Course # 10: Module 8: Spatial Resolution of Optical Systems http://cord.org/cm/leot/course10_Mod08/Module10-8.

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MODULE 10-8
ESPATIAL
RESOLUTION
OF OPTICAL
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
An optical system is normally designed to give information about
the object being viewed. Usually, the information appears in the
form of an image. The amount and quality of information depends
on whether the object is surrounded by a dark or light background
(contrast), the size of the object (spatial frequency), and the quality
of the optical system. The modulation transfer function (MTF) of an
optical system is a measure of the system’s imaging capabilities and
will largely determine the amount of fine detail that will be observed
in the image. This module examines and explains in some detail the
concept and utility of the modulation transfer function, particularly
as it applies to resolution.

MODULE PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Module 1-4, "Properties of
Light"; Module 1-8, "Temporal Characteristics of Lasers"; Modules
2-8 through 2-11 of Course 2, "Geometrical Optics"; Module 6-1,
"Optical Tables and Benches"; Module 6-8, "Lenses"; Module 7-8,
"Mechanical and Bleachable Dye Methods"; and Module 9-6,
"Power Supply and Calibration of a Photomultiplier." The student
should also have a basic knowledge of algebra and geometrical and
wave optics, and be able to operate a helium-neon laser,
photomultiplier, and electrometer.

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Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Explain how the modulation transfer function of an optical
system determines the quality of the optical system.
2. Explain the difference between the square-wave and the
sine-wave MTF.
3. Calculate the MTF of an optical system, given the MTFs of the
individual components.
4. Set up the equipment and measure the square-wave MTF of two
lenses.

Historically, the earliest measure of performance for an optical

component or instrument was resolving power. Resolving power of
an optical system refers to the ability to separate two closely spaced
objects in the image generated by the optical system. To test the
quality of an optical system, it is common to test it with line
patterns. The resolving power is commonly expressed in terms of a
spatial frequency (i.e., lines/mm or line pairs/mm).

A type of object frequently used to test the performance of an

optical system consists of a series of alternating light and dark bars
of equal width with sharp boundaries, as indicated in Figure 1a.

Fig. 1
Typical bar object or target with corresponding intensity plot

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If the pattern of the bars is repeated in X millimeters (1 period), then

the pattern has a frequency of 1/X lines per millimeter (lines/mm). A
plot of the intensity of the light transmitted by the bar target is
shown in Figure 1b. When an image is formed by an optical system,
each point is imaged as a blurred spot due to aberrations, diffraction,
scattering, and absorption.
The usual procedure is to photograph such a test chart and then pick
out the finest pattern in which individual lines can be identified. The
reciprocal of the width of a line-plus adjacent-space is called the
limiting resolving power of the system. As an example, the test
chart shown in Figure 2 has been imaged by a 250 mm lens. This
image is shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Official Air Force resolution test chart made Image of USAF
test chart up of a series of progressively smaller
patterns using 250 mm imaging lens

As the bar becomes smaller, it becomes more difficult to clearly

identify the individual lines. For purposes of calculation, assume
that the finest pattern which is discernible is group 1 element 1. The
limiting resolving power of the optical system, which in this case
includes the 250 mm lens and the photographic film, can be
determined by measuring the period of the bar pattern in group 1
element 1 in the test target shown in Figure 2. The period is 0.5 mm.
Thus, the limiting resolution for this hypothetical case is 2
lines/mm. The reason the lines are more difficult to see as the
pattern becomes smaller is that the apparent change in intensity
between the dark and white regions is decreasing as one approaches
the limiting resolution of the system. The intensity pattern for
several spatial frequencies is shown in Figure 4. (The spatial
frequencies vary from low on the top curve to high on the bottom
curve.)

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Fig. 4
Intensity pattern for several spatial frequencies

The difference in intensity between the dark and white regions is the
same for all frequencies at the object. But notice how it decreases in
the image as the spatial frequency increases. The dark regions
become lighter and the white regions darker, i.e., the contrast
decreases. Also notice how the sharp discontinuities in the object
have been rounded off in the image. When the contrast in the image
is smaller than the system (e.g., the eye, film, or photodetector) can
detect, the pattern can no longer be resolved.

The contrast C is defined in terms of intensity I, as given by

Equation 1.

Equation 1
C=

If the background is perfectly black, Imin = 0, then—

Equation 2
C= =1

which is the highest contrast possible. If the bars and the intervals
are mere shades of gray, the contrast decreases correspondingly.
Least contrast will result if Imax = Imin, in which case C = 0. Thus,
contrast may vary between zero and one. The human eye requires
approximately 5% contrast to resolve an image.

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Equation 1 is used to solve a problem in Example A.

Example A: Calculation of the Contrast

An intensity pattern such as the one

shown in Figure 4 has a maximum
Given: intensity Imax = 0.85 and a minimum
intensity Imin = 0.35.

Find: The contrast of the intensity pattern.

(Equation 1)
C=

C=
Solution:
=
C = 0.417

To evaluate an optical system, more information than the limiting

resolution is required. To determine how much contrast can be
transferred from the object to the image at all spatial frequencies,
the modulation transfer function (MTF) is needed. The MTF is the
ratio of the modulation in the image to that in the object as a
function of spatial frequency. Thus, if one plots the contrast (image-
to-object) as a function of spatial frequency, one obtains a curve (the
MTF) for the particular optical component or system. Two such
curves for two different imaging systems are shown in Figure 5.
Notice that both systems have the same limiting resolution
frequency. However, the system represented by A will produce a
superior image because the greater modulation at lower frequencies
will produce crisper, more contrasting images. Unfortunately, the
type of choice that one is usually faced with in choosing a system is
not as clear as that implied by the curves in Figure 5.

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Fig. 5
MTFs for two optical systems having
identical limiting resolution frequencies

Consider the two systems shown in Figure 6, where one system

shows limiting resolution (B) and the other shows high contrast at
low spatial frequencies (A). In situations of this kind, the decision
must be based on the relative importance of contrast versus
resolution in the specifically intended function of the system.

Fig. 6
MTFs for two optical systems having
different limiting resolution frequencies

The preceding discussion has been based on square-wave intensity

patterns and the square-wave MTFs. However, if the object pattern
is in the form of a sine wave, the intensity distribution in the image
is also described by a sine wave. If the MTF is not indicated as
square-wave MTF, it is generally assumed to be a sine-wave MTF.
Sine-wave targets are quite difficult to obtain, so generally it is
easier to measure the square-wave MTF and then convert the
square-wave MTF to the sine-wave MTF mathematically. There are
systems that measure the sine-wave MTF of systems, but they are
very costly compared to those capable of measuring square-wave
MTFs. However, the square-wave MTF can be converted to the
sine-wave MTF using the following equation:
Equation 3

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MTF (f1)
sine wave =

Bk = (–1)M(–1)(k – 1)/2 if t = M

Bk = 0 if t < M

where: f1 = Frequency (lines/mm)

M = The total number of primes into which k can be

factored

t = The number of prime factors in k (one is not a prime

factor).

For example, if the square-wave MTF for a system is:

Frequency (lines/mm) Square-wave MTF

10 1
30 0.7
50 0.5
70 0.3
90 0.1
110 0

then—

Equation 4

at a frequency of 10 lines/mm. In this manner, the entire sine-wave

MTF can be calculated.

Example B: Calculation of Bk Factor

Given: Bk = if t = M; Bk = 0 if t < M.

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Find: Bk for k = 9 and k = 11.

For k = 9, the number of different prime

factors is one. The prime factor is 3.3. Thus, t
= 1 and M = 2. Since t < M, Bk = 0.

For k = 11, the prime factor is 11. Thus, t = 1

and M = 1. Since t = M,
Solution:
Bk =

= –1 (–1)5

Bk = 1

Figure 7 shows the square-wave response of an optical system and

its sine-wave equivalent. A plot of MTF against frequency is an
almost universally applicable measure of the performance of an
image forming system, and can be applied not only to lenses but to
films, image tubes, the eye, atmospheric propagation, and even to
complete systems.

Fig. 7
Square wave and equivalent sine-wave MTF
of an optical system

One particular advantage of the sine-wave MTF is that it can be

cascaded by simply multiplying the sine-wave MTFs of two or more
elements at each frequency of interest to obtain the MTF of the
combination. For example, if a camera lens system with a sine-wave
MTF of 0.4 at 30 lines/mm is used with film having a sine-wave
MTF of 0.8 at this same frequency, the combination will have a

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sine-wave MTF of 0.4 � 0.8 = 0.32. If the object photographed

with this camera has a contrast of 0.2, then the image will have a
contrast of 0.32 � 0.2 = 0.064. However, note that the MTF of a
system does not equal the product of the MTFs of the individual
components if the components are not directly connected; that is,
the lenses are not separated by diffusers. Aberrations of one
component may compensate for the aberrations in other components
in a system of lenses and, thus, produce an image quality which is
superior to that of either component. Any "corrected" optical system
illustrates this point.
Figure 8 shows the MTF for a correctly focused f/4 lens system free
of aberrations, transmitting quasimonochromatic light of a mean
wavelength l = 500 nm. The MTFs of two typical photographic
emulsions are also shown.

Fig. 8
Typical MTFs

Helium-neon laser (1-5 milliwatts)

Beam-expanding telescope
Photometer
Translator (micron resolution)
Piece of diffusing glass

Set of spatial frequency targets

One-micron slit

6328 � filter
Iris

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High-quality 25 cm focal length lens

Poor-quality 25 cm focal length lens

Isolation table

Before beginning, familiarize yourself with and heed all appropriate

safety rules concerning the use of laser systems. Avoid the hazards
of high-voltage electrical systems. The following tasks will be
performed:
1. Set up the equipment necessary to measure the square-wave MTF
of lenses.
2. Measure the square-wave MTF of the poor-quality lens.

3. Measure the square-wave MTF of the poor-quality lens when the

diameter of the lens is half that used in Task 2.
4. Measure the square-wave MTF of the high-quality lens.

The experimental arrangement as shown in Figure 9 should first be

constructed. To minimize vibrations, it is recommended that the
entire experimental apparatus be mounted on an isolation table.

Fig. 9
Experimental arrangement for measuring
the square-wave MTF of a lens

The expanded helium-neon laser beam impinges on a diffusing glass

to eliminate the coherence of the laser beam and fully fill the test
lens aperture. The spatial frequency target is mounted just behind
the diffusing glass in a mount so that various spatial frequency
targets can be placed in identical positions with the bars oriented

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vertically. The distance between the target and the lens to be tested
should be approximately twice the focal length of the lens. A 632.8
nm filter should be mounted in a light-tight manner directly in front
of the photometer to eliminate spurious room light from getting into
the detector. This eliminates the necessity of performing the
experiment in a darkened room. The one-micron slit is placed
directly in front of the 632.8 nm filter, absolutely parallel to the bars
of the spatial target, and the entire assembly (slit, filter, and
detector) is mounted on the translator so that the slit can be moved
across the image of the spatial target, as shown in Figure 10. This
total assembly should be mounted perpendicular to the optical axis
of the laser-lens-target system.

Fig. 10
Arrangement of slit and spatial target

Move the translator with the mounted detector, filter, and slit so the
image of the spatial target falls exactly on the slit. This adjustment
is very critical because the resultant MTF will be considerably less
if the spatial target is not focused properly on the slit, thus giving a
misleading result.

The apparatus is now ready to measure the MTF of the lens. With
the 0.25 line/mm spatial target in place, adjust the translator for a
minimum reading (R1) and record. Next, adjust the translator for a
maximum reading (R2) and record. From these two readings, the
contrast of the image is calculated with the aid of Equation 5.

Equation 5
Cimage =

The Cobject is equal to one because the bars are perfectly black.
Thus,

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Equation 6
= Cimage =

To measure the square-wave MTFs at other frequencies, remove the

0.25 line/mm spatial target and replace it with the other spatial
targets, and repeat the measurements. It should not be necessary to
refocus the target onto the slit if care is taken to replace the spatial
targets in the holder in identical orientation. In fact, at higher spatial
frequencies (100 lines/mm or higher), it is impossible to see the bars
without a microscope. Therefore, refocusing the lens is very
difficult.
To perform Task 3, mount an iris directly in front of the lens and
adjust the diameter so that it is half the size of the lens diameter.
Now measure the square-wave MTF of the lens. Do you notice any
difference in the square-wave MTFs of the masked and unmasked
lens? What led to this result? Is it reasonable?

In Task 4, remove the iris and replace the poor lens A with the
high-quality lens B. Place the 0.25 line/mm spatial frequency target
in the holder. Move the translator with attached equipment until a
sharp image is on the slit. Repeat the measurements as before to
obtain the square-wave MTF.
Now by comparing the square-wave MTFs, the lens that would be
best for a particular situation can be chosen. If this lens is going to
be used in an optical system, the square-wave MTF of the lens has
to be converted to a sine-wave MTF before the system MTF can be
calculated.

1. What is the spatial frequency of the pattern of bars shown below?

2. A film negative of a farm house also shows a picket fence. The

individual stakes are barely visible. A measurement shows that the
width of one stake is 0.1 mm and the space between adjacent stakes
is 0.2 mm.

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a. What is the limiting resolving power of the camera

and film?
b. If the MTF of the lens is 1.0 at 3 lines/mm, what is the
MTF of the film used? (Recall from the test that the
human eye requires approximately 5% contrast to
resolve an image.)
3. Calculate the factor Bk for k = 12 and k = 13.

4. Assume a lens has a square-wave MTF which is one if the

frequency is less than 100 lines/mm and is zero for frequencies over
100 lines/mm. Calculate the sine-wave MTF for frequencies
between 1 and 100 lines/mm.
5. Assume the film to be used with the lens above has a sine-wave
MTF as shown below. Calculate the system MTF.

6. Describe the probable result that would be obtained if the slit in

front of the photomultiplier in the procedure was canted at an angle
with respect to the target test pattern.
7. The square-wave MTF for an optical system is:

Frequency (lines/mm) Square-wave MTF

10 1
20 1
30 1
40 1
50 1
60 1
70 1
80 0.8
90 0.7

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100 0.6
110 0.4
120 0.3
130 0.2
140 0.1
150 0

Calculate the corresponding sine-wave MTF.

Hecht and Zajac. Optics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1974.

Hopkins and Slaymaker. "Knife Edge Testing of OTF in Optical Systems," Electro-Optical
Systems Design, 4 (13) Dec. 1972. pp. 27-29.

Jensen, N. Optical and Photographic Reconnaissance Systems. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1968.

Meyer-Arendt, J. R. Classical and Modern Optics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1972.

Modern Applications of Physical Optics. Wiley-Interscience, 1973.

Nussbaum and Phillips. Contemporary Optics for Scientists and Engineers. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976.

Shulman, A. R. Optical Data Processing. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970.

Smith, David. "OFT’—Quantitative Image Analysis," Electro-Optical Systems Design. Dec.

1979. p. 39.

Smith, W. J. Modern Optical Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.

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