MICROPROCESSOR

4th & 5th Assignment

Submitted By:-
Sanjeev Agarwal
CS-2,6th sem
0112CS081091

Shared Bus Operation

Shared Bus Operation

Disk memory system
A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of
thin, flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage medium sealed in a square or
rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles.
Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD.[1]
Invented by the American information technology company IBM, floppy
disks in 8-inch (200 mm), 5¼-inch (130 mm) and 3½-inch (90 mm)
forms enjoyed three decades as a popular and ubiquitous form of data
storage and exchange, from the mid-1970s well into the 2000s.[2] While
floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy
industrial computer equipment, they have now been superseded by USB
flash drives, external hard disk drives, optical discs, memory cards and
computer networks
A hard disk drive[2] (HDD) is a non-volatile, random access device for
digital data. It features rotating rigid platters on a motor-driven spindle
within a protective enclosure. Data is magnetically read from and written
to the platter by read/write heads that float on a film of air above the
platters.
Introduced by IBM in 1956, hard disk drives have fallen in cost and
physical size over the years while dramatically increasing in capacity.
Hard disk drives have been the dominant device for secondary storage of
data in general purpose computers since the early 1960s.[3] They have
maintained this position because advances in their areal recording [3]
density have kept pace with the requirements for secondary storage.
Today's HDDs operate on high-speed serial interfaces; i.e., serial ATA
(SATA) or serial attached SCSI (SAS).

EISA Bus
Extended ISA (EISA) has a 32-bit data bus but still operates at
8MHz.
It is rarely used -- mainly as a disk controller or video graphics
adapter.
New pins for EISA bus are interspersed with the older pins in
the 16-bit ISA connector to
preserve compatibility with the old standard.
Most of the new EISA connections are used for the 32-bit data
and 32-bit latch address bus
VESA Local Bus
VESA (VL bus) is a 33MHz extension of the ISA bus used of
high-speed data transfer
applications.
It contains 32-bit address and data bus and is mainly used for
video and disk interfaces.
Requires a third connector (VESA connector) to be added b8-
Bit ISA Bus Output Interface
4, 8-bit latches interfaced using an ISA interface for 32 bit
parallel data.
74LS244 buffers used to ensure only one lower power TTL load
on the bus.
Loading is important as many cards can be connected on the
bus.
The DIP switch can be used to change the address thus avoiding
address conflicts with
other cards in the system.
See text for examples of output interface using a PLD and also
an ISA bus input interface
for A-to-D converters.
16-bit ISA bus has an additional connector attached behind the
8-bit connector.
Although 8 additional data bits, D8-D15, are available, the features
most often used are the
additional interrupt request and DMA request signals.ehind the
standard 16-bit ISAit latched address bus
parallel printer interface bus
A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise)
for connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a parallel
communication physical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics
port. The IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port, which
allows the transmission and reception of data bits at the same time
Before the advent of USB, the parallel interface was adapted to access a
number of peripheral devices other than printers. Probably one of the
earliest devices to use parallel were dongles used as a hardware key
form of software copy protection. Zip drives and scanners were early
implementations followed by external modems, sound cards, webcams,
gamepads, joysticks and external hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives.
Adapters were available to run SCSI devices via parallel. Other devices
such as EPROM programmers and hardware controllers could be
connected parallel.
Current use
For consumers, the USB interface—and in some cases Ethernet—has
effectively replaced the parallel printer port. Many manufacturers of
personal computers and laptops consider parallel to be a legacy port and
no longer include the parallel interface. The guidelines for Microsoft's
Windows Logo Program[5]"strongly discourages" systems builders from
including parallel ports. USB-to-parallel adapters are available that can
make parallel-only printers work with USB-only systems.

PCI is the most common bus found in computers today due to

plug-and-play characteristics
and ability to function with 64-bit data bus.
A PCI interface contains a series of registers, located in a small
memory device, that contain
information about the board.
The information in this registers allow the computer to
automatically configure the PCI
card (Plug-and-Play PnP feature).
The microprocessor connects to the PCI bus through an
integrated circuit called a PCI
Bridge thus making the PCI bus independent of processor type
and architecture.
PCI functions with either a 32-bit or 64-bit address and data bus.
The address and data buses are multiplexed to reduce the size of
the edge connector.
32-bit and 64-bit cards.
Newest versions run at 66 MHz (twice the older 33 MHz
version).

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a specification[1] to establish

communication between devices and a host controller (usually a
personal computer), developed and invented by Ajay Bhatt, while
working for Intel.[2][3] USB has effectively replaced a variety of
interfaces such as serial and parallel ports.
USB can connect computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards, digital
cameras, printers, personal media players, flash drives, Network
Adapters, and external hard drives. For many of those devices, USB has
become the standard connection method.
USB was designed for personal computers, but it has become
commonplace on other devices such as smartphones, PDAs and video
game consoles, and as a power cord. As of 2008, there are about 2
billion USB devices sold per year, and approximately 6 billion total sold
to date.[4]
Unlike the older connection standards RS-232 or Parallel port, USB connectors also
supply electric power, so many devices connected by USB do not need a power
source of their own.

The Accelerated Graphics Port (often shortened to AGP) is a high-speed

point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a computer's
motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer
graphics. Since 2004, AGP has been progressively phased out in favor of
PCI Express. As of mid-2009, PCIe cards dominate the market, but new
AGP cards and motherboards are still available for purchase, though
The primary advantage of AGP over PCI is that it provides a dedicated
pathway between the slot and the processor rather than sharing the PCI
bus. In addition to a lack of contention for the bus, the point-to-point
connection allows for higher clock speeds. AGP also uses sideband
addressing, meaning that the address and data buses are separated so
the entire packet does not need to be read to get addressing
information. This is done by adding eight extra 8-bit buses which allow
the graphics controller to issue new AGP requests and commands at the
same time with other AGP data flowing via the main 32 address/data
(AD) lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughputOEM
driver support is minimal.[1]

Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes

the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order
in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether it is related to
the previous piece of data.[1] RAM is often associated with volatile types of
memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where its stored information is lost if
the power is removed. Many other types of non-volatile memory are RAM as well,
including most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash. The
first RAM modules to come into the market were created in 1951 and were sold
until the late 1960s and early 1970s. However, other memory devices (magnetic
tapes, disks) can access the storage data in a predetermined order, because
mechanical designs only allow this.
Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory where
the word static indicates that, unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), it does not need to be
periodically refreshed, as SRAM uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit.
SRAM exhibits data remanence,[1] but is still volatile in the conventional sense that
data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered
Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of random-access
memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an
integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either charged or discharged;
these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit,
conventionally called 0 and 1. Since capacitors leak charge, the
information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed
periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic
memory as opposed to SRAM and other static memory.
The main memory (the "RAM") in personal computers is Dynamic
RAM (DRAM), as is the "RAM" of home game consoles (PlayStation,
Xbox 360 and Wii), laptop, notebook and workstation computers.
The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor
and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to six transistors in
SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high densities. Unlike flash
memory, DRAM is volatile memory (cf. non-volatile memory), since it
loses its data quickly when power is removed. The transistors and
capacitors used are extremely small; hundreds of billions can fit on a
single memory chip
Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in
computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be
modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is
mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to
specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates).
In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of
solid state ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently
stored in it, and thus can never be modified. Despite the simplicity of
mask ROM, economies of scale and field-programmability often make
reprogrammable technologies more flexible and inexpensive, so mask
ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007.
Other types of non-volatile memory such as erasable programmable read
only memory (EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory (EEPROM or Flash ROM) are sometimes referred to, in
an abbreviated way, as "read-only memory" (ROM), but this is actually a
misnomer because these types of memory can be erased and re-
programmed multiple times[1]. When used in this less precise way,
"ROM" indicates a non-volatile memory which serves functions
typically provided by mask ROM, such as storage of program code and
nonvolatile data
EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced "e-e-prom,"
"double-e prom" or simply "e-squared") stands for Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read-Only Memory and is a type of non-volatile
memory used in computers and other electronic devices to store small
amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed, e.g.,
calibration tables or device configuration.
When larger amounts of static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash
drives) a specific type of EEPROM such as flash memory is more
economical than traditional EEPROM devices. EEPROMs are realized
as arrays of floating-gate transistors.
EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory (ROM) that can be
erased and reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly through the application
of higher than normal electrical voltage generated externally or
internally in the case of modern EEPROMs. EPROM usually must be
removed from the device for erasing and programming, whereas
EEPROMs can be programmed and erased in circuit. Originally,
EEPROMs were limited to single byte operations which made them
slower, but modern EEPROMs allow multi-byte page operations. It also
has a limited life - that is, the number of times it could be reprogrammed
was limited to tens or hundreds of thousands of times. That limitation
has been extended to a million write operations in modern EEPROMs.
In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the computer is
in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design
consideration. It is for this reason that EEPROMs were used for configuration information,
rather than random access memory

Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin

magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic. It was developed
in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and
play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and
video tape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic
tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer).
Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all radio
was live, it allowed programming to be prerecorded. At a time when
gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings in
multiple parts, which mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It is
a key technology in early computer development, allowing unparalleled
amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and
to be rapidly accessed.
Today, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In
many cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this,
innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used.
Over years, magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called sticky-
shed syndrome. Caused by absorption of moisture into the binder of the
tape, it can render the tape unusable.
The program thinks it has a large range of contiguous addresses, but in
reality the parts it is currently using are scattered around RAM, and the
inactive parts are saved in a disk file.
In computing, virtual memory is a memory management technique
developed for multitasking kernels. This technique virtualizes a
computer architecture's various hardware memory devices (such as
RAM modules and disk storage drives), allowing a program to be
designed as though:
• there is only one hardware memory device and this "virtual" device
acts like a RAM module.
• the program has, by default, sole access to this virtual RAM
module as the basis for a contiguous working memory (an address
space).
Systems that employ virtual memory:
• use hardware memory more efficiently than systems without
virtual memory.[citation needed]
• make the programming of applications easier by:
• hiding fragmentation.

• delegating to the kernel the burden of managing the memory

hierarchy; there is no need for the program to handle overlays
explicitly.
obviating the need to relocate program code or to access memory with
relative addressing

RAM (Random Access Memory) is your computers "thinking space" and only functions
while your PC is turned on. Contemplate yourself in the morning when you wake up and
start loading programs you have developed over the years (like "get out of bed", "walk
to the shower", "take shower", etc. etc.) from your own 'hard drive' to your own `RAM'
and you will understand how your PC works.  The part of your brain that, in PC
vernacular, is `RAM', clears all information stored in it as you fall asleep and (unless you
are prone to personal dreaming) does not `come alive' until you wake up the next
morning.
RAM (also called "Real Memory") performs the critical function in your PC of  absorbing
data and interacting with your processor on all programs (operating system and
applications) while your PC is turned on doing it's thing (or your thing).   While you are
creating a document (making `inputs’ from your keyboard and mouse), it is temporarily
stored in real memory and exists only in RAM until you save it to your secondary
memory device (hard drive). Simply, Primary Memory assembles data from
secondary memory and user inputs, provides the data input `to' and receives data
output `from' your Central Processing Unit, and temporarily stores your work.  If you
lose power before you have `saved' your work, it's history!!
The main memory of the computer is also known as RAM, standing for Random Access
Memory. It is constructed from integrated circuits and needs to have electrical power in order to
maintain its information. When power is lost, the information is lost too! It can be directly
accessed by the CPU. The access time to read or write any particular byte are independent of
whereabouts in the memory that byte is, and currently is approximately 50 nanoseconds (a
thousand millionth of a second). This is broadly comparable with the speed at which the CPU
will need to access data. Main memory is expensive compared to external memory so it has
limited capacity. The capacity available for a given price is increasing all the time. For example
many home Personal Computers now have a capacity of 16 megabytes (million bytes), while 64
megabytes is commonplace on commercial workstations. The CPU will normally transfer data to
and from the main memory in groups of two, four or eight bytes, even if the operation it is
undertaking only requires a single byte
PROGRAM MEMORY .
The program memory is divided into pages of 512 words. If the device has more than one page
of program memory, the page is selected with the page bits (PA0 and PA1) in the STATUS
register.
Page bits are only evaluated when a branch instruction is encountered.
If a part has only one page of program memory, the page bits are ignored. If the device has only
two pages of program memory, only PA0 is used. If the device has four pages, only PA0 and PA1
are used. Page bit PA2 is not currently implemented in the PIC16C5X architecture so it is always
ignored.
The Program Counter, when no branch instruction is encountered, will increment normally
through the entire program memory array. When it reaches the last program memory location, it
will wrap around to 0.
The page select bits are not automatically updated by the processor when program execution
flows onto another page
DATA MEMORY
The data memory is located on a physically separate internal bus from the program memory. This
means that instructions cannot be executed from data memory.
Some devices that have more than one bank of data memory.
The considerations for changing pages in program memory have nothing to do with the
considerations for changing pages (called banks) in data memory. They are separate operations
and are handled with different register page select bits located in the FSR.
Data memory banks are selected with bits 5 and 6 of the FSR.
The lower half of data memory (00h to 1Fh) is never banked for any device. No matter what
value is in the FSR, the lower half of the data memory can always be read.
For devices that have only one bank of upper data memory, the entire data memory array can be
read without regard for the value in FSR

secondary memory
Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed
directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary storage (also known as RAM ).

Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy disks ; optical disks such as CDs and
CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which were the first forms of secondary memory.

Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in
that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit,
it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Consequently, modern
computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage
and data is kept for a longer time there

A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data
from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are
cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache
latency than to the latency of main memory.
When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks
whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes
to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory.
Most modern desktop and server CPUs have at least three independent caches: an instruction
cache to speed up executable instruction fetch, a data cache to speed up data fetch and store,
and a translation lookaside buffer (TLB) used to speed up virtual-to-physical address translation
for both executable instructions and data. Data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of more
cache levels
A memory device, such as a floppy disk, a hard disk, or a removable cartridge, that is covered with a
magnetic coating on which digital information is stored in the form of microscopically small, magnetized
needlesThe primary computer storage device. Like tape, it is magnetically recorded and can be
re-recorded over and over. Disks are rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a
read/write head between the outer and inner edges of the platter's surface. It can take as long as
one second to find a location on a floppy disk to as little as a couple of milliseconds
The disk surface is divided into concentric tracks (circles within circles). The thinner the tracks,
the more storage. The data bits are recorded as tiny magnetic spots on the tracks. The smaller the
spot, the more bits per inch and the greater the storage