 billion hours 5.5 billion hours
country

Congestion cost per auto

US$342 US$818
commuter (2011 US$)

Total congestion cost for the

US$24 billion US$121 billion 0
country (201 1 US$) .,
-1

Figure 4.25 Annual cost of traffic congestion in the United States of America in 1982 and 2011.
Adapted from: Texas A&M Transportation Institute (2012). 0
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(a) Describe the impact of traffic congestion on individuals.
(b) Describe the change in the impact of traffic congestionon the country between 1982 and2011. .,
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2. Refer to Figure4.26. Describe the distribution of traffic congestion in the United States of America.
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123
 Estimated roadway Congestion Cost
i capacity, 2010 (Amount of money lost due I
I

I"' ,:/~i I

·.
Under capacity
--- Approaching capacity
- Exceeding capacity
to congested roads, by
metro area in 2005)

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Figure 4.26 The amount of money lost due to traffic congestion in major cities across the Umted States of Amenca in 2005.
Adapted from.· The Atlantic and Texas Transportation Institute (2008)

124
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$4.0 billion lost
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125
 Stress on physical and mental health
People caught in traffic congestion often experience stress and anxiety, which negatively affect their
physical and menta l health. Physical health refers to the general condition of a person's body. Mental
health refers to a person's psychological state as indicated by his or her emotions and behaviour.

Long travelling times can lead to fatigue. Drivers are more prone to losing their concentration or
falling asleep. causing accidents and even deaths. Traffic congestion poses another serious health
hazard. It is a source of exhaust fumes from idling vehicles stuck in traffic. These fumes include
carbon dioxide. carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Some particulates are so small that they
can penetrate deep into lung tissues. causing inflammation. Long-term exposure to these fumes has
been linked to several health problems. including asthma and lung diseases.

Traffic congestion also has negative impacts on people's mental health. Due to spending more time
u on the road, drivers may become prone to stress and frustration while stuck in traffic. This increases
their chance of being involved in accidents and fights with other drivers.
w

Impact of traffic congestion on the environment

Traffic congestion also affects the environment and can cause environmental degradation. One way
is through pollution. which is the introduction· of substances into the natural environment that results
..... in unpleasant or damaging effects to the environment and human health.

Air pollution
0 Traffic congestion increases the pollution level of a city. According to ·the
z
United States Environmental Protection Agency, more than half of the air Recall what you learnt
pollution in the United States of America is primarily caused by cars. about greenhouse
0 gases in All About
Cars emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geography Secondary
..... One Environment and
These gases cause the earth's temperatures to rise because they trap
Resources in Chapter 3. How
< heat. Other gases emitted include nitrogen oxide and sulphur oxide. When do tropical rainforests act as
z vehicles remain stationary in a traffic congestion. or constantly accelerate GreenLungs of the Earth to
0
and brake during stop-start traffic, wasted fuel will increase air pollution absorb these harmful gases?
and carbon dioxide emissions.
0
Cars also produce other harmful air pollutants which contribute to poor air
of smoke and caus~d
Smog also slows down plant growth. thus harming the environment Tiny pollutant particles may also
be deposited on soil and water surfaces, thereby entering the food chain and po1soning animals.
Figure 4.27 shows an example of how smog can affect people.
The Guardian, Tuesday, 25 February 2014
China's toxic air pollution resembles nuclear winter,
say scientists
• by JONATHAN KAlMAN
Chinese scientists have warned that the country's
tox.ic air pollution is now so bad that it resembles a
nuclear winter, slowing photosynthesis in plants -
and potentially wreaking havoc on the country's food
supply.
Beijing and broad swaths of six northern provinces
have spent the past week blanketed in a dense pea-soup
smog that is not expected to abate until Thursday.
Beijing's concentration of PM 2.5 particles- those
small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and enter
the bloodstream- hit 505 micrograms per cubic metre
on Tuesday night. The World Health Organisation
recommends a safe level of 25.
The worsening air pollution has already exacted a
significant economic toll, grounding flights, closing
highways and keeping tourists at home. On Monday
II ,200 people visited Beijing's Forbidden City, about
a quarter of the site's average daily draw.
;.,
An article on the effects of air pollution.
He Dongxian, an associate professor at China
Agricultural University's College of Water Resources 0
and Civil Engineering, said new research suggested
.,
.....
that if the smog persists, Chinese agriculture will suffer
conditions "somewhat similar to a nuclear winter". She 0
warned that if smoggy conditions persist, the country's z
agricultural production could be seriously affected. )>
Early this month the Shanghai Academy of Social
Sciences claimed in a report that Beijing's pollution ..,
made the city almost "uninhabitable for human 0
beings".
The Chinese government has repeatedly promised
to address the problem, but e~forcement remains z
patchy. In October, Beijing introduced a system of 0
emergency measures if pollution levels remained
hazardous for three days in a row, including closing
schools, shutting some factories, and restricting the
use of government cars.
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Figure 4.27(c) A satellite photo of smog in China captured on 20 October 2012. Adapted from: NASA (2012).
0

Noise pollution
Noise pollution occurs when there is harmful and excessive noise that may
disrupt human and animal life. A 2009 United Kingdom Noise Association Visit http://www.presstv_
report identified road traffic as the biggest cause of noise pollution in the com/detail/2013/01/13/
United Kingdom, disturbing more than 12 million people. Read Figure 4.28 283269/birds-sonq·urban-
to learn what the World Health Organization says about noise pollution. traffic-noise-linked/ to read
about how some birds have
chanqed their natural calls
to cope with urb<Jn nnisr.
pollution.

128
 Noise

Excessive noi~e se~ously_

harms hum~
health and interferes with people's daily activities at school, at work, at
home and dunng leisure lime. It can disturb sleep, cause cardiovascular and psychophysiological effects, reduce
c
performance and provoke annoyance responses and changes in social behaviour.

Traffic noise al~ne is harmful to the health of almost every third person in the WHO European Region. One in
five Europeans IS regularly exposed to sound levels at night that could significantly damage health.

World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe

ac;: «& J t
__,,I( •.~ AJ fQjQ
Figure 428 The negative effects of noise pollution. Adapted from: WHO (2tJ14).
0

For example. in Kolkata. India. there is noise pollution due to drivers honking their cars very frequently.
According to a news report in The Telegraph India in February 2010. drivers in Kolkata would honk 0
at an average of one honk per five seconds. Each honk is usually more than 65 decibels. which is z
over the lawful limit of 55 decibels for residential areas in India. Studies have found that prolonged )>

exposure to harmful noise can trigger heart disease. high blood pressure and mental illness. ....
.,
Figure 4.29 shows some comments that people have about traffic congestion. 0
;lO

This is already the The long travelling I drive through thick z

fourth bus that rmunable to time to and from the clouds of smog every day 0

get on. rm going to be late office makes me very when I send my children to
for my test! I really hope my tired and I find it very sehool. My daughter has
teacher gives me extra time hard to concentrate asthma and the polluted air ....
to complete my paper. , at work might worsen her condition.
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Figure 4.29 Commentson traffic congestion iri cities.

Let's try it!

1. t.xplam how traffic congestion contributes to air pollution.

2. Refer to Figure 4.27!a). ldentify the impacts of air pollution from smog in Beijing, China.

3. How does no1se pollution affect people's physical and mental health?

129
 In this section, you will learn to:
o describe and explain the strategies used by
Singapore and other cities to manage traffic
congestion
How do some o describe the benefits and challenges of various
strategies used by Singapore and other cities to
cities manage manage traffic congestion
o appreciate thechallenges faced by planners in
traffic congestion? managing transport issues

! How do you think this cycling path network will reduce traffic congestion?
! Do you think a similar cycling path network would work across all of Singapore? Why, or
why not?
! i How else do you think the government could encourage cycling besides building cycling
path networks? · · ·
' ·.-.

Land Transport Authority, Friday, 14June 201 3

LTA completes first dedicated cycling path network

under the National Cycling Plan
As part of the National Cycling Plan, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) has completed a 6.9-kilometre
network of dedicated cycling paths in Tampines, making it the first HOB town to have such a network.
Together with the cycling paths constructed by the Tampines Town Council and park connectors by the
National Parks Board, Tampines residents will now be able to enjoy riding on a total of 11.3 kilometres of
cycling paths to key local amenities such as the MRT station and town centres.
To date, plans to build dedicated cycling paths have been announced for nine towns as well as Marina Bay.

- Cycling path (LTA)

- =-- I
- Cycling path
(Town Council)
I j
- Park connector
·j ' r • '·
•• •• Future park
connector
(end 2013)
0 Bicycle crossings
El MRT stations
Due to the impacts of traffic congestion. cities have introduced measures to cope with and manage
the problem. In some cities. certain measures have been more successful than others. Let us take
a look at these measures.

Strategies to manage traffic congestion

0
Measures taken to manage traffic congestion in "'"II
....
Singapore and other cities 0
z
Many cities have adopted a wide range of measures to manage traffic congestion. These strategies ~

include making public transport a choice mode and managing road usage. In this section. we will .....
examine the measures adopted to reduce traffic congestion.
0

Making public transport a choice mode z

One way to manage traffic congestion is to improve the public transport system by making it more 0
convenient and accessible. People might then be encouraged to make public transport a choice mode.
Buses and trains can carry more passengers than cars, so taking public transport can help manage
traffic congestion.
.....

Cities improve public transport systems by setting up integrated public transport systems. adopting
~
bus lane schemes, expanding train networks. and increasing the capacity and frequency of buses ()
and trains. ~
0

Integrated public transport system m

An integrated public transport system connects various modes of transportation such that it
()
functions as a whole. Building an integrated public transport system is an important first step in
encouraging people to use public transport.

One example of a city with an integrated public transport system is Tokyo, Japan. All public transport
modes. including the train. tram and bus systems, can be paid for using a rechargeable contactless
smart card. This speeds up the movement of people taking public transport. making commuting
smooth and convenient. Moreover, all the public transport modes are timed to precision. This precise
timing allows commuters to plan thetr travel routes more effectively.

131
 In Singapore. ther·e are srx transport hubs w1th bus rntercha nges that are
fully integrated with rarl servrces and retail activ1t1es as of 201 4 Over the
~-.
iJ"'IJ:···.::•\·~!1:'-h.~·--~-

Visrt http://www
next 10 years. another seven Integrated transport hubs will be built. These publictransport.sg/content/
hubs also have linking platforms from road to rail as well as escalators publictransport/en/
which improve accessibility and speed up bus-train transfers. In addition. for homepage.html to view
bus routes. arrival times
smoother transfer between buses and trains. the same ticketing system,
and transport fares for
which is a contactless card called EZ-Link, is used for buses and trains. Singapore's integrated public
transport system

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Benefrts - Ctfallt~n:ges
• An integrated public transport system • An integrated public transport system _
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is more convenient, accessible, and requires extensive planning and costs.
< efficient. People can make use of Therefore, h may not be feasible in all
u different modes of transportation to countries.
< get to a place quickly.

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Bus lane schemes
Bus lanes are lanes that are specially set aside for private and public ltm:ipi·'l:tl-
buses on specific days and times. With designated bus lanes, buses are visit the land Transport
able to enter and exit bus stops smoothly and quickly. Thus, regulations Authority's One Motoring
that give priority to buses are necessary because they provide faster and portal at http:Uwww.
uninterrupted journeys for commuters. onemotorinq.com.sq/publish/
onemotorinq/en/on the
roads/traffic management/
Specially designated bus lanes improve bus speeds and reliability. Specially full day bus lanes.html to
designated bus lanes in Singapore can be either full-day bus lanes or normal learn more about bus lane
bus lanes (refer to Figure 4.32). schemes in Singapore.

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Full-day bus la~e~:~Drjiii~g;y~i!hi.n. f_uJ!~
day bus lanes is not allow~(lfor, private .
cars, taxis and.motorcydJis~friliii'7:30 am.
to 8 pril, Mondays to s~·turdays.
•••• •··-- _..... ~~----":;L~:•••• •·•·•~--~~•v ~.-·•· ··• - -

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Figure 4.32 Adesignated bus lane in Singapore is marl:ed out by yellow and red lines. ()
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()

Benefits Challenges
• Bus lanes allow buses to move quickly • The success of bus lane schemes
so that buses will not be held up depends on the compliance of drivers.
dunng traffic congestion.

• Allocating a lane for buses takes

• Buses will arrive on schedule more away;Jlrecious road capacity for other
often even during peak hours. This will drivers·. As such, designated bus lanes ·
make travelling by bus more appea ling. may Iead to traffic congestion for
private car users.

133
 Expa nsion of rail networks
The expansion of rail networks means tncreasing
the number of locations that trains can reach.
This may be carried out in two ways. Firstly,
more tracks can be laid to ensure that the rail
network covers a large area. Secondly, more
·stations can be built so that more locations have
access to trains.

The Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) serves

people in the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth in
Texas. United States of America (refer to Figure
4.33). The DART is the largest light rail system in
the country, and is continuing to expand. DART
u
has been undergoing expansion since it first Figure 4.33 Two light rail trains that form part of the
opened in 1996. It started with only 14 stations Dallas Area Rapid Transit IDART) network.
w
and a total combined length of 17.4 kilometres.
c
<(
It has expanded to 61 stations and 137 kilometres
u as of 2014 (refer to Figure 4.34).
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I Hf fCIM· 8.'1MOI4

Map Legen~
~ Red line
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~ ~ Gteenline

~ Trinity Raiwuy Exp~ess (TRE)

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Figure 4.34 The DART rail systemmap.

Adapted from: Dallas Area Rapid Transit (2014)

134
In Singapore. the government has been expanding the rail networks in accordance w1th the Land
Transport Master Plan 2013. The master plan involves building more MRT lines. such as the Cross
Island Line and the Jurong Region Line. It also involves adding new stations to existing ones. such
as extensions to the Circle Line. Downtown Line and North East Line. Refer to Figures 4.35 and
4.36 to find out more.

LAND TRANSPORT
MASTER PLAN 2013
BY 2030 ...
Rail network will 0
double from 178 km to about
360 km in the next 20 years.
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Extension
Eastern Region Line
Downtown
Line North-South Line
Extension

Circle line Stage 6

0 - Existing rail lines

z - Land Transport Master Plan 2008 Rail Lines
•• • • Land Transport Master Plan 2013 Rail Lines

0 Figure 4.36 Existing. committed and proposed MAT lines in Singapore as of 2014.
... Adapted from. Land Transport Authority(2013)

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Benefits Ch~li~riges
__...
. ,~- "'_.,-:

• Trains have very high capacities and • Building rail networks is expensive.
can transport more people each time.
.·· .•

• Propo~~~ tail -'iin~$_.!$~v:I9M9~R-0gh

• People can travel to more destinations housing estates -and bulldlngs.-- : -
by train, some of which were Affected r.esidents ah·d~biJ¥:\.:::,~sses::~:
-. • .. ,. ~ l '~. '.\'"·~ , .....•••

previously accessible only by car may_- ~ave to ~~~r.~?Q.n~~.:-~t'•J(ilj(~e -

or bus. or g1ve U,R the1r property :!S9 ·JXl8.~!3 - __
• • ... R ~;1.!;.;·-~.;t'r
• • •• ' · ' · .- - . . . • •
.way
• ·
for' new lines.
•• -··...
Th1s <!:auseS;,-.-
..~ . ~ -t:::- ..... ~ ~;;r-.·~'jy~~;
• '.-
inconveniences 'for resideni~~ti_f.li;l ·
businesses in the area. ··-

136
Increasing c apacity and frequency of buses and rails
To help relieve traffic congestion. bus and rail systems can be upgraded to I :t®ij"i·!IOOiltf.
carry more people and arrive more frequently. Transport operators can also Visit http:Uwww.bbc.
put systems in place so that buses and trains arrive at scheduled times. co.uk/schools/qcsebitesize/
geography/urban
In Curitiba. Brazil. the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT} system has been successful environments/urbanisation
in increasing the capacity of its bus system. There are dedicated bus lanes medcs rev2.shtml to learn
moreabout other ways in
for articulated buses, which are divided into three sections (refer to Figure which the United Kingdom
4.37). Since these buses can carry more passengers. the BRT can transport tries to reduce congestion in
nearly 2 million passe~gers a day. This is almost equivalent to the city's entire the cities.
population. The buses
also arrive frequently,
sometimes as often as Visit http:ljwww.ptc.
every 90 seconds. Using gov.sg/regulation/industry 0
sensors on board. traffic andregulatorvframework.htm -iJ
to read the Public Transport -I
lights stay green when
Council's industry and 0
buses are approaching regulatory framework. z
the traffic junction. This }>
reduces the number of
times the buses have to
-n
stop, allowing them to Figure 4.37 Triple-sectioned articulated buses in Curitiba. Brazil.
0
move at a steady pace.

In Singapore. starting from 2012. the government has partnered with bus opera1ors to increase the z
capacity and frequency of buses through a programme known as the Bus Service Enhancement 0
;o
Programme. The programme is expected to reduce waiting times for buses throughout the island.

Plans have also been made to increase the capacity and frequency of trains in Singapore. Since
2011, more trains have been added to existing lines. According to the Land Transport Master Plan
2013, more tra ins will continue to be added from 2014 and over the years (refer to Figure 4.38). }>

For example. in 2016. 28 trains will be added to the North-South Line and East-West Line and 16 trains 0
}>
will be added to the Sengkang and Punggol LRTs. The train signalling system will also be upgraded. 0
The new signalling system will allow trains to arrive safely every 100 seconds (refer to Figure 4.39) m
and carry 20 per cent more passengers. This programme is scheduled to be completed by 2016 for
the North-South Line and 2018 for the East-West Line. -.
0

NSEWl

1!1:1~1
NSEWL: Norm-South and East-West L1nes
NSL: North-South Line
f 20'10Copacity EWL: East-West Line

SPUIT NEL: North East l ine

blJ~) CCL: Circle Line

orLm: Oukit ranjang LRT
I 40'10 Cap>dty
SPLAT. Senylc.c:mg ;md Punggol LRTs

f20'!E.C.pacity

20 14 201 5 2016 2018

Figure 4.38 Trains to be added over theyears.

Adapted from· land Transport Authority(2013).

137

----------~ - - --
 Figure 4.39 Acartoon about shorter waiting times for trains in Singapore.
Mapted from: Land Transport Authority.
u

_,
Benefrts Challenges
• More people can be transported to • Increasing the frequency and capacity
places and within a short time. o.f buses and trains could be costly.
0
z

0
Let's try it!
_,
1. Explain how the capacity of bus and rail can be increased.
<
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o 2. Imagine that you live in Curitiba and own a car. What would attract you to take the BAT to work instead of driving?
.....
A.
3. Explain why solely improving public transport is not enough to manage traffic congestion successfully.
0

138
Managing road usage
A strategy to manage traffic congestion is to manage road usage, which rm:q.wJjib.
helps to reduce the number of cars on the road. Some ways to manage Read moreabout plans
road usage include implementing road pricing, increasing parking fees and by the Ministry of Transport
enhancing traffic monitoring. for anext-generation road
pricing scheme called ERP
II, which is priced based
Road pricing on distance instead of the
Road pricing refers to a traffic management measure that charges drivers number of gantries. Read
when they use certain roads. The number and location of gantries have to about it at the Ministry of
be determined. Road prices are adjusted from time to time. Commonly, Transport's website at .!mQlL
app.mot.qov.sq/page land.
drivers are required to pay more during peak hours in order to discourage
aspx?o=/Land Transport/
the use of certain roads. In Singapore, road pricing is implemented via the Managing Road Use/
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system (refer to Figure 4.40). Seventy-two Electronic Road Pricinq.aspx. 0
ERP gantries have been set up across Singapore as of 2012. They are
located in areas that are more congested.
0

H·ow DOES ERP WORK? z

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,....

1. Cashcards are inserted

into .in-vehicJ(units:·(IOs). 0
·-· . --·-· ..
:...~·:·....~- -- -. ..,.... . ~ :.
 The CBO tends to be Iile 1Y1ost congested. To reduce congest1on in the CBO, ERP ra tes for dnving
into the CBD IS the highest.

SUCCESS OF THE ERP SYSTEM IN

REDUCING TRAFFIC CONGESTION
There was a 15 per cent
reduction in traffic volume on Average expressway
speeds during peak Traffic was
hours increased from reduced by 16 Traffic volume to
35 km/h to 55 km/h. per cent within the CBD during
the zone covered peak hours
0 by ERP. remained relatively
stable despite rising
w car ownership over
Q the years.
.q:
0
.q:

figure 4.41 How the ERP system has been successful in reducing traffic congestion in Singapore
since its implementation in 1998. Adapted from: 'Electronic Road Pricing: Experiences and Lessons
0 from Singapore· and Land Transport Authority (2010}.
z
Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is another city that has imposed a road pricing scheme. The
0 Stockholm Congestion Tax applies to vehicles entering and leaving the CBO. Cameras at control
i1.. points capture trips made by each vehicle (refer to Figure 4.42). A bill· is sent to·the vehicle owner
... to inform him or her, of the amount to pay.
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z ~

O.iiiit
The scheme was officially launched and implemented in 2007. Results from the scheme's six-month
trial earlier in 2006 had shown that the scheme is effective. Traffic volume in the CBD fell by as
much as 24 per cent during peak hours. according to the Congestion Charge Secretariat of the City
of Stockholm.

Benefits Challenges
• The higher costs discourage driving • Traffic is diverted to other roads
during peak hours. Drivers may then be~ause of drivers avoiding the 0
use alternative modes of transport ERP. This may lead to ·congestion
such as public buses and trains. elsewhere.
0
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,...

Let's try it!

Describe how road pricing helps manage trafficcongestion.

141
 Increased parking fees
Parking fees can be increased to mana e road .
to and from the CBD It w ld I g usage_ Th,s would increase the cost of d . . -
d . · ou a so encourage 1 _ riVIng, especrally
w~tsh~nbehs S~anghai's plan to increase car parkingpe:~g to ttakde publrc transport instead. Figure 4.44
' rn t e crty. es o rscourage driving to dow t
· n own areas

Shanghai Daily, Wednesday, 16Apri1 20 14

Car parking charges in downtown

0 set to rise to help fight congestion
• byMA YUE
w
0- The city government plans to within the Inner Ring Road, the
< increase car parking charges in corresponding fees are I0 yuan and
() downtown areas as part of a wider 6 yuan.
cf plan to ease traffic congestion, a The city's traffic authority has
senior official said yesterday. set a target to keep the number of
..... ''There are just too few parking registered cars in central Shanghai
spaces downtown," said Sun Jianping, below 2.5 million. The total is
head of the Shanghai Transport currently more than 2.1 million,
Commission. of which 1.8 million are private
0 "ln some areas we've even started vehicles.
z using roads for overnight parking," he ''The number ofcars is one aspect
said. The other is how to encourage people
0::
Currently, the cost of parking to use public transpOrt," Sun said.
0 downtown is 15 yuan (US$2.40) for "For people to stop using their
... the first hour and 10 yuan for every cars, the alternatives have to be more
,additional30 minutes. ln other areas attractive," he said_
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Figure 4.44 News article adapted from Shanghai Daily.

Benefrts <.

• High p~rking fees add to the cost '-~-Challenges

of ownrng and using a car, hence • Driv~r~ may:_fesort t~ illegal pa~king
dr~r_:r)l.lli:i!JIII:J fllivniH ciir ownership. t~ a~f.>rd payrng high fees. ThP. illegally
par.ked .car.~ay block traffic or. eveo
pose a dangeno driVers. - ·

142
With increased costs due to road pricing and increased parking fees, people might seek alternative
means of transport such as public transport and carpooling. Carpooling refers to a group of
people travelling together to work, school or other locations in one car and sharing the cost.
By doing so, people save money on fuel cost. parking fees and congestion charges. It also reduces
the number of vehicles on the road.

Enhanced traffic monitoring

Cities can make use of technology to monitor traffic. Traffic monitoring can alert drivers of traffic
congestion and they can avoid travelling on that road. One such traffic monitoring system is the
Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System (EMAS). In the event of a vehicle breakdown or an
accident, live information will be made available to drivers on the roads about the current situation.
The drivers may then opt to take an alternative route.

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It is <J computcri:;ed troffic light sigmlling system which detects vehicles Jnd pedestriJns ot mJjor
ro<Jd JUnctions, then adjusts the green time according to traffic conditions. When more vehicles are
detected approach1ng a traff1c 1unctton. the traffic s1gnal rema1ns green to allow vehtcles to drive
through the traffic junction. In addition, traffic signals at nearby junctions are coordinated at the start
of their green times. Drivers can then catch the 'green wave' and travel from one junction to another
without stopping.

143
 '. .: . ~-

Benefits Challenges
• Drivers can avoid places with traffic • Traffic f1?0')itoring only enGoi.Jrqges
congestion. drivers to dr.ive elsewhere and does
not reduce the 8.umt?~r. of vehicles on .
·the road.

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Figure 4.46 The GLIDE system uses wire sensors below the road surface to detect vehicles.

144
 Other measures
Traffic congestion can also be managed by changing work arrangements. and encouraging alternative
modes of transportation.

Telecommuting
Telecommuting refers to a work arrangement where employees work from home or at a location
near their home and thus do not have to travel to the office. Telecommuting is made possible by
technology such as Internet connections, computers and telephone lines. People are then able to
stay in contact with their colleagues or clients even though they are not physically in the office.
This eliminates the need for people to commute to and from their workplaces. thus reducing the
number of vehicles on the road and traffic congestion.

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• People do not need to travel out of their residential areas to go .,
to work. This reduces the number of drivers and public transport 0
passengers during peak hours.
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· __ · Bicycles are environmentally friendly and a convenient mode of transport
.,..-'.because of the mobility and flexibility they offer. Learn more about the .....
various city features for
An example of a city that encourages cycling is Copenhagen in Denmark. cyclists in London. Visit }>-
The government has built a network of wide cycling lanes (refer to Figure http:Uwww.trl.co.uk/ ()
cyclinqinnovationtrials/.
4.47) that covers a large part of the city, making it very convenient for }>

people to travel from place to place. There are also numerous bicycle parking c
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lots for cyclists. Cycling is now an important means of transportation in
View a three-minute
Copenhagen and about 52 per cent of people in the city commute by
video showing Copenhagen's ()
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Copenhagen. vimeo.com/4208874.

145
 Benefrts Challenges
• Cycling is a mode of transport that • It mew l;!e dangerous for cyclists
provides flexibility and mobility. · becciuse cycling lanes are very near to
motor vehieles on the road.

• Cycling is environmentally friendly and

sustainable. • Some cities are not suited to
cycling b·ecause of the layout, traffic
I

'L conditions or topography.

Traffic congestion is an issue in many cities. Poor management of the traffic situation will lead to
congestion. People, the economy and environment will then be negatively impacted. Different cities
have tried to address this issue by making public transport a choice mode and managing road usage.

With public transport. more people can be transported to places within a short time. To manage road
usage, cities may make use of technology to monitor traffic and implement road pricing. Cities can
also explore other measures such as encouraging cycling.

Each of these measures has its benefits and challenges. To manage traffic, cities should consider its
situation and adopt a combination of measures. Cities should also continually review the measures
in order to adapt to the changing environment and challenges.

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Conducting surveys on safety and comfort of modes of transport "V
-t

Conduct a survey to find out more about the needs and concernsof commuters for safety and comfort when 0
using public transport. Refer to Chapter 2 for moredetailsonconstructing a questionnaire and conducting an z
interview. >

Equipment needed: Clipboard. Paper, Pen .,

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1. Construct a questionnaire that meets your objectives. For example, you may choose to focus on
understanding the needs of passengers for features that help ensure a safe and comfortable ride. Some z
examples of questions youcan ask include the following: 0
> What is your opinion on the safety level of the transport service?
> How would you describe the condition of the transport service that you are using?
> What are some of your needsthat are currently not addressed by the transport service? ,...
> On a scale of 1 to 10, what is your overall satisfaction level withthe transport system in Singapore?
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2. Decide on your respondents- the type of sampling (random or systematic). as well as the size of your 0
sample. You may wish to select arange of respondents from adults to elderly to families with young >
children. Then, conduct your interviews. 0
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> Youmay want to include aquestionnaire for respondents to suggest ways to improve public transport.
3. Present your collected data in the form of tables and graphs.
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> You may also choose to compare your respondents' views with those of car users travelling the same
route.

147
 Mobility (p106): The movement of people and goods from
place to place. in a reasonable amount of time and at an
acceptable cost.

Modes of transportation (p107): The types of

transport used to facilitate the movement of people
or goods from one place to another.

Private transport (p107): Transport owned by

u individuals, such as motorcycles and cars.

Public transport (p107): Transport provided by the

0 government or private companies, such as buses, trains
< and taxis.
u
< Transport infrastructure (p11 0): .Facilities such as roads. railway tracks and bus
terminals .
....
Traffic congestion (p111): A situation where there are more vehicles than the
road can handle.
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z Peak hour (p11 4): A part of the day during which traffic volume is the highest.

Commute (p117): To travel some distance between one's home and place of work
0
... on a regular basis .

Transport services (p119): Services provided to move people and goods from
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z one location to another.
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.... Productivity (p122): The rate at which goods or services are produced .
tl..

0 Physical health (p126): The general condition of a

person's body.

Mental health (p126): A person's psychological

state as indicated by his or her emotions and
behaviour.

Smog (pl26) : A cornbtnatton ot srnoke and fog,

caused by exhaust and particles from r.flrs flnrl
factories.

148
I
Integ rated public transport system (p131): A public
transport system that connects various modes of
transportation such that it functions as a whole.

Road pricing (p139}: A traffic management

measure that charges drivers when they use
certain roads.

Carpooling (p143): A group of people travelling

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together to work. school or other locations in one
car and sharing the cost.
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149
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 Transport

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... Density of Quality of
... Variety of
transport modes
transport tran sport
< networks infrastructure
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Inadequate
Movement from
transport
one part of the
Separation infrastructure
city to another
of work and and poor
to obtain or
residential areas provision
provide goods
of transport
and services
services

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 Stress on Making )>

Reduced physical public Managing Other 0

productivity and mental transport a road usage measures )>
health choice mode Cl
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• Integrated • Road pricing

Air pollution
public • Increased • Telecom-
transport parking fees muting
system • Encouraging
• Enhanced
• Bus lane traffic cycling
schemes rnorrilu1rr1y
• Expansron
or loll
networks
• lncre3f.Cd
capacity and
frequency
of buses
and rails

151
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