Topclass Journal of Herbal Medicine Vol. 2(6) pp.

140-148, 26 June, 2013

Available online at http://www.topclassglobaljournals.org
ISSN 2315-8840 ©2013 Topclass Global Journals

Submitted 7/06/13 Accepted 19/06/13

Full Length Research Article

Ethnobiological survey of traditional medicine practice

for Men’s reproductive health in Oyo State, Nigeria
*Borokini T.I, Clement M, Dickson N.J and Edagbo D.E
Plant Genetic Resources Unit, National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB), Ibadan, Nigeria

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ABSTRACT

A comprehensive survey of traditional medicinal practices was carried out between November 2008 and
January 2012 in 16 different locations across the State, with the aim of documenting the traditional
medicinal practices. This article focuses on the traditional medicinal practices used for the treatment of
men’s reproductive issues, sexually transmitted infections and baldness in men. Semi-structured
questionnaires and open-ended informal interviews were administered during series of repeated visits
to a total of 31 respondents. A total of 33 herbal remedies for the treatment of 7 men’s reproductive
problems and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), which include syphilis, low sperm count, weak
penile erection, gonorrhea, remedy for thunderbolt, prevention of STDs during intercourse as well as
baldness; however, 18 of the 33 described remedies were for men’s weak penile erection and low sperm
count. In addition, 37 plants, 3 animal parts (dog, centipede and snail) and 7 other ingredients were
involved in the herbal remedies described. The mode of administration of the herbal treatments varied
from oral administration (drinking, chewing and eating), making incisions to topical application; while
the method of preparation varied widely. In addition, the 37 plants spread across 23 plant families, with
Cucurbitaceae having the highest number of species representatives, followed by Caesalpiniaceae and
Liliaceae. The role of indigenous knowledge in the medicinal practices for the treatment of skin
infections was observed in this study and the preservation of these indigenous knowledge is hereby
advocated.

Key words: Infertility, syphilis, gonorrhea, baldness, traditional medicinal practices, Oyo state, Nigeria
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INTRODUCTION

Infertility is a worldwide problem, affecting 8-15% of the couples in their reproductive age (Boivin et al., 2009; Audu et
al., 2003; Puscheck and Woodad, 2009). Between 8 and 12% of couples around the world have difficulty conceiving a
child at some point in their lives, and in some areas that figure reaches one-third or more of couples (Sciarra 1994;
WHO, 1991). However, the incidence varies from one region of the world to the other, being highest in the so-called
infertility belt of Africa, of which Nigeria is inclusive (Okonofua, 2003). In some parts of this belt, infertility is said to
constitute up to 65% of gynaecological consultations (Idrisa, 2005).

*Corresponding Author’s Email: tbisrael@gmail.com


Concern about low sperm counts was raised dramatically
in 1992 with publication of a meta-analysis of published
studies for sperm counts in men without fertility problems
that had been reported over the preceding about 50
years (Carlsen et al., 1992). This showed that average
sperm counts had fallen by approximately half in this time
period. This finding, which has been reinforced by further
analysis of even more studies (Swan et al., 2000).
Infertility is a common problem with 10–15% of couples
having difficulty conceiving. Previous studies have
documented a prevalence of about 40–50% in African
society (Ladipo, 1987; Anate, 1991; Chukwudebelu et al.,
1979), 29% in Bangladesh (Chowdhury et al., 1981), 23%
in Singapore (Ratnam et al., 1976), while a study on 1000
infertile couples in the USA recorded 30% infertile men.
The fact, however, is that the issue of infertility and
decreasing birth rate is widespread. In the developing
world, the average woman is reported now to have 3.9
babies over a lifetime compared with 5.9 in the 1970s.
Infertility seems to be on the increase in Nigeria. The
prevalence rates of male infertility in Nigeria are high,
ranging from 20-25% (Anate and Akeredolu, 1994;
Nwabuisi and Onile, 2001; Akande, 1987; Ajarbo et al.,
1981; Kuku et al., 1974; Awojobi et al., 1983). Institution
based incidence of infertility recently reported from some
parts of Nigeria are: 4.0%, 11.2% and 48.1% respectively
from llorin (North central), Abakaliki (south-east) and
Oshogbo (South west) (Abiodun et al., 2007; Umeora et
al., 2008; Adeyemi et al., 2009). Owolabi et al. (2013)
noted a high rate of abnormal semen quality of male
partners of infertile couples in Ile-Ife, Osun State.
The most comprehensive study of infertility-a WHO
study of 5,800 infertile couples seeking help at 33
medical centers in 22 developed and developing
countries-found that men were either the sole cause or a
contributing factor to infertility in more than half of
couples. Overall, the studies found that female causes
accounted for between 25-37% of infertility worldwide
(with larger proportions in sub-Saharan Africa and
Southeast Asia), male causes accounted for between 8-
22%, and both male and female causes accounted for
between 21-38% (Cates et al., 1985).
In Nigeria, infertility is a social stigma for the childless
couple. Traditional attitudes and cultural practices in
Nigeria esteem high fertility and large families even in
modern times (Ekwere et al., 2007). For the man,
children bring social status and proof of virility, an attitude
that boosts the male ego. The infertile man has a deflated
sense of self-worth and self-fulfillment (Ekwere et al.,
2007). Infertility affects both men and women. Yet
women, particularly in developing countries may bear the
sole blame for childless marriages; in many areas
infertility is a socially acceptable basis for divorce by the
husband (Singh, 1996; Leke et al., 1993; Yeboah et al.,
1992).
In some developing countries, for example Nigeria,
infertility is the leading reason for gynecological
Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.141
consultations (Okonofua, 1996). Where infertility is
widespread, couples seeking help can place a heavy
burden on limited health care resources. Consultations
and gynaecological treatments are very expensive in
Nigeria, coupled with the fact that the ratio of Nigerians to
physicians was 1:16,400, while the ratio of traditional
healers was 1:110 (African Health Monitor, 2003).
Therefore, traditional medicine seems to be a cheaper
and easily accessible alternative for infertile couples. And
in response, traditional medicine practitioners have
responded to frequent demands for herbal drugs for
treating series of reproductive issues in men and women.
All forms of media, both print and audiovisual are being
used frequently for making repeated advertisements on
drugs for treating weak penile erection, loss of libido, low
sperm count and to boost sexual energy in men in
Nigeria.
As a result of the constantly increasing demand for
herbal remedies for the treatment of male impotence and
other related reproductive diseases, there is the need for
the documentation and preservation of indigenous
knowledge of the medicinal plants and their use for
treating men’s reproductive problems. This
comprehensive ethno-biological study was carried out to
document traditional medicinal practices in Oyo State.
This article, focusing on the traditional medicinal
remedies for men’s reproductive problems, is part of the
findings from the general ethnobiological survey done in
Oyo State.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
Oyo state was established in 1976 from the defunct
Western Region, with the total estimated population of
6,617,720 people (National Bureau of Statistics, 2007)
2
mainly Yoruba people. The land area is 28,454km . The
indigenes are mainly Oyo, Ibadan, Oke-Ogun and
Ibarapa peoples, and notable cities include Ibadan (the
State capital), Oyo, Ogbomosho, Saki, Okeho, Iseyin,
Kishi, Eruwa and many others. The state is divided into
thirty-three Local Government areas. Greater parts of the
state fall within Guinea savanna, while Ibadan is
classified as a derived savannah. The southern fringes of
the state are still being dominated by tracts of rainforests.
Oyo state is located in Southwest region of Nigeria
(Figures 1 and 2) between latitude 8˚00 N and longitude
4˚00 E. The main indigenous occupation of the people is
farming, while arts and crafts are popular in Oyo town.
The areas visited during this study include Saki (Saki
West LGA), Sepeteri (Saki East LGA), Apata (Ido LGA),
Oyo (Atiba LGA), Ikoyi (Orire LGA), Ayetoro (Kajola
LGA), Karimu village, Abule Tapa (Iwajowa LGA), Idi-
Ayunre, Buso-gboro (Oluyole), Iseyin (Iseyin LGA), Fiditi
(Afijio LGA), Ebedi and Modeke (Oorelope LGA), Ayepe
Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.142
Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing Oyo State
Figure 2. Map of Oyo State, Nigeria
(Oriire LGA), Bode (Ibadan South East LGA) and Idere
(Ibarapa Central LGA).
Ethnobiological Survey
The main data sources consisted of a series of semi-
structured and open-ended questionnaires as well as
informal interviews administered on local herb sellers,
hunters, herbalists and other groups of people rich in
traditional medicine knowledge. The administration of
questionnaires and informal interviews were done for
three years, between November 2008 and January 2012.
This involved repeated visits to the selected respondents
in the areas visited. The questionnaire administration and
interviews were done in their native language (Yoruba

Table 1. Demographic data of the respondents on the traditional medicinal
practices for the treatment of men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria
S/N Demographic information
Gender
1 Male
Female
Age category (years)
Below 30
31-40
2 41-50
51-60
61-70
Above 70
Highest level of education
No formal
Primary
3 6.4
Secondary
Diploma
Degree
Main Occupation
Hunter
Civil servant/retired
4
Herb seller
Herb collector
Herbalist/Priest/Priestess
language), while the information gathered was sorted, the
local names of plants mentioned were interpreted to their
respective biological names using the publication by
Gbile and Soladoye (2002) and other relevant previously
published research papers.
RESULTS
The result is a compendium of traditional medicine
practice in Oyo state compiled over a period of three
years, with focus on skin-related infections.
Respondents’ identity
Table 1 indicated that a total of 31 people were
interviewed for traditional medicine practice in Oyo state,
13 of which were males while the remaining 18 were
females. All the herb sellers interviewed were women and
in addition, majority (21) of the respondents was within
the age range of 40 and 50 (Table 1). The occupations of
the respondents include a Government civil service
retiree, 16 herb sellers, 10 herbalists, 2 herb collectors
and a hunter (Table 1). Only 1 of the respondents was a
University graduate, majority (18) were illiterates, while
the rest were primary school leaver or drop-outs and
Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.143
Frequency (n=31) Percentage
13 41.9
18 58.1
0 0
0 0
21 67.7
5 16.1
2 6.5
3 9.7
58.1
18
32.3
10
2
0
0
3.2
1
1 3.2
2 6.4
16 51.6
2 6.4
10 32.3
secondary school leavers (Table 1). Furthermore all,
except the retired civil servant, claimed that they inherited
their vocation from their parents, and possibly their
ethnomedicinal knowledge as well. It should be noted
that all the respondents were Yoruba speaking people of
Oyo state.
Ethnobiological survey
A total of 33 herbal remedies for the treatment of 7 men’s
reproductive problems and sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs), which include syphilis, low sperm count, weak
penile erection, gonorrhea, remedy for thunderbolt,
prevention of STDs during intercourse as well as
baldness; however, 18 of the 33 described remedies
were for men’s weak penile erection and low sperm count
(Table 2). In addition, 37 plants (Table 3), 3 animal parts
(dog, centipede and snail) and 7 other ingredients (Table
4) were involved in the herbal remedies described. The
mode of administration of the herbal treatments varied
from oral administration (drinking, chewing and eating),
making incisions to topical application (Table 2); while the
method of preparation varied widely. The methods
encountered in this study include infusion, decoction,
maceration, spraying, squeezing, burning/charring,
soaking (in water), grinding/pounding, drying and
 Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.144

Table 2. Traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of Men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N Disease Plants, parts used, preparation and dosage

Prevention of
Grind the head of Centipede with a seed of Aframomum melegueta. Make an incision with the solution
1 STDs during
on the cap of the penis before the intercourse.
intercourse
Grind Irvingia gabonensis seed cotyledons and soak in water for a day. Add two spoons of honey and
drink half a glass cup once daily. In addition, chew five small Daucus carota roots and one Cucumis
sativus fruit a day, all for two months without intercourse to treat low sperm count
Get two pieces of Allium ascalonicum bulb or more, cook with water, then squeeze the water from the
Allium ascalonicum bulb into a separate container, add same quantity of honey, mix and cook for five
minutes, then pour in a bottle. Take two tablespoonfuls in the morning before breakfast and at night to
treat low sperm count
Grind and mix young fruits of Momordica charantia with snail fluid and take it orally once a day to treat
low sperm count
Boil Telfairia occidentalis seeds and eat to increase sperm count
Chew Griffonia simplicifolia stem like chewing stick as aphrodisiac
Chew the roots of Sphenocentrum jollyanum like chewing stick every morning to treat loss of libido in
men and also as an aphrodisiac
Grind eight Starchtarpheta cayenensis leaves and rub the paste on Musa sapientum fruit, then roast the
Musa sapientum fruit and eat it to treat impotence and low sperm count
Soak the root and leaves of Senna podocarpa, Senna alata, Allium ascalonicum and potash till the next
day. A glass cup of the herbal mixture is taken every morning before breakfast for three days to treat
seminal discharge in men.
Boil three big white Allium cepa bulbs until they are soft, squeeze the juice and filter it. Add equal
quantity of honey, stir and boil again to boiling point. Store in a bottle, and take one spoonful after each
meal everyday to treat weak penile erection
Men’s reproductive
2 Squeeze Sesamum indicum leaves with small water, filter it. Add a tin of milk and two spoons of pure
problems
honey. Drink this twice daily to treat weak penile erection
Peel and dry mature and unripe Musa sapientum, dried leaves of Mucuna pruiriens, mix and grind
together, add honey and use orally to treat weak penile erection
Spray Mucuna pruriens fruit hairs on public region and scratch, to allow blood flow on the penis to treat
weak penile erection
Grind root of Grewia venusta and put in a bottle and add honey. Then cut a small stem of Carpolobea
lutea stem and scrape it to the shape of the bottle where the mixture is, steer the mixture in the bottle
with the stick and lick the remains on the stick, it hardens the penis.
Boil Cola nitida root, with Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale rhizomes in water and drink to treat weak
penile erection
Boil Moringa oleifera flower and drink with a tin of concentrated milk, then boil 120g of powdered bark in
600ml of water for thirty minutes. Take 30ml of the mixture and one tablespoon of honey three times
daily for a month to treat premature ejaculation and thinner semen
Air-dry and grind the leaves of Griffonia simplicifolia into powder and add two tablespoon to pap to treat
male infertility
Get and squeeze good quantity of Psidium guajava leaves in a cup, add two cups of water to make three
glass cup of quantity. Take one glass cup daily for three days. Then, eat sufficient Daucus carota roots
and one Cucumis sativus fruit. It is expected that after five days, sperm count will increase in men. This
can be repeated if necessary.
Grind raw Glycine max and Arachis hypogaea seeds together into powder, add to pap and take it at once
with roasted Musa sapientum fruit. Then, take many Daucus carota roots to boost sperm production.
Slice Cassia alata leaves into small shreds. A spoon full with hot pap is taken early in the morning daily
3 Venereal diseases
to treat veneral diseases
Take the decoction of Lawsonia inermis root orally to treat syphilis
4 Syphilis
Rough Citrus limon fruit juice and Senna alata leaf extract are mixed and taken to treat syphilis
 Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.145

Table 2. Contd.

Pound dog intestines, 200 Aframomum melegueta rhizomes, 200 red Cola nitida nuts, 200 white Cola
Thunderbolt
5 acuminata, 200 Secamone afzelii leaves together and dry it in the sun. Use the solution to prepare waist bead
remedy
and use during sexual intercourse
Burn immature Cucurbita maxima seeds for twenty minutes extract the juice; add the five Citrus aurantifolia fruits
cut in pieces, the Ananas comosus fruit juice and potash. Allow it for two days to ferment. Take two spoons
every three days for two weeks. Take two spoons every three days for three weeks to treat gonorrhoea
Boil/squeeze Senna alata leaves, add potash and drink to treat gonorrhoea
Grind dried Senna alata flowers and eat with pap to treat gonorrhoea
Boil bark of Terminalia catappa and drink to treat gonorrhoea
Get a big and matured Citrullus lanatus fruit, remove the seeds, cut into slices and placed in Citrus aurantifolia
fruit juice, till next day. Add little potash the morning of the next day. Take a glass cup before breakfast and
6 Gonorrhea
another glass cup after dinner to treat gonorrhea
Jatropha curcas and Mezoneuron benthamianum roots are soaked in water and the patient drinks a glass cup
twice daily to treat gonorrhoea
Burn and eat Jatropha curcas seeds to treat gonorrhea
Take the decoction of Lawsonia inermis root orally twice daily to treat gonorrhoea
Cut Gongronema latifolium roots into pieces and pour in a bottle, soak with water for three days. Drink half a
glass cup dose twice daily for four weeks. Then soak potash, fifiteen Ampicilline capsules in soda water for a
day and take one-quarter glass cup three times daily to treat gonorrhea
Mix same quantity of olive oil and honey together, heat for two minutes in a pot and Cannabis sativa leaf, stir
7 Baldness
thoroughly and apply on the bald head

pulverization into powder and many other variant
methods (Table 2). In addition, the 37 plants spread
across 23 plant families, with Cucurbitaceae having the
highest number (5) of species representatives, followed
by Caesalpiniaceae (4) and Liliaceae (3).
DISCUSSION
This study has revealed and documented a number of
herbal remedies used for the treatment of infertility in
men, sexually transmitted diseases and other male
related issues, such as baldness. The use of Carpolobia
lutea, Musa sapientum and Terminalia catappa for the
treatment of reproductive challenges in men has been
previously reported by Gill (1992). Furthermore, Baljinder
et al., (2010) agrees with the use of Allium sativum,
Cissus quadrangularis, Cocos nucifera, Cola acuminata,
Cymbopogon citratus, Garcinia kola, Piper guineense,
Sesamum indicum and Zingiber officinale in the treatment
of male infertility. Afolayan and Yakubu (2008) also agree
with the reported use of Terminalia catapa, Musa
paradisiaca and Piper guineense in the treatment of male
infertility. Igoli et al., (2005) reported the use of
Anthocleista djalonensis and Newbouldia laevis in the
treatment of male infertility among the Igede people of
Nigeria. The use of Carica papaya, Carpolobia lutea,
Citrullus lanatus, Lonchocarpus cyanescens, Spondias
mombin, Aframomum melegueta and Irvingia gabonensis
on the treatment of male infertility has been reported by
these respective authors (Kafaru, 1994; Burkill, 1985;
Yativ et al., 2010; Aiyeloja and Bello, 2006; Lawal et al.,
2010).
Thunderbolt is a kind of local charm men place on their
wives when suspected of infidelity, and victims of such
thunderbolt are expected to experience misfortunes or
death. Therefore, it is interesting to note that traditional
medicine has herbal preparations can induce problems, it
also offers preventive and curative measures to them as
well. Herbal preparation for preventing thunderbolt was
also described in this study, which is not to promote
sexual promiscuity, but for scientific documentation of
indigenous knowledge, providing basis and foundation for
further pharmaceutical research.
Androgenetic alopecia (AGA), also known as common
baldness, hereditary baldness and androgenic alopecia is
the most common cause of hair loss in men (Sinclair,
2004). Alopecia means hair loss. The adjective
androgenetic describes the two dominant causal factors,
namely genetic susceptibility and androgens (Sinclair,
2004). There are no data on the number of people
affected by AGA in Nigeria, but it is generally a
widespread problem among men and some women as
well, usually associated with age. A herbal remedy was
described for the recovery of baldness in this study which
the respondent defended that it was effective.
Syphilis is a systemic disease caused by the spirochete
Treponema pallidum. This disease has been reported as
one of the common sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
in Nigeria. The route of transmission is almost always
sexual contact although there may be vertical
transmission, transmission via blood products and via
Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.146

Table 3. List of plants used for the treatment of men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N Plant Name Family Local/Common name Part used

Aframomum melegueta (Rosc.) K.
1 Zingiberaceae Atare, alligator pepper Fruit
Schum.
Alubosa elewe, Leafed
2 Allium ascalonicum L. Backer Liliaceae Bulb
onion, Shallot, wild onion
3 Allium cepa L. Liliaceae Alubosa, onions Bulb
4 Allium sativum L. Liliaceae Ayuu, garlic Rhizome
5 Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill. Bromeliaceae Ope-oyinbo, pineapple Fruit
6 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabaceae Marijuana Leaf
7 Carpolobia lutea G. Don. Polygalaceae Osunsun, cattlestick Stem
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. &
8 Cucurbitaceae Bara, water melon Fruit
Nakai
9 Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Rutaceae Osan wewe, Lime fruit Fruit, leaf
10 Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f Rutaceae Lemon Fruit
11 Cola acuminata Schott. & Endl. Sterculiaceae Obi abata, Kola Fruit
12 Cola nitida (Vente) Schott & Endl. Sterculiaceae Obi gbanja, kola Fruit
13 Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae Cucumber Leaf
14 Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Cucurbitaceae Elegede, pumpkin Leaf, root
15 Daucus carota L. Apiaceae Carrot Root
16 Glycine max (L.) Merr. Papilionaceae Soya, soybean Seed
17 Gongronema latifolium Benth. Asclepiadaceae Madunmaro, Utazi Root, leaf
18 Grewia venusta Fresen. Tiliaceae Ogbolo, Raisin Root, bark
19 Griffonia simplicifolia Caesalpiniaceae stem
Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte
20 Irvingiaceae Oro, bush mango Seed
ex. O’Rorke) Baill
Lapalapa funfun, physic
21 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Seed, root
nut
22 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Laali, Henna Root, leaf
Mezoneuron benthamianum (Baill.)
23 Caesalpiniaceae Amuranju, senifiran Leaf, root
Herend. & Zarucch
Leaf, fruit,
24 Momordica charantia Linn. Cucurbitaceae Ejinrin-were, bitter gourd
whole plant
Ewe-igbale, horse radish Leaf, seed,
25 Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae
tree flower, root
Esisi, eesi, werepe,
26 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC Papilionaceae Fruit hairs
velvet bean
27 Musa sapientum Linn. Musaceae Ogede agbagba, Plantain Fruit, sap
Stem, leaf,
28 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Gurofa, Guava
flower
29 Secamone afzelii (Schult.) K.Schum Asclepiadaceae Ailu, secamone Leaf
Asunwon oyinbo, candle
30 Senna alata L. Roxburgh Caesalpiniaceae Leaf, flower
bush
Root, leaf
31 Senna podocarpa (Guill & Perr) Lock Caesalpiniaceae Asunwon ibile

32 Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae Ekuku, Sesame Leaf

33 Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre Menispermaceae Akerejupon Fruit, root
34 Starchtarpheta cayenensis Verbenaceae Leaf
35 Telfairia occidentalis Hook.f. Cucurbitaceae Aworoko, Fluted pumpkin Leaf
36 Terminalia catappa Linn. Combretaceae Furutu, Tropical almond Bark
37 Zingiber officinale (Roscoe) Zingiberaceae Ata-ile, ginger rhizomes

Table 4. List of other ingredients used
for the treatment of men’s reproductive
problems in Oyo State, Nigeria
Potash Water
Honey Ampicillin capsules
Soda water Olive oil
Milk
intravenous drug use (Ophori et al., 2010; Adegoke et al.,
2011). Reports in late 2001 by World Health Organisation
(WHO) showed that 12 million people become infected
with syphilis each year (Campos et al., 2008). Sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) have continued to be a
major health problem in sub-Saharan Africa especially
with the recent resurgence of syphilis (Adegoke et al.,
2011).
In Nigeria, in the Federal Medical Center (FMC)
Abakaliki, Ebonyi state, a prevalence of syphilis of 3%
has been recorded (FMoH, 2001). In University College
Hospital, Ibadan, a seroprevalence of 4% was reported.
1.5% of pregnant women attending antenatal care clinics
were infected with syphilis in 2005. The prevalence
ranged from 0.0% in Abia state to 7.6% in Rivers state.
Studies of the prevalence of syphilis in similar
populations in Nigeria reported prevalence of 14.0% in
Abakiliki (Uneke et al., 2006), 2.1% in Enugu (Nnoruka
and Ezeoke, 2005). It was even 2.0% among HIV
seronegatives in Abakiliki (Uneke et al., 2006). Among
blood donors in Benin the prevalence of infection was
8.0% (Adegoke et al., 2011), 2.93% in 2008 and 1.9% in
2009 (Salawu et al., 2010). Interestingly, some
researchers reported 15% among apparently healthy
university students (Ophori et al., 2010) and 4.6% in a
paramilitary agency (Nwokedi et al., 2005). Higher
prevalence of syphilis has also been reported among
different groups in other countries. It was 11.3% in HIV
seropositives in India (Turbadar et al., 2007), 10.9%
among street dwellers in Ethiopia and 1.3% among blood
donors in Ethiopia (Moges et al., 2006).
According to WHO (2001), an estimate 17 million
people are infected with Gonorrhea in Sub-Saharan
Africa. The disease may be transmitted through the
vagina, cervix, rectum, pharynx (throat), or eyes. In men,
Neisseria gonorrhoeae infects urethra and is usually with
symptoms, causing dysuria and acute urethritis with a
purulent discharge. Among women, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae infects the cervix, urethra, vulva and
rectum. Rectal infections occur in up to 40% of women
infected with gonorrhoeae. Generally, in about 95% of
patients, gonococci can be found in urethral discharge or
urine sediments. The infection may spread to prostrate,
bladder, and epididymes, causing inflammation and
swollen epididymes and may lead to sterility
(Cheesbrough, 2000).
Globally, STDs are a major cause of infertility, long-
term disability and death with severe medical and
Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.147
psychological consequences for millions of men, women
and infants (WHO, 2001). For example, genital
ulcerations and inflammation caused by syphilis are
implicated as cofactor making infected individuals 3 to 5
times more likely to acquire HIV if exposed to the virus
through sexual contact. Unless prompt diagnosis and
treatment of syphilis are performed, serious
complications including male and female infertility may
result, and in pregnancy, adverse outcomes such as still-
birth, prenatal death and serious neonatal infection may
result (Schmid, 2004).
Therefore, the use of herbal remedies offers less
expensive, more accessible and effective way of
managing infertility, sexually transmitted infections,
baldness and other related diseases. As a result, the
documentation of these herbal remedies will help
preserve the indigenous knowledge about the treatment
of these diseases and create awareness about the herbal
remedies used for these diverse diseases in the Internet
and scientific community and the general public at large.
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