CHAPTER 5: STATES OF

MATTER

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Under certain conditions of pressure and
temperature, most substances can exist
in any one of the three states of matter:

2
 5.0 STATES OF MATTER
5.1 Gas Kinetic Molecular
Postulates/ Assumptions
Theory

Gas Law Boyle’s Law

Charles’s Law
Avogadro’s Law
Combined Gas Law

PV = nRT
Gas Ideal Gas Equation
Determination Of molar mass
and density of a gas
Dalton’s Law of
Partial Pressure

Ideal & Non Ideal

Behaviour of Gases

Condition at which real gases Low pressure

approach the ideal behaviour 3
High temperature
K KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
OF GASES
Basic assumption (Postulates) :

Gas particles are in constant and random motion

- they frequently collide with one another and with

the walls of container

The volume of gas particles is negligible

- this is due to the size of gas particles are
much smaller than the volume of container

4
Intermolecular forces (attractive and repulsive force)
between gas particles are negligible

Collisions between gas particles are elastic

- kinetic energies of particles before the
the collisions are same as that of after
collisions
- total kinetic energy is constant

The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is

directly proportional to the absolute temperature

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Gas pressure is caused
by gas molecules colliding
container’s walls

6
 The gas’s Law
The physical behavior of gas can be
described by four variables:

Pressure (P)
Boyle’s law
Volume (V)
Charles’s law
Temperature (T)
Avogadro’s law
Amount
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(number of moles) (n)
 Boyle’s Law
At constant temperature, the volume
occupied by a fixed amount of gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure
of a gas

V a 1/P ( T and n fixed )

PV = k Where k = constant

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 and V1 = initial pressure and volume of the gas

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P2 and V2 = final pressure and volume of the gas
 Graphs based on Boyle’s Law

Graph of V versus P Graph of V versus 1/P

V V

Slope=k

1
P P 9
A doubling of the pressure causes the volume
of the gas to decrease to one-half its original
value.
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 Graph of PV versus V

PV

V or P

PV = constant
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HOW THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
EXPLAINS THE BOYLE’S LAW?

• Gas pressure is a measure of the

number of collisions between gas
particles and the walls of container.

• The smaller the volume at constant n

and T, the more crowded together the
particles are and the greater the
collisions.

• Thus, pressure of the gas increases as

the volume decreases. 12
13
A sample of gas occupies 12.0 L under a
pressure of 1.2 atm. What would its volume
be if the pressure were increased to 2.4 atm?

14
 Charles’s Law
At constant pressure, the volume
occupied by a fixed amount of gas
is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature
VaT ( P and n fixed )
V
= k (constant)
T
V1 V2 T in Kelvin (K)!
=
T1 T2 T (K) = t (oC) + 273.15 15
 Graphs based on Charles’s Law

Graph of V versus T(K) Graph of V versus T(oC)

V V
Absolute
zero

T(K) -273.15 T(oC)

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HOW THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
EXPLAINS THE CHARLES’S LAW?

• Temperature is a measure of the average

kinetic energy of the gas particles.

• The higher the temperature at constant n

and P, the faster the particles move and
more space they need to move around in
to avoid increasing their collisions with
the walls of the container.

• Thus, volume increases as temperature

increases. 17
18
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies
3.20 L at 125 oC. At what temperature will the
gas occupy a volume of 1.54 L if the pressure
remains constant?

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 Combined Gas Law

Simple combination of Boyle’s and

Charles’s Law

VaT ( n fixed )
P

PV
= k (constant)
T

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2 20
A 385−mL sample of neon exerts a pressure of
670 torr at 26oC. At what pressure would it
occupies volume of 440 mL at 206oC.

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 AVOGADRO’S LAW
At constant pressure and temperature,
the volume of a gas is directly proportional
to the number of moles of the gas present

Van ( P and T fixed )

V
= k (constant)
n
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
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23
HOW THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
EXPLAINS THE AVOGADRO’S LAW?

• The more particles there are in the gas

sample, the more volume the particles
need at constant P and T to avoid
increasing their collisions with the walls
of the container.

• Thus, volume increases as amount

(number of moles) of gas particles
increases.

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25
2 moles of Cl2 gas kept in a cylinder with
piston occupies a volume of 49.0 L. When
another 3 moles of Cl2 gas is pumped into the
cylinder, at constant temperature and
pressure, the piston moves upwards to
accommodate the gas. Calculate the final
volume of gas.

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 IDEAL GAS EQUATION

BOYLE’S CHARLES’S AVOGADRO’S

LAW
+ LAW + LAW

By combining the three

gases laws

IDEAL GAS EQUATION

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PV= nRT
 IDEAL GAS EQUATION

Boyle’s Law : Va 1
P
Charles’s Law : VaT V a nT
P
Avogadro’s Law :
Van V = R nT R = gas constant
=0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1
P = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1

PV = nRT

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What pressure, in atm, is exerted by 54.0 grams
of Xe in a 1.00−liter flask at 20oC

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What is the volume of a gas balloon filled with
4.00 moles of He when the atmospheric pressure
is 748 torr and the temperature is 30oC?

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A steel tank has a volume of 438 L and is filled
with 0.885 kg of O2. Calculate the pressure (in
atm) of O2 at 21oC.

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 APPLICATION OF
THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Calculation of:
• Gas densities
• Molar mass of a gas

PV = nRT

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 Density of a Gas from
the Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT

PV = m RT n= m
M M
mRT m
P = d =
VM V
d RT
P =
M
PM
d =
RT
m : Mass of the gas in g d : density of33gas
M : Molar mass of the gas (Unit: g/mol)
What is the density of oxygen gas (O2) at 298 K
and 0.987 atm?

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 Molar Mass of a Gas
From the Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT

PV = m RT n= m
M M
mRT
M =
PV
mRT dRT
M = or M =
PV P

m : Mass of the gas in g d : density of gas

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M : Molar mass of the gas (Unit: g/mol)
The density of phosphorus vapor at 310oC
and 775 mmHg is 2.64 g/L. What is the
molecular formula of the phosphorus under
these conditions?

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 DALTON’S LAW OF
PARTIAL PRESSURE
In a mixture of unreacting gases, the total
pressure is the sum of the partial pressure
exerted by each gas in the mixture
(at constant V and T)

PTotal = PA + PB + PC + ……..

EXAMPLE:

PTotal = PN + PHe + PAr

2
37
John Dalton (1766-1844). English chemist, mathematician, and philosopher
 PARTIAL PRESSURE
Pressures exerted by individual gas components
in the gas mixture

P = 1 atm P = 2 atm PTotal = PN + PAr

N2 Ar 2
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= 3 atm
Consider a case in which two gases, A and B, are
in a container of fixed volume V:

The pressure exerted by gas A and gas B is:

nART
PA = nA : moles of gas A
V

nBRT
PB = nB : moles of gas B
V
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 According to Dalton’s law:

PTotal = Partial pressure of gas A + Partial pressure of gas B

PTotal = PA + PB

nART nBRT
= +
V V

= (nA + nB) RT
V

= (nTotal) RT
V 40
Partial pressure of gases can be expressed in terms of
mole fraction:

Mole fraction moles of gas A

=
(XA) Total number of moles of all gases

PAV

XA RT
=
PTotalV
RT
PA
=
PTotal

PA = XA PTotal 41
A gaseous mixture made from 6.00 g O2 and
9.00 g CH4 is placed in a 15.0–L vessel at 0oC.
What is the partial pressure of each gas, and
what is the total pressure in the vessel?

42
A 4.00−L flask containing He at 6.00 atm is
connected to a 2.00 L flask containing N2 at 3.00
atm and the gases are allowed to mix.

(a) Find the partial pressure of each gas after

the gases are allowed to mix.

(b) Find the total pressure of the mixture.

(c) What is the mole fraction of helium?

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 APPLICATION OF DALTON’S LAW IN COLLECTING
A GAS OVER WATER
(Water Displacement Method)
When a gas is collected “over water”, a mixture of the
particular gas and water vapour is collected.
P Total = Pgas + P H2O
By using Dalton’s law:

P = Pgas + PH O
Total 2

Patm

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 EXAMPLE:

When KClO3 is heated, it decomposes to KCl and O2 gas.

2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

The O2 gas produced is collected by water

displacement method.

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure:

PTotal = PO + PH O
2 2

PO = PTotal _ PH O
2 2

PH O : pressure of water vapor

2 45
( at 25oC = 23.76 mmHg )
 Vapor Pressure of Water at Diffrerent Temperature

Temperature ( °C ) Pressure ( mmHg )

10 9.2
20 17.5
25 23.8
30 31.8
40 55.3
50 92.5
60 149.4
70 233.7
80 355.1
The vapour pressure of water depends on T. It increases with
increasing T because higher T cause more water molecules
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to evaporate
Consider the reaction below:
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

A sample of 5.45 liters of oxygen is collected

over water at a pressure of 735.5 torr and at a
temperature of 25oC. How many grams of
oxygen have been collected?

At 25oC, the vapor pressure of water

= 23.8 torr
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A nitrogen sample occupies 469 mL at STP. If
the same sample were collected over water at
25oC and 750 torr, what would be the volume
(in milliliters) of the gas sample?
(The vapor pressure of water at 25oC is 23.8 torr)

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 IDEAL GAS

Any gas that obeys the ideal gas

equation and has the properties
as outlined by the Kinetic
Molecular Theory

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Does an ideal gas exist ?

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 IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL
BEHAVIOURS OF GASES
Ideal gas Real gas
(Ideal behaviour) (Non-ideal behaviour)

 Volume of gas particles  Gas particles have a

is negligible compared to certain volume & do
the volume of container. occupy some space.

 Intermolecular forces  There is intermolecular

between gas particles are forces between gas
negligible. particles
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Deviation of gas from Ideal Behavior

Real gases do not show ideal behaviour.

The deviation is due to:

i) Gas particles occupy space, that is, they

have volume.

ii) The existence of intermolecular forces

between gas particles .
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The deviation is more significant at high
pressure and low temperature.

1) At high pressure:
 volume of container decreases

 gas particles are closer to each other and

begin to occupy a space portion in the
container.
Hence,
i. The volume of gas particles is significant.
ii. The intermolecular forces between
molecules become significant/important.
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At high pressures, the
particles are much closer
together and the attractive
forces cannot be ignored.

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2) At low temperature

 The kinetic energy of the gas particles

decrease.
Hence,

i. The gas particles move at low speed

ii. The intermolecular forces between
molecules become significant.

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 Plot of PV/RT versus the Pressure(P) of
1 mole of Various Gases at 273 K(0oC)
CH4
PV N2
H2
RT
NH3
Ideal gas
1.0

P / atm
5 atm

When P↑
Deviation from ideal behavior ↑ 56
 Plot of PV/RT versus the Pressure(P) of
1 mole of N2 at Various Temperature
PV 293 K
RT 203 K

673 K

1000 K
1.0 Ideal gas

P / atm

When T ↓ and P↑
Deviation from ideal behavior ↑ 57
 CONDITIONS AT WHICH REAL GASES
APPROACH THE IDEAL BEHAVIOUR

❶ At very low pressure (Constant temperature)

 Volume of container is increased.

 The gas particles are far apart in a large volume
 The Intermolecular forces are negligible
 Volume of gas molecules is too small
compared to volume of the container, thus
volume of gas molecules are negligible
Hence, it obey kinetic–molecular theory, the
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gas behave ideally.
❷ At high temperature (Constant volume)

 Gas particles have high kinetic

energy and move at high speed
 Gas particles are free from
intermolecular forces that act between
them
- intermolecular forces are negligible
Hence, it obey kinetic–molecular theory, the
gas behave ideally.

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 van der Waals Equation
To describe real gas behavior accurately,
we need to modify the ideal gas equation
→ van der Waals equation

van der Waals adjusted the ideal gas

equation by correcting two parameters:
i) The volume of gas particles occupied in
the container are considered.
ii) The intermolecular forces acting
between gas particles are considered.
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 (i) The effect of molecular volume on
measured gas volume

Deviation from Ideal behavior

At lower pressure, the
At high pressure, the volume of
volume of the gas the gas particles is more
particles is negligible significant compared to the total
compared to the total volume.
volume.
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 The increase in V of real gas is caused by the
effect of molecular volume

It is corrected by subtracting an amount nb,

which accounts for the finite volume
occupied by the gas particles

nb

●
● ● Vfinite = V container – V gas
= V container – nb
n : moles of molecules 62
b : constant representing the volume occupied by the gas particles
 Vfinite = V container – V gas
= V container – nb

n : moles of molecules
b : constant representing the volume occupied by the gas particles

 The larger the molecule ( or atom ), the greater b is.

Molecule size ↑ , b↑

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 (ii) The effect of intermolecular forces on
measured gas pressure

Deviation from Ideal behavior

At lower pressure, the gas
particles are so fart apart.
There are no attractive and
repulsive forces between
the gas particles. Therefore,
the gas behave as an ideal
gas.
At high pressure and low temperature, the gas
particles are much closer together and move
slower. The attractive and repulsive forces
between them is significant. The particles give
less impact to the wall. The pressure exerted
by a real gas is lower than expected from ideal
gas, (Preal < Pideal ) 64
65
The intermolecular forces have an effect on the
speed of the moving gas particles.

Gas particles that experience

this force will move slowly.

The collision of gas particles

with the wall of container
become less.

lower pressure exert compare

to ideal gas situation

●
● ● Preal < Pideal 66
 The decrease in P of real gas is caused by the
effect of intermolecular attraction.

n2a
It is corrected by adding an amount ,
V2
which accounts for the intermolecular
forces between gas particles.

Preal < Pideal

n2a
●
● ● P ideal = Preal +
V2

n : moles of particles 67
a : constant relates to intermolecular forces between gas particles
The values of a indicates how strongly
molecules of a given type of gas attract one
another

intermolecular forces ↑ , a ↑

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 P ideal > P real V = V container
P ideal = P real + n2a V = V container – V gas
V2 = V container – nb

Ideal Gas equation : PV = nRT

Van Der Waals Gas equation :

n2a
P + (V – nb) = nRT
V2
Correction for molecular Correction for molecular volume
attraction

Where, P = Pressure of gas (real)

V = Volume of container
n = Mole of gas 69
a,b = Van der Waals constant
The constant value a and b are different for different gases

Van der Waals Constants for

Some Common Gases

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 LET’S TRY – 07 5.1
SK016

Calculate the pressure exerted by 4.37 moles

of molecular chlorine confined in a volume of
2.45 L at 38oC (use van der Waals equation).
Compare the pressure with the pressure
calculated by the ideal gas equation.
( a = 6.49 atmL2mol–2
b = 0.0562 Lmol–1 )
 END
OF
SLIDE SHOW
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