Tendon Tension

Tendon tensions at the operating draft are balanced by hull buoyancy.

From: Handbook of Offshore Engineering, 2005

Related terms:

Semisubmersibles, Tension-Leg Platforms, Wellheads, Fiber-Reinforced Polymer,

Payload, Heave Force

View all Topics

Floating Offshore Platform Design

John Halkyard, in Handbook of Offshore Engineering, 2005

Tendon Tension
For design purposes, the initial value of tendon tension can be set to limit offset
to 5% of water depth. Therefore, computing the sum of steady forces, Fw + Fc +
Fd will lead to a determination of Tt. Depending on the size of the TLP and the
environmental specifics, the steady forces can be 1000 kips or larger. It is important
to note that Fc can include significant current force from tendons and risers. As a
first approximation, therefore, the tendon pretension can be taken as twenty times
the mean horizontal environmental force to be resisted. This nominally results in
5% offset if the added tension due to setdown is ignored.

The increased tendon tension from the offset is due primarily to the overturning
moment if the wind force. This does not affect the total tension, but results in an
increase in the upwind tensions and a decrease in the downwind tensions. There is
significant increases (and decreases) in tendon tension due to wave loading. Wave
frequency response and forces are the dominant component of tendon tensions, and
these are readily determinable from linear wave theory. There are three important
exceptions, however.

One of the exceptions is the vertical drag force of extreme waves on the pontoons.
While a much smaller component than other components of wave force, they are
not trivial.
The second is a variety of second order effects directly from waves.

The third exception is dynamic response of the TLP mass on the elasticity of the
tendons. This includes vertical response (heave) and rotational response (pitch/sway).
Except for very deep water, these motions have periods in the 2–3 s. range, and
respond with very little damping. As a result, a persistent absorption of energy
from wave will excite these modes (“springing”) and thereby increase the maximum
tendon tension. A second form of mechanical response (“ringing”) results from short
duration, impact loads, typical being the drag force from a particularly large wave
crest impacting a column.

While considerable research and theory has gone into the springing, ringing and
second order effects, meticulous model testing and factors based upon earlier design
have been the most reliable basis for addressing these (Engebretsen et al, 2002).

Wave forces increase tendon tensions in two principal ways. One is with the crest
(or trough) is centred. In this case, the net wave vertical force is usually resisted
equally by the tendons. This is summarised in the upper part of fig. 7.48. The second
is summarised in the lower part of fig. 7.48. In this case the wave force system at
the passing of the wave nodes (Lw/4 before or after the crest) causes an overturning
moment (pitch). This moment is resisted in part by lateral inertial forces due to surge
acceleration on the fixed and hydrodynamic masses of the system. Surge response is
very subresonant, and it can be assumed that the surge wave force is entirely resisted
by surge inertial forces. The lateral tendon reactions are typically 2–3% of the force.
Figure 7.48. TLP wave load systems

The following is a summary of the tendon reaction for the two defined cases:

(7.32)

(7.33)

Tr is taken at the crest (Tr here refers to tendon forces for a crest centered wave,
not to be confused with riser tension used earlier). Fzc is positive upward and Fzp is
downward. Both are a function of wave frequency, and amplitude, Hw. Ti is taken at
the trailing node, after the passing of the crest. Fwx is the surge wave force (total from
columns and pontoons) and is centred at zw above the baseline of the TLP. Fwz-c is the
heave force on the bottom of each column, centred at ac off centreline, and Mw-p is the
collective moment of all pontoon heave forces. These are all resisted by a symmetric
set of nt tendons, all at distance st from centreline. Additionally, surge acceleration,
x” develops inertial forces in the fixed mass, Mo and the hydrodynamic mass, M,
centred respectively at zG and za above baseline. Like those of Tr, the components of
Ti are functions of wave frequency, and amplitude, Hw. These functions are all 90°
out of phase with those of Tr.

There is much more rigor and detail to the writing of the above equations, but the
intent is to demonstrate behavior, relying as much on fig. 7.48, and illustrate the
two components of wave frequency tendon force. Then, if Tr( ) is the tension in each
tendon for a passing crest, and Ti( ) is the tension for a particular tendon at the
advancing node, at that wave frequency, , the maximum tension is given as:

(7.34)

This is addressed most specifically in later discussion. What is important is that

each term is sensitive to different design parameters. Tr depends largely upon the
distribution of volume between the pontoons and columns whereas Ti depends upon
the tallness of the TLP and the spread distance of the tendons.

There are other components to tendon reaction. Some of these do not matter in
the parametric analysis because they are small and cannot be directly related to
controllable parameters. In this sense true maxima will not be given and appropriate
allowances should be made where this matters. The reactions to steady forces (wind,
current and drift) can be readily determined and should be used appropriately.
Likewise, the change in tensions due to set-down should be incorporated.

> Read full chapter

Computational modelling of knee im-

plants
J.H. Muller, in Computational Modelling of Biomechanics and Biotribology in the
Musculoskeletal System, 2014

14.5.3 Kinetics
The initial and boundary values of computational models based on in vitro ex-
periments can be directly deduced from the initial and boundary values of the
experiments, for example, the applied axial load through a hydraulic cylinder in a
knee wear simulator (Hoops et al., 2012) or the applied tensions on the muscle bellies
in an in vitro experiment (Li et al., 2001).

The problem becomes more complex when an in vivo loading condition is approx-
imated. Since it is impossible to measure muscle-tendon and ligament tension
directly, the investigator needs to make use of different techniques to estimate these.
Methods include optimisation methods applied on a model to find the minimum
effort needed from the muscles to produce a certain kinematic profile based on
motion recordings. Usually, data from a force plate in the motion lab is available
to derive boundary values that can serve as input to the model. Principle torques
around the knee joint can then be calculated through an inverse kinematics analysis.
The torques can then be used to derive a cost function for the optimisation algorithm
if the muscle-tendon moment arms are known or estimated. Recent advances in
telemetry have, however, provided a means to measure joint reaction forces in an
instrumented knee replacement directly. The joint reaction forces can then be used
to fine-tune the muscle-tendon parameters, thereby ensuring that the joint reaction
forces induced by them are equal to the measured forces. This can be achieved
through an optimisation strategy or an iterative approach.

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Novel and Marginal Field Offshore

Structures
Cuneyt Capanoglu, in Handbook of Offshore Engineering, 2005

2.7.4.1 In-Service Response

The MiniTLP has the best in-service response characteristics as the tendons restrict
heave, pitch and roll motions (i.e. only three-degrees of freedom: surge, sway and
yaw). Platform natural periods are away from energy-intensive wave spectra and do
not appreciably contribute to dynamic amplifications. However, these characteristics
are achieved at a cost. About 40% of the displacement/buoyancy is allocated for
tendon pretension and weight to preclude these tendons going into compression.
The shallow draft unit is subjected to large lateral forces and the couple effect due
to combined lateral and vertical forces develops large tendon tension variations. The
tendon pretension has to be larger than this amplitude due to the extreme 100-year
recurrence interval storm.

The BLS unit is heave-restricted (i.e. five-degrees of freedom) and the slender unit
with the centre of buoyancy at about 61 m (200 ft) below the water surface [vs. about
24 m (79 ft) for the MiniTLP] is subjected to much smaller lateral forces and the
couple effect. Thus, rotational excitation forces due to a 100-year recurrence interval
storm are reasonably small and the rotational stiffness of the restraining leg limits
the maximum 100-year storm condition roll and pitch angles of the unit to about
3.5°. The restraining leg bending stress due to this event is kept at a reasonable level
by introducing the transition between the buoyant and restraining legs to control the
curvature. These BLS characteristics indicate that pretension requirements are not
controlled by pitch and roll motions. Indeed, pretension requirement is determined
(i.e. about 15% of displacement) based on the magnitude of lateral forces due to
wind, wave drift and current forces and the desirable offset limit for that water depth.

The Spar unit is not dynamically restrained and is identified to be a six-degrees of

freedom system. Although the unit is designed to have deep draft to minimise heave
forces, substantial heave motions occur and the surface-completed risers have to
be decoupled from Spar motions. Typical relative motions (i.e. single amplitude)
between the risers with their own buoyancy chambers in the centrewell and the Spar
unit may be as much as 20 ft. Pitch and roll motions due to an extreme event are
substantial and can reach 10°. Although the lateral forces are minimised due to deep
draft characteristics of the unit and the dynamic forces do not result in appreciable
dynamic surge (i.e. excursions) of the unit, quasi-static lateral forces due to wind,
wave drift and current are substantial. A 12- or a 14-point mooring system is required
for station-keeping.

> Read full chapter

A review of the state-of-the-art devel-

opments in the field monitoring of of-
fshore structures
Peng Wang, ... Yong Luo, in Ocean Engineering, 2018

1 Introduction
Since the first full-scale measurement system for offshore platforms was put into
practice by the BMT company in 1987 (Peters et al., 1990), field monitoring has
been widely developed in the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea, the ocean adjacent to
Brazil and West African waters to record the environmental parameters, structural
responses, riser tension, tendon tension, shapes of mooring systems, etc (Peng and
Zhi, 2012). Prototype measurements of offshore platforms in the South China Sea
and the Bohai Sea have been conducted since the 1990s by Shanghai Jiao Tong
University (Hu et al., 2011) and Dalian University of Technology (Du et al., 2014),
respectively. To date, many platforms worldwide have been synchronously equipped
with monitoring systems during the construction of the platforms. A significant
number of field monitoring projects for offshore platforms have been developed by
oil and gas companies and institutions all over the world. Table 1 shows the typical
monitoring projects of offshore platforms since 1996.
Table 1. The typical field monitoring projects of offshore platforms.

Year Project Main monitoring contents

2017 Two platforms in Malaysia The metocean and the mo-
tions of topsides were moni-
tored during the floatover in-
stallations (SJTU, 2017)

2015 Berkut oil platform An integrated system was pro-

vided to monitor the seismic re-
sponse of the platform
2015 Wellhead The BOP stack motions were
measured and wellhead fatigue
was calculated during a deploy-
ment in the Gulf of Mexico.(Fu-
gro, 2015)
2014 LF 7-2 jacket platform Stress response of the jacket
legs was monitored by mount-
ing fiber grating strain sensors
to calculate the collision force (-
Ge et al., 2016a)
2013 PY 34-1 jacket platform The stress of barge rocker was
monitored during the jacket
lunch operation (Chen, 2014)

2012 LW 3-1 jacket platform The process of jacket launch

was monitored with integrated
GPS/INS system (Chen, 2014)

2011 LH11-1 FPS Both the metocean data and re-

sponses of the platform were
recorded in one typical typhoon
event (Qu et al., 2013)

2010 HYSY 981 drilling platform The air gap performance and
structural strain characteristics
of the platform were monitored
2009 Chevron Tahiti spar The dynamic response of the
catenary was monitored
2009 Espirito-Santo FPSO The tension of the anchor line
was monitored by an inclina-
tion sensor and an underwa-
ter acoustic signal transmission
system
2007 Marlin FPSO The flexible risers were moni-
tored for ring leakage, internal
and external pressure
2006 Schiehallion FPSO The bending moments of the
flexible risers hang-off position
were measured using an optical
fiber sensor
2005 A spar platform in Gulf of Mex- Fatigue damage of two top ten-
ico sion risers was monitored
2004 Marco Polo TLP The environment, position and
attitude of the riser were mon-
itored to verify the TLP design
method
1998 Alliance drilling platform The VIV of the drilling riser was
monitored using 5 acceleration
sensors
1997 Neptune spar
 The dynamic response of the
platform was monitored under
hurricane sea conditions
1996 17 deepwater floating platform The integrated marine monitor-
in Gulf of Mexico ing system was established and
gradually improved

Note: The cases before 2009 were presented by Peng and Zhi (2012).

As the exploitation of marine resources moves into deeper water, floating platforms
for drilling or production may be subjected to an extreme environmental condition,
and the safety of personals and platforms is a priority position in platform design
and operation. Compared with the assumptions and simplification in numerical
analysis and the limitations in physical model tests, field monitoring of offshore
structures can directly obtain raw data in real time, enabling the timely detection of
structural failures, safety assessments, and predictions of performance changes and
the remaining structural life (Du et al., 2014). Moreover, field monitoring can verify
the design parameters and provide a database for post project analysis (Peters et al.,
1990). Due to the complex environment loads and complicated failure mechanisms
of the riser and mooring systems, field monitoring has become an effective method
for obtaining real-time tracking and feedback information based on a specialized
monitoring system to reduce failure risk. During installation operations at sea, field
monitoring can provide necessary operational support. These factors all contribute
to the popularity of research on field monitoring.

This paper provides a comprehensive review of the recent developments in field

monitoring for offshore structures. Noteworthy monitoring scopes and related
sensing technologies, including sensing the metocean, structural motions, and
structural operational status, are discussed in Section 2. Then, the designs of the
monitoring systems are described with respect to optimization of sensor placement,
integrated marine monitoring systems (IMMSs), and independent remote moni-
toring systems (IRMSs) in Section 3. Next, the applications of offshore structures
field monitoring are discussed in Section 4; these applications can be divided
into four parts: construction of the database, safety evaluation and early warning,
safeguarding of offshore construction operations and integrity management. Field
monitoring in other ocean-related fields, such as the health monitoring of subma-
rine pipelines and ocean ecological environment monitoring, are briefly described
in Section 5. Conclusions and further research directions are noted at the end.

> Read full chapter

Review of pilot models used in aircraft

flight dynamics
Mudassir Lone, Alastair Cooke, in Aerospace Science and Technology, 2014

2.3 Neuromuscular system

Since the 1950s, handling qualities and FCS engineers have appreciated that the
basic dynamics and precision of manual control are critically limited by the prop-
erties of the neuromuscular system [77,78]. In most research, the neuromuscular
dynamics are represented by second order transfer functions, quite similar to the
treatment of aircraft control surface actuators.

The structure of the neuromuscular system is based upon the physiological oper-
ation of the human muscle. It consists of two types of muscles: extrafusal and in-
trafusal. Extrafusal muscles are responsible for the generation of force and make up
most of the muscle. Intrafusal muscles on the other hand are scattered throughout
the muscle in the form of spindles and provide the central nervous system with
a degree of feedback information. They are able to detect what in physiological
terms are known as ‘phasic’ stretch and ‘tonic’ length. The term phasic refers to the
feedback of stimulus rate of change whilst the term tonic refers to feedback directly
proportional to the stimulus. Muscle spindles are not the only source of information
feedback. A significant role is also played by Golgi tendon organs that are analogous
to muscle spindles and detect changes in tendon tension and the forces applied by
a muscle [94].

The details of the human actuation system even for the simplest of motions are enor-
mously complicated if individual components are considered. However, the actions
of the overall system can be modelled by considering ensembles. The foundation
for neuromuscular modelling in the context of pilot models was laid by McRuer and
Magdaleno using this approach [68]. The form of the individual blocks in the system
shown in Fig. 13 was developed to fit data obtained from experiments involving
a number of human subjects and their use various inceptor types when executing
manual control tasks. The following transfer function was found to fit data obtained
from experiments designed to isolate extrafusal muscle dynamics:

Fig. 13. Neuromuscular model proposed by McRuer and Magdaleno.

 (8)

The spindle feedback block could be modelled using the following transfer function,
which is effectively a delayed equalisation ability:

(9)

The joint sensor feedback block is the ensemble that represents the Golgi tendon
organ feedback as well as various other modes of feedback that are difficult to
isolate. It has been modelled by a simple gain and delay:

(10)

The experiments were done using both fixed force sensing and free moving de-
flections sensing sticks. Data fitting procedures then determined the values of the
parameters in these equations. An interesting result was the differences obtained for
the central processing delay: 66 ms and 82 ms for the force and deflection sensing
inceptors respectively. However, McRuer and Magdaleno's study [68] only involved
two subjects; making it impossible to comment on the statistical significance of
the results.

Due to the simplifications, the model has lost a certain degree of realism and is
incapable of replicating some important neuromuscular capabilities such as adapt-
ability. Another loss of fidelity comes from the assumption of direct connection of
muscle spindles to the central nervous system. In reality the information gathered
via the spindles goes through a series of motor neurons before reaching the CNS.
Whereas, the information gathered through the Golgi tendon organs arrives directly
at the spinal chord through the spinal interneurons.

Considering the scope of typical flying and handling qualities studies such an
approach which employs simple transfer functions has been found to be more than
adequate. As a result neuromuscular models used in flight dynamic analysis have
not changed significantly and researchers have mainly focused on addressing
problems related biodynamic feedthrough. The fact that biodynamic feedthrough
is dependent on the task type and neuromuscular admittance must be kept in mind
[111].

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