POLITICAL SCIENCE

SEMESTER III

POLITICAL SCIENCE III

TOPIC:
POVERTY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

SUBMITTED TO:
Prof. Ravi Saxena
NMIMS Scholl of Law

SUBMITTED BY:
Shraddha Joshi
FY BA-LLB ‘B’
Roll Number – B001

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO TOPIC PAGE

. NO.
1. ABSTRACT 3

2. INTRODUCTION 4-5

3. ANALYSIS 5-12

4. REFLECTION 13-17

5. CONCLUSION 18

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 19

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1. ABSTRACT
The world has made huge strides in overcoming global poverty. Since 1990, more than 1.2
billion people have risen out of extreme poverty. Now, 9.2% of the world survives on less than
$1.90 a day, compared to nearly 36% in 1990.
But the COVID-19 pandemic threatens to reverse years of progress in the fight against global
poverty and income inequalities, and it jeopardizes the future of a generation of children.
COVID-19 drove an additional 97 million people into extreme poverty in 2020, according to
World Bank estimates. More than a year into the pandemic, the World Bank stresses that “there
is still much we don’t know” concerning its impact on global poverty in 2021.
When families move out of poverty, children’s health and well-being improve. Since 1990, the
number of children under the age of 5 dying — mostly from preventable causes such as poverty,
hunger, and disease — is less than half of what it was, dropping from about 34,200 a day to over
14,200.
World Vision is committed to ending extreme poverty and laying the foundation for every child
to experience Jesus’ promise of life in all its fullness (John 10:10). Though eradicating global
poverty is hard, particularly in fragile contexts, World Vision believes there is reason to hope.
Ending extreme poverty is a priority not only for World Vision. By 2030, as part of the United
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, global leaders aim to eradicate extreme poverty for
all people everywhere.

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2. INTRODUCTION
 Characterizing poverty

Characterizing poverty starts with a thought of conditions that forestall districts, states and
people groups from having admittance to riches. However there are numerous components to
this, there are four vital underlying conditions to consider.

 689 million people live in extreme poverty, surviving on less than $1.90 a day.

 Children and youth account for two-thirds of the world’s poor, and women represent a
majority in most regions.

 Extreme poverty is increasingly concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. About 40% of the

region’s people live on less than $1.90 a day.

 Extreme poverty rates nearly doubled in the Middle East and North Africa between 2015
and 2018, from 3.8% to 7.2%, mostly because of crises in Syria and Yemen.

 Although countries impacted by fragility, crises, and violence are home to about 10% of
the world’s population, they account for more than 40% of people living in extreme
poverty. By 2030, an estimated 67% of the world’s poor will live in fragile contexts.

 About 70% of people older than 15 who live in extreme poverty have no schooling or
only some basic education.

 1.3 billion people in 107 developing countries, which account for 22% of the world’s
population, live in multidimensional poverty. About 84.3% of multidimensionally poor
live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

 644 million children are experiencing multidimensional poverty.

 RESEARCH QUESTION.

What is absolute poverty and relative poverty?

What causes poverty?

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What progress has been made in reducing global poverty?

 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

To analyze the progress made in reducing global poverty.

To understand thecycle that leads to global poverty.

3. ANALYSIS
1. History of abuse
Large numbers of the present most unfortunate countries were recently taken advantage of
through imperialism and additionally subjugation. These activities have had enduring effect
through settling in disparities between socio-ethnic gatherings inside states. A farsighted model
is South Africa, which, under British and Dutch standard, confined the freedoms of native
African gatherings in the space of instruction, land possession and admittance to capital.
Simultaneously there was a convergence of abundance in the hands of the white colonizing
minority. Such activities were in the long run revered in the making of the politically-sanctioned
racial segregation arrangement of racial isolation. In any case, even since its destroying in 1994,
neediness among the native populace is excessively high in contrast with white gatherings
because of the way that capital and land keeps on being packed in the possession of a limited
handful. Obviously, some previous provincial countries have risen up out of their double-dealing
to turn out to be a portion of the world's driving economies – think about the US and Australia.
However, even in these 'Western' social orders there stays a tradition of expansionism that
frequently influences native people groups excessively. In all the more outright terms, as
decolonisation unfurled in the second 50% of the 20th century, numerous new countries,
especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, were left with insufficient or frail political designs that before
long offered approach to other sorts of abuse through autocracy or debasement. In these cases,
the greater part of the populace experienced abuse. In certain states, these issues actually
continue.

2. War and political instability

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When thinking about the essential conditions for monetary improvement to happen in a state,
security, wellbeing and steadiness regularly ring a bell. This is on the grounds that tranquil
conditions grant an administration to zero in on creating normal assets, human limit and modern
capacities. War and political precariousness regularly go about as critical interruptions as
endeavors are aimed at fighting savagery or uncertainty. For instance, think about the contention
in Syria that started in 2011. This has prompted a mass progression of millions of displaced
people looking to get away from the contention, leaving behind a conflict torn express that
comes up short on the human and financial assets to oversee itself successfully. It is an example
that has been seen previously – for example, during the 1990s in Somalia, where precariousness
actually continues. The viewpoint for Syria in the years to come could well be far more
atrocious. It is additionally something that can be found in the created world, however to an
alternate degree. Think about the United States: it spent upwards of $3 trillion on the intrusions
and occupations of Iraq and Afghanistan as a feature of its 'Worldwide War on Terror' while, at
the same time, relative neediness and disparity expanded inside its own general public, to some
extent because of the public authority focusing on open spending on fighting. It is nothing
unexpected, then, at that point, that when overviews on residents' characteristics of life are
embraced, stable countries which don't commonly take part in fighting – like Switzerland and
Denmark – are regularly first spot on the list.

3. How many people live in poverty in the world?

About 9.2% of the world, or 689 million people, live in extreme poverty on less than $1.90 a
day, according to the World Bank.

In the United States, 10.5% of the population — 34 million people — live in poverty as of 2019.
For an individual in the U.S., the poverty line is $12,880 a year, or about $35.28 per day.

These numbers are calculated based on income and a person’s ability to meet basic needs.
However, when looking beyond income to people experiencing deprivation in health, education,
and living standards, 1.3 billion people in 107 developing countries are multidimensionally poor,
according to a 2020 report by the U.N. Development Programme.

4. What is poverty?

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Although poverty is often discussed in terms of dollar amounts, quality of life is also part of the
conversation. Living in poverty means a life of struggle and deprivation.

Children living in poverty often lack access to quality education. Sometimes it’s because there
aren’t enough quality schools, their parents cannot afford school fees, or because impoverished
families need their children to work. Without a quality education, children grow up being unable
to provide for their own children — thus the generational cycle of poverty.

Living in poverty also means not being able to afford a doctor or medical treatment. It means no
electricity, limited shelter, and often little to no food on the table. For young children, improper
nutrition can mean stunting and wasting that permanently impact their development. In
impoverished countries where many people lack access to clean water and sanitation, poverty
means the spread of preventable diseases and the unnecessary death of children.

Historically, poverty has been calculated based on a person’s income and how much they can
buy with that income, but new multidimensional measures are more holistic.

5. Extreme Poverty

Since 2015, the World Bank has defined extreme poverty as people living on less than $1.90 a
day, measured using the international poverty line. But extreme poverty is not only about low
income; it is also about what people can or cannot afford.

Extreme poverty is identified in two ways: absolute poverty and relative poverty.

6. Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty

Absolute poverty is when a person cannot afford the minimum nutrition, clothing, or shelter
needs in their country.

Relative poverty is a household income below a certain percentage, typically 50% or 60%, of the
median income of that country. This measurement takes into consideration the subjective cost of
participating in everyday life. For example, plumbing is a necessity in some places; without
plumbing, a person could be considered impoverished. But, in other places plumbing is a luxury.
Relative poverty is useful for considering income inequality within a country.

7. What is multidimensional poverty?

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Multidimensional poverty acknowledges that poverty isn’t always about income. Sometimes a
person’s income might be above the poverty line, but their family has no electricity, no access to
a proper toilet, no clean drinking water, and no one in the family has completed six years of
school.

The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index looks beyond income to measure a person’s

healthcare, education, and living standards to determine poverty levels. It was developed in 2010
by the U.N. Development Programme and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development
Initiative.

Within the categories of health, education, and living standards, there are 10 key indicators of
multidimensional poverty that include nutrition, child mortality, years of schooling, school
attendance, cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, and assets. If a person is
experiencing deprivation in three or more of these standards, then they’re multidimensionally
poor.

The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index offers a thorough look at poverty and can provide
guidance for the specific interventions necessary in each country to eliminate poverty.

8. How is poverty measured?

Poverty is measured by each country’s government, which gathers data through household
surveys of their own population. Entities like the World Bank provide support and may conduct
their own surveys, but this data collection is time-consuming and slow. New forms of high-
frequency surveys using estimates and mobile phone technology are being developed and tested.

9. What is a poverty line, and how are poverty lines calculated?

A poverty line, also called a poverty threshold, is the line below which it is difficult, if not
impossible, to afford basic needs. The poverty line is determined in each country by adding up
the cost of meeting minimum needs, such as food and shelter. Household incomes that are too
low to afford minimum needs, such as food and shelter, are below the poverty line.

The income necessary to afford meeting minimum needs typically sets the poverty line for a
country. Poverty lines can then be compared between countries. The international poverty line is
the standard poverty line for measuring poverty globally. However, relatively new measures such

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as the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index include measurements of health, education, and
living standards — all as signs of poverty.

10. Is the poverty line the same in every country?

Poverty lines aren’t the same in all countries. In higher-income countries, the cost of living is
higher and so the poverty line is higher, too. In 2017, the World Bank announced new median
poverty lines, grouping countries into low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries:

 $1.90 per person per day — in 33 low-income countries

 $3.20 per person per day — in 32 lower-middle-income countries, such as India and the
Philippines

 $5.50 per person per day — in 32 upper-middle-income countries, such as Brazil and
South Africa

 $21.70 per person per day — in 29 high-income countries

11. International poverty line

The international poverty line, currently set at $1.90 a day, is the universal standard for
measuring global poverty. This line helps measure the number of people living in extreme
poverty and helps compare poverty levels between countries.

As the cost of living increases, poverty lines increase too. Since 1990, the international poverty
line rose from $1 a day, to $1.25 a day, and most recently in 2015 to $1.90. This means that
$1.90 is necessary to buy what $1 could in 1990.

In addition to the lowest-income poverty line at $1.90, the World Bank also reports poverty rates
using two new international poverty lines: a lower middle-income line set at $3.20/day and an
upper middle-income line set at $5.50 a day.

12. Poverty line in the United States

In the U.S. for a family a four, the poverty line is $26,500 a year. This means that families who
earn less than that cannot afford rent, food, or other basic needs. For an individual in the U.S.,
the poverty line is $12,880 a year, or about $35.28 per day. This poverty guideline is calculated

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based on information from the Census Bureau and is updated by evaluating recent price changes
using the Consumer Price Index.

13. What causes poverty?

The root causes of poverty aren’t only a lack of access to basic necessities of life like water,
food, shelter, education, or healthcare. Inequities including gender or ethnic discrimination, poor
governance, conflict, exploitation, and domestic violence also cause poverty. These inequities
not only lead a person or a society into poverty but can also restrict access to social services that
could help people overcome poverty.

The places most entrenched in poverty are fragile contexts, which can be entire countries or areas
of a country. In fragile states, children and communities face higher rates of poverty due to
political upheaval, past or present conflict, corrupt leaders, and poor infrastructure that limits
access to education, clean water, healthcare, and other necessities.

14. Cycle of Global Poverty.

Poverty can be a trap. For someone to get out of poverty, they need opportunities such as
education, clean water, medical facilities nearby, and financial resources. Without these basic
elements, poverty becomes a cycle from one generation to the next.

If families are too poor to send their children to school, their children will have a difficult time
earning an income when they grow up. If a community lacks clean water, women will spend
much of their day gathering water instead of earning an income. If medical facilities are far
away, a parent loses income every time they take a sick child to the doctor.

Natural disasters and conflict can add to the cycle of poverty or add people to it. When a natural
disaster strikes an impoverished community without functional public institutions, families are
more vulnerable and often lack basic resources to recover, thus further entrenching a community
in poverty or jeopardizing one that had recently emerged.

15. How can we end extreme poverty?

We can help end extreme poverty by identifying what’s causing poverty in a particular
community and then determining what needs to change. Because poverty looks different in

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various places and is caused by different factors, the work to eradicate extreme poverty varies on
the context.

World Vision works with a “Theory of Change” for each community. In partnership with the
community members, we determine the desired outcomes for that community and identify key
steps to reach that outcome. The desired outcomes might be the same for many communities, but
the path to get there depends on the context and the resources available.

Perhaps infrastructure needs to be improved with new schools, medical clinics, or access to clean
water. Or maybe, people need more economic resources to help boost their income so they can
better provide for themselves and their families. Regardless of the solution, to ensure poverty
doesn’t return, the work must be sustainable. So, the community must be involved in each step.

To end extreme poverty, the U.N. estimates that the total cost per year would be about $175
billion, less than 1% of the combined income of the richest countries in the world.

16. What progress has been made in reducing global poverty?

Since 1990, more than 1.2 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty and child
mortality has dropped by more than half. Reducing extreme poverty rates was a central goal in
the Millennium Development Goals — eight goals signed by all United Nations member states in
2000 with a goal to achieve them by 2015. Since then, the world has made much progress in
reducing global poverty.

17. What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

The Sustainable Development Goals are a plan of action for countries worldwide to unify in a
global partnership for the benefit of people, the planet, and prosperity. By 2030, the Sustainable
Development Goals aim to end extreme poverty for all people everywhere and at least cut in half
the proportion of people living in poverty in all its forms. The United Nations’ member
states adopted this goal to end extreme poverty as one of 17 goals in September 2015.

18. How is World Vision helping end extreme poverty?

Since 1950, World Vision has been working to pull up the root causes of poverty’s weeds and
plant the seeds of change. We see the multidimensional reality of global poverty, and so our
work targets the biggest challenges: hunger and food security, clean water, health, quality

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education, economic empowerment, gender equality, disability inclusion, spiritual poverty,

disaster relief, and child protection.

In 2020, with the support of our generous donors, World Vision:

 Equipped 3.4 million people with access to clean water

 Distributed 178,265 metric tons of food in 14 countries

 Impacted 1.3 million jobs through microloans

 Supported nearly 3.4 million kids through child sponsorship

 Helped 78.2 million people impacted by major disasters and humanitarian emergencies,
including the COVID-19 pandemic

 Supported more than 128,000 children in 23 countries in building literacy, numeracy, and

life skills

 Distributed 6.5 million long-lasting insecticidal bed nets

As a child-focused organization, World Vision sees children as a community’s most precious

resource and central to addressing poverty. Our development approach focuses on children and
seeks to empower their families, local communities, and partners to address the underlying
causes of poverty, so children and the community can prosper.

Since poverty is different in each context, World Vision works with communities, families, local
leaders, and children themselves to identify solutions and transform lives. We’re expanding our
focus to fragile contexts because, although they’re difficult places to work, they’re also where
the most vulnerable children increasingly live. By 2030, it’s estimated that 67% of the world’s
extremely poor will live in fragile contexts.

As one of the largest Christian humanitarian organizations in the world, we have the
infrastructure, experience, and relationships needed to equip communities to create lasting
change

World Vision has nearly 35,000 staff worldwide who work in nearly 100 countries. More than
95% of our staff work in their home regions. Our long-term presence in communities, the trust

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we establish, and our integrated community development model enable us to address the many of
the root causes of poverty.

4. REFLECTION
The manner by which the worldwide monetary request is organized

 Estimating and diminishing poverty

Since the finish of the Second World War states have met up to discover ways of diminishing
poverty through inciting financial development. As talked about before in the part, ideas of
worldwide equity support global poverty decrease techniques, offering concentration to
approaches that try to improve the freedoms of the minimized. The degree to which these
endeavors have been fruitful is exceptionally easily proven wrong – however the goal has
absolutely been there. States have endeavored to address the difficulties of poverty at a
worldwide level in different ways. We talk about four methodologies beneath.

1. Official advancement help

Commonly, help comes from created states and is either diverted reciprocally (or
straightforwardly) starting with one state then onto the next or on the other hand redirected
multilaterally through global associations like the United Nations. It is one manner by which
well off countries have endeavored to meet their ethical constraint to help less fortunate
countries. To be sure, created nations have spent an extraordinary arrangement on true
improvement help throughout the long term. In 2014 alone, states spent more than $135bn on
help as indicated by a report from the Organization for Economic Co-activity and Development
(OECD). Nonetheless, the accomplishment of such endeavors has been conflicting, and
sometimes neediness has really deteriorated. The purposes behind this are perplexing yet a few
models might be useful. To start with, unseemly sorts of help can be sent. Rather than sending
cash that an emerging nation can use to address neediness, created states some of the time given
merchandise that might be useful. For instance, in Gambia a number of oxygen gadgets were
given to an emergency clinic, yet shockingly they were not viable with the nearby power voltage.
This delivered the gadgets unusable, featuring how help should be appropriately thoroughly
examined.

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Second, debasement in certain nations has seen help redirected into the seaward ledgers of the
political world class. For instance, the New York Times guaranteed that more than $1 billion in
unfamiliar guide expected to assist Bosnia with revamping itself following quite a while of
ruinous conflict was taken by Bosnian authorities for individual increase (Hedges 1999). Help
has additionally been utilized for the political reasons for the giving state. For instance, during
the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union utilized guide to set up states that were
thoughtful to their own political reason. In large numbers of those spots this did little to address
neediness; rather, it helped reserve territorial conflicts that prompted further shakiness and
neediness. For instance, the 1975–2002 common conflict in Angola saw the Soviet Union and
the United States give help in the type of military help to restricting powers. Help has likewise
come from created nations or global organizations with explicit conditions for use
('conditionalities') that have simply served to exacerbate the situation. As of now referenced,
such guide requires the getting country to rebuild economy in manners may not benefit the most
weak individuals. For instance, during the underlying change projects of the 1980s in Latin
America, pay per capita fell in 18 nations. During comparable projects in sub-Saharan Africa,
pay per capita fell in 26 nations over a similar period.

2. Exchange and venture

The exchange labor and products along with unfamiliar direct venture by private companies can
play a significant job in poverty decrease. One of the thoughts behind streamlined commerce and
decreasing obstructions to venture between nations is to give freedom to states in the global
framework to develop monetarily. Global exchange products and administrations has risen
fundamentally beginning around 1945. Speculation between states, or thereabouts called
unfamiliar direct venture, has been a significant wellspring of that financial development.
However, these worldwide exercise much of the time conceal a badly designed reality: emerging
nations are regularly just associated with a minor way in worldwide exchange and venture
exercises. This is expected to a number of reasons going from lacking foundation like streets,
rail, and ports to restricted admittance to monetary capital. In contrast with created countries,
many non-industrial nations have a higher extent of lower gifted or uninformed laborers in their
labor force. Subsequently, speculation openings that require high-gifted and high- pay work are
all the more regularly found in created nations and venture by organizations in creating countries

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commonly focuses on a low-talented and low-wage labor force. This truth is hard to survive. In
spite of the fact that countries for example, China and India are putting intensely trying to even
the odds, they are luckier than others because of their similar riches and high memorable degrees
of monetary development. Regardless of some striking exemptions, the overall picture is that
exchange and venture have not helped poverty decrease to any huge degree.

3. Cash loaning

A third neediness lessening methodology is loaning agricultural nation cash, or capital, so they
can put resources into regions that will assist them with growing monetarily. Cash loaning is not
quite the same as help as credits should be repaid, with interest. Credits can be accommodated
key foundation projects like extensions, streets, power lines and force plants. These can regularly
go about as impetuses for monetary turn of events, yet they require critical admittance to capital.
The significance of admittance to capital brought about the foundation of the World Bank in
1944. Its main goal was to loan non-industrial nations cash at beneath market loan costs and
furthermore give master guidance on the foundation of sound monetary approaches. On paper,
the thought is a decent one. Nonetheless, the acts of the World Bank are not without discussion.
As we investigated before in the part, there has been analysis of the conditions appended to the
credits. Albeit the most rebuked of the arrangements have been deserted, harm has been finished.
Moreover, the arrangement of interest-bearing credits to agricultural nations has made a gigantic
issue of obligation. Many creating nations can't stand to put resources into significant
homegrown projects, for example, instruction and medical services due to the weight of their
obligation reimbursements. This has started calls to drop the obligation of agricultural nations
and permit them a new beginning. Until now, albeit some obligation has been dropped, the
bigger difficulties brought about by the idea of remarkable advances and how they were forced
remain.

4. Joined Nations' objectives

In light of the numerous downfalls noted over, another methodology arose in 2000 when the
United Nations and its part states moved to annihilate outrageous neediness by 2015. The United
Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) comprised of eight classifications or spaces of
concentration for states to participate in:

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1. Annihilate outrageous appetite and neediness

2. Accomplish widespread essential training

3. Advance sexual orientation uniformity and enable ladies

4. Diminish kid mortality

5. Work on maternal wellbeing

6. Battle HIV/AIDS, intestinal sickness and different illnesses

7. Guarantee ecological manageability

8. To foster a worldwide organization for improvement.

A cross-part of approaches was utilized for accomplishing these objectives, including tackling
components of the three systems laid out above. The critical thing be that as it may, was to have
an organized way to deal with a bunch of concurred targets. Notwithstanding, the drive
demonstrated a mishmash as far as results. For instance, a few objectives identified with
schooling and youngster mortality have seen genuine – if lopsided – progress, while paces of
appetite and hunger have really deteriorated in a few cases. Worsening this further, the fallout of
the 2008 monetary emergency has decreased the extended measure of cash (and occupations)
accessible to numerous state run administrations. Anthony Lake, Executive Director of the
United Nations Children's Asset (UNICEF), represented the blended image of achievement and
disappointment as follows:

In laying out expansive worldwide objectives the MDGs unintentionally urged countries to
gauge progress through public midpoints. In the race to gain that headway, many zeroed in on
the most effortless to-arrive at youngsters and networks, not those in most prominent need. In
doing as such, public advancement may really have been eased back. (UNICEF, 2015)

Given these unacceptable outcomes, the global local area concurred that a more powerful drive
was required and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were taken on at the United
Nations in 2015. They have 169 clear targets spread more than 17 need regions, all to be
accomplished by 2030:

1. No neediness

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2. No craving

3. Great wellbeing

4. Quality training

5. Sex equity

6. Clean water and sterilization

7. Environmentally friendly power

8. Steady employments and monetary development

9. Advancement and foundation

10. Diminished imbalances

11. Practical urban areas and networks

12. Capable utilization

13. Environment activity

14. Life beneath water

15. Life ashore

16. Harmony and equity

17. Organizations for the objectives.

Like the Millennium Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals can be depicted as
optimistic. Albeit the more up to date targets have their faultfinders, one explanation that they
might offer more noteworthy expectation in lessening neediness is that the arranged mediations
are more point by point. The objective isn't just diminishing neediness, yet tending to the
numerous conditions that feed and concrete states of neediness, including poor (or negative)
monetary development. What's more, the most defenseless are presently being designated
proactively, tending to one of the reactions of the Millennium Development Objectives

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5. CONCLUSION

It is one of the major conundrums of our world that poverty still exists amidst extreme and
growing wealth. Today, the richest 1 per cent of the world’s population hold half the world’s
wealth. In contrast, the bottom 80 per cent owns just 5.5 per cent. What is worse, statistics like
this seem to be getting worse over time with regard to inequality and wealth distribution. It
seems that while economic processes have helped lift many out of poverty, they have largely
failed to mitigate income and wealth inequality. This result poses serious moral and ethical
questions. What cannot be disputed is that the interdependence of our economies is best
accompanied by an equal measure of ethical concern. That is, we owe each and every person a
debt of responsibility for the actions we take and the policies we promote within our own states.
Hopefully the recognition of this, perhaps best marked out by the United Nations 2015
Sustainable Development Goals, will lead to a more just world in the years ahead.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/03058298960250030401?
journalCode=mila
 https://ir.cas.lehigh.edu/content/ir-322-poverty-and-development
 https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-
international-relations/global-poverty-inequality-and-development/
 https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/93/2/429/2997439
 https://worldrelief.org/extreme-poverty/?
gclid=CjwKCAjwzaSLBhBJEiwAJS
 https://populationmatters.org/poverty-development?
gclid=CjwKCAjwzaSLBhBJEiwAJSRokmt3dMTcZzZ8s-
X03ovg9FwQstxlF7-euPaD0Hes82c5QfR4SgKtIBoCIdMQAvD_BwE

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