Effect of Water on the Degradation of Gypsum Plaster

Coatings: Inspection, Diagnosis, and Repair

F. Palha, M.Sc.1; A. Pereira, M.Sc.2; J. de Brito3; and J. D. Silvestre, M.Sc.4
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Abstract: This paper presents an expert system designed to support the inspection and diagnosis of gypsum plaster coatings applied to
partition walls and ceilings [interior gypsum plaster (IGP)]. It includes a classification of the defects that may affect IGP and their probable
causes, the correlation matrices amongst defects and between defects and probable causes, and a classification of diagnostic methods and
repair techniques suitable for each type of IGP defect. This inspection system was validated through standard IGP inspections undertaken on
119 walls or ceilings in 23 buildings located throughout Portugal. A statistical analysis of the results of the inspection is given that provides
details on, in particular, the pathological problems related to the action of water on IGP because the presence of moisture within or on the
surface of IGP coatings was shown to affect the severity of the problems of inspected samples. The characteristics and frequency of
occurrence of dampness, biodeterioration, and efflorescence and cryptoflorescence are presented, together with the primary causes for their
presence in the sample. The most suitable diagnostic methods, preventive measures, and repair solutions prescribed for these defects are also
analyzed, in detail. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000258. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Defects; Diagnosis; Expert systems; Gypsum; Coating; Moisture; Rehabilitation; Walls.
Author keywords: Defects; Diagnostic methods; Expert systems; Gypsum plaster; Moisture; Plaster coatings; Rehabilitation methods;
Walls.

Introduction
Gypsum-based plasters are typically produced in a factory and
sold ready-mixed, and accordingly to the European standard EN
13279-1, are referred to as gypsum plasters, a standard that deals
with gypsum binders and plasters. This is the plaster coating most
usually applied to interior partition walls and ceilings [interior
gypsum plasters (IGPs) of homes located on mainland Portugal
and in most of Europe and the Americas.] Gypsum plasters, how-
ever, are used less frequently in the Portuguese Azores Islands
because of the overwhelmingly wet climate and the well-known
susceptibility of this coating to the action of moisture. The leading
role ascribed to dampness as a cause of defects to gypsum plasters
is caused by its ability to stimulate the action of other deteriorating
agents. For example: gaseous pollutants become deleterious when
dissolved in water; efflorescence depends on the migration of salts
dissolved in water; and biological growth requires damp condi-
tions. Therefore, knowledge of the patterns of behavior of damp-
ness and the direct or indirect effect of dampness on gypsum plaster
is an essential source of information for the diagnosis of defects, the
1
IST—Technical Univ. of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon,
Portugal. E-mail: fpalha@gmail.com
2
IST—Technical Univ. of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon,
Portugal. E-mail: ap.cascais@clix.pt
3
Full Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Section of
Construction, IST—Technical Univ. of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-
001, Lisbon, Portugal (corresponding author). E-mail: jb@civil.ist.utl.pt
4
Ph.D. Student, Assistant Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Section of Construction, IST—Technical Univ. of Lisbon,
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: jds@civil.ist.utl.pt
Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 1, 2011; approved on
June 14, 2011; published online on June 16, 2011. Discussion period open
until January 1, 2013; separate discussions must be submitted for individual
papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Performance of Constructed
Facilities, Vol. 26, No. 4, August 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 0887-3828/2012/
4-424–432/$25.00.
causes of defects and appropriate repair solutions. This is true even
on mainland Portugal but especially in coastal areas where damp
conditions are much more prevalent as compared to the national
average [World Health Organization (WHO) 2009)].
The proposed inspection system for IGPs , described in detail in
Pereira et al. (2011), was validated through a program of inspection
that included the pathological characterization of IGP that was
applied to over 100 walls or ceilings in 23 buildings located
throughout Portugal. A detailed statistical analysis of the results
of the program is presented in this paper, which also covers the
pathological problems related to the action of water on IGP. No
similar research work was found in any of the specialized literature,
with the exception of the work of Gaião et al. (2010a, b), in which a
similar inspection system for IGP and specific to gypsum plaster-
board is described. However, the work carried out by Gaião et al.
(2010a, b) is not as broad as the study described in this paper, nor
does it provide a statistical analysis of results, as was done in this
study. The statistical analysis that was carried out is both innovative
and scientifically validated and reveals statistically significant
information on defects of IGPs.
Inspection Program
A program of inspection was designed for buildings in which IGP
coatings were used; this permitted validating the inspection system
and related inspection procedures. The inspection plan included the
pathological characterization of 119 IGP coatings applied to walls
(75) or ceilings (44) of 87 rooms in 23 buildings (22 residential
and one office building), 83% of which are in the Lisbon area
in Portugal. The buildings were primarily constructed in the
1990s (43%) but 9% of these date from the 1950s and 1960s.
The average age of these buildings is 18 years and the oldest were
built in 1945 (Pereira 2008; Palha 2008). The pathologies found
and the repair techniques prescribed were quite different from those
for gypsum plasters applied in older buildings (Silveira et al. 2007;

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 Cotrim et al. 2008).The rooms in which IGP defects were found
and their incidence are presented in Fig. 1. Damp areas or rooms
more susceptible to the action of moisture (kitchens, water closets,
and closed balconies) form 31% of the sample set.
Inspection Files
With the inspection files, the intent is to gather information on the
characteristics of the buildings having IGP coatings and to identify
all the characteristics of IGPs applied to walls and ceilings within
the rooms of these buildings. The information fields within the
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on IGP, and they also account for 40% of the defects most urgently
requiring repair. These defects are damp, of a physical nature, and
biodeterioration and efflorescence/cryptoflorescence, of a chemical
nature. Because of the already-known significance of these defects,
their representation in the sample, and the severity symbolized in
the repair urgency, this paper offers a thorough analysis of the
causes of these defects, proposes diagnosis methods to characterize
them adequately, and repair solutions to eliminate their causes.
Action of Water on IGP

inspection files are as follows (Silvestre and de Brito 2009):

• For each building, the year of construction and the primary use One of the most common causes of defects in buildings is the pres-
of the building (e.g., housing, storage, offices), and ence of water. Dampness can itself be a defect and is symptomatic
• For each IGP inspected, the location, application date, designa- of an excessive quantity of water within an IGP that results in more
tion and construction characteristics, finish (e.g., plasterboard, or less permanent stains (Figs. 2 and 3), or it can be the cause of
ceramic tiling, wallpaper), and the characterization of mainte- other defects. There is also epidemiological evidence from studies
nance work undertaken over the service life of the IGP. on indoor air quality as noted by the WHO to show that people
A more in depth description of the contents of the inspection living in damp or mold-ridden buildings are at an increased risk
files is presented in Silvestre and de Brito (2009). of respiratory disorders (WHO 2009).
Validation Files
To enable validating the inspection system, the primary character-
istics of IGP defects identified during inspection were recorded in
the validation files. Both the direct and indirect probable causes
were recorded among the key characteristics of IGP defects to-
gether with location of defect, size, and orientation of detachments
and cracks; percentage of IGP area affected; conditions that allow
the anomaly to progress; repair urgency and aesthetic value of the
affected area; assessment methods to be used in the diagnosis; and
the most suitable techniques to repair the defects and eliminate their
causes. The complete content of the validation files is more fully
described in Silvestre and de Brito (2009). The subsequent statis-
tical organization of data collected from inspections and retained in
the validation files thereafter allowed the analysis of the informa-
tion as described subsequently.

Pathology Fig. 2. Stain caused by too much water within an IGP applied to a
ceiling (Pereira 2008)
The IGP was inspected by using a system previously built up and
described, in detail, in Pereira et al. (2011); it includes a system to
classify defects in IGP and their causes. The defect classification
system includes pathological problems of physical, chemical, and
mechanical nature that can affect IGP, totaling 12 individual de-
fects, which were defined after studying referenced pathological
processes of wall coatings [Dias 2007; National Gypsum (NG)
2008; Rodrigues et al. 2005; Vergès-Belmin 2005]. Of these de-
fects, 31% of those identified are related to the action of water

Fig. 3. Stain caused by too much water within an IGP applied to a wall
Fig. 1. Relative incidence of the inspected rooms (Pereira 2008) (Pereira 2008)

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 The pathological phenomena in IGP that result from the action
of water depend on its origin and how it passes into and moves
inside construction assemblies. One of the most common occur-
rences is the unavoidable manifestation of damp in the internal
layer of external walls during or after heavy rain (Derome and
Saneinejad 2010). If the external walls have one or more problems
that allow rainwater to infiltrate, this water will show on the internal
surface as stains of varying sizes that affect the aesthetic appearance
of the IGP. They may equally lead to its biodeterioration or to the
occurrence of efflorescence or cryptoflorescence because the
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amount of water on or inside the materials is the most important
trigger of the growth of microorganisms. Water can also appear
in walls if a pipe bursts, water leaks, or there is flooding (Henriques
1992; WHO 2009).
Most condensation inside buildings results from water vapor
generated within the work or habitable space (Fig. 4) and primarily
occurs on IGP surfaces that are cooler than the surrounding air
and where the temperatures are below the dew point of the air.
Therefore, condensation can be prevented by (WHO 2009)
• Heating indoor air (e.g., when air at a temperature of 15°C and a
relative humidity of 75% is heated to a temperature of 20°C, its
relative humidity decreases to 58%),
• Increasing the insulation of the external walls (over the entire
surface or over thermal bridges) and windows and preventing
Fig. 4. Fungus in a badly ventilated area on an IGP with coated with
nonantifungal paint (Pereira 2008)
Fig. 5. Crystallization of salts within the porous structure of IGP
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any local decrease of temperature in building elements that
can result on condensation (e.g., in the previous example, if
a surface has a temperature of 11°C or less, the relative humidity
reaches 100% and water condenses), and
• Improving natural ventilation (in contemporary buildings it is
often poor) or mechanical ventilation if the space is not too
crowded or if the amount of water vapor produced is not exces-
sive (e.g., when outdoor air at a temperature of 8°C and 100%
relative humidity is brought to an indoor temperature of 20°C,
its relative humidity decreases to 15%, thus, improving the in-
door air quality); in new buildings, the means to comply with
this need should be taken into account in the design stage by
following the national standard related with the “Energetic
and interior air quality certification” [e.g., European Commis-
sion (EC) 2002].
The persistence of condensation on IGP coated walls or ceilings
may also result in the growth of mold and fungus (Fig. 4) or the
formation of stains, efflorescence, or cryptoflorescence phenomena
(Henriques 1992).
The IGP is a material that has an open porosity, and this eases
the percolation of water through its microstructure and exposes it to
hygroscopic movements (Petković et al. 2010). If this water trans-
ports soluble salts (such as calcium sulfate) that already exist within
construction materials, the consequent pathological phenomena can
be particularly severe. These salts can crystallize under or within
the IGP, thus producing cryptoflorescence that, in turn, lowers the
mechanical resistance of the coating that may thereafter result in a
total loss of its cohesion (Fig. 5) (Henriques 1992; Pühringer 1983;
Arnold and Zehnder 1987; Goudie and Viles 1997). If these salts
crystallize on the outer surface of the IGP, they result in efflores-
cence, but they also indicate that a significant amount of water has
made its way within the IGP and as a consequence, damaged part of
its chemical and physical structure.
Defect Incidence and Characterization
The classification of defects in IGP is described, in detail, in Pereira
et al. (2011). Mechanically-related defects are included in the pro-
posed classification, but given that these are not related to the action
of water, they are not discussed in this paper. However, the physi-
cally and chemically-related groups of defects are characterized as
related to the presence of water and therefore, were addressed in the
following paragraphs.
Generally, the most recurrent physical defects are the presence
of dirt and dampness visually evident on the surface of the IPG.
The latter deserves special attention because, as described in the
previous section, it is one of the most aggressive problems that
can affect the interior finishes of modern buildings. Dampness
leads to the development of several aggressive actions including:
physical, caused by the modification of the intercrystalline structure
 of the gypsum; chemical, caused by the presence of soluble salts in
the substrate and the IGP; and biological, through the development
of mold and fungus (Fig. 4). The consequence of these actions is a
decline in the conditions of habitability of the indoor area and
durability of the IGP finish and, in a few cases, the irreversible
and premature degradation of the coatings, which leads to their
eventual replacement, perhaps in the short-term (Pereira et al.
2011). Moreover, excessive moisture and inadequate ventilation
leads to the growth of microbes, such as molds, fungi, and bacteria.
Dampness also initiates the chemical or biological degradation
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of materials, which may also lead to the pollution of indoor air.
However, the health risks derived from biological contaminants
of indoor air can be addressed by considering dampness as a risk
indicator (WHO 2009).
The second group of defects comprises those caused by chemi-
cal phenomena. The first defect results in the growth of molds or
bacteria on the coating, known as biodeterioration. Microbial
growth may result in more spores, cell fragments, and allergens
present in the indoor air, and an excessive level of any of these
agents in the indoor environment is a potential health hazard
(Kildeso et al. 2003; WHO 2009). The second defect arises from
the volumetric expansion of salts within the coating-substrate inter-
face that results in efflorescence and perhaps cryptoflorescence
phenomena (Pereira et al. 2011).
In the sample set of 119 IGP coatings, 331 defects were iden-
tified, in which only one occurrence per defect type was recorded
for each IGP; this generated an average of 2.78 defect types per
IGP. Fig. 6 presents the relative incidence of the defects (i.e., num-
ber of defects observed divided by the number of IGPs inspected)
for dampness, biodeterioration, and efflorescence or cryptoflores-
cence. The information provided in Fig. 6 shows that dampness is
clearly the defect most often found in IGPs, with an incidence of
occurrence of 50% in this sample set. Biodeterioration (incidence
of 26%) is also very likely to be found when inspecting IGPs in this
location.
Of the 331 IGP defects identified of the buildings inspected, 231
(70%) of these defects effected walls, whereas the other 100 (30%)
were identified in ceilings. Of course, more walls than ceilings were
inspected (75 to 44); however, the proportion of defects for walls
was greater than that for ceilings. This may be because the walls in
each room account for a larger overall surface area, even discount-
ing the area attributable to windows and doors, as compared with
the surface area of ceilings and perhaps because the walls are more
readily exposed to human action. The area of external walls, exter-
nal walls exposed to the infiltration of rainwater, is also greater than
the area of external ceilings; as a consequence, this may also affect
the total number of defects attributable to walls than ceilings. If one
considers the absolute value of the incidence of defects detected in
Fig. 6. Relative incidence of dampness, biodeterioration, and efflores-
cence/cryptoflorescence
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walls and ceilings, as given in Fig. 7, the value is similar for both
surfaces (wall or ceilings) and only biodeterioration is 7% more
likely in ceilings than in walls.
The relationship between the average number of defects of each
type and the age of the building in which they occurred is shown
in Fig. 8. It shows that there is no clear trend between number of
defects and age of the buildings. Nevertheless, the average number
of defects in rooms of buildings built between 1950 and 1969 is
clearly higher (0.49) than the average number of defects in the
rooms of buildings built between 2000 and 2007 (0.22). This per-
haps confirms a trend for improved construction methods, in which
there is an enhanced performance and resistance of construction
materials that contribute to the reduction in rate of natural aging
and to a significant decrease in the number of defects. Dampness,
however, occurs in all rooms in buildings from having been built
between 1990 and 1999, which also reveals the need for important
repair interventions in the buildings constructed in this period.
Correlation matrices are the backbone of the IGP inspection
system. They provide a link between the defects observed in situ
to their probable causes, and this assists in the diagnosis of the
problem and thereafter the prescription for repair solutions (Pereira
et al. 2011). The inspection program also permitted a means to
validate these correlation matrices.
A defect in the IGP may be confined to a small area or occur
throughout the IGP surface. The interdefect correlation index
provides a list of the simultaneous occurrence of defects and thus,
is a useful tool that permits establishing the likelihood of occur-
rence of other defects once a single defect is detected. This index
was based on a correlation matrix for defects and probable causes
of defects developed by Pereira et al. (2011) using the method
Fig. 7. Absolute incidence of dampness, biodeterioration, and efflor-
escence/cryptoflorescence in walls and ceilings
Fig. 8. Average number of defects of each type in the rooms in each
age group
 Table 1. Inter-Defect Correlation Matrix
Efflorescence/
Defect Dampness Biodeterioration cryptoflorescence
Dampness — ▪▪▪□ ▪▪□□
Biodeterioration ▪▪▪□ — ▪▪▪□
Efflorescence/ ▪▪▪□ ▪▪▪□ — errors, problems with materials, execution errors, exterior mechani-
cryptoflorescence
Note: In this table, □□□□ represents 0%, ▪□□□ represents [0;25]%,
▪▪□□ represents [25;50]%, ▪▪▪□ represents [50;75]%, and ▪▪▪▪
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represents [75;100]%.
described by Silvestre and de Brito (2009). The basis of the devel-
opment of the matrix is straightforward; the probability of occur-
rence of defect j (column j) is estimated when defect k (row k)
occurs (Table 1). The information provided in Table 1 confirms
the strong correlation that exists between the three defects under
study (i.e., probability of simultaneous occurrence between 50%
and 75%). In fact when dampness is detected, only the probability
of occurrence of efflorescence and cryptoflorescence lies within a
smaller interval [i.e., (25; 50)%].
The information related to each type of defect is summarized in
the inspection system through individual defect files. The damp-
ness defect file included in Pereira et al. (2011), is comprised of
the probable causes of defects, possible consequences, diagnostic
methods to be applied in situ to characterize the extent of defects,
the severity and stability of the defect, and the prescribed repair
solutions for the defect. As well, every defect detected from inspec-
tions was rated in the urgency for repair, in which the following
actions could be selected:
• 0- Action required immediately or in the short-term (6 months);
• 1- Action required in the medium-term (12 months); or
• 2- Action required in the long-term (reassessment in next
routine inspection).
Considering the data collected in the inspection and validation
files, the incidence of each ranking of the defects related with the
action of water is presented in Fig. 9. This graph shows that damp-
ness, biodeterioration, and efflorescence and cryptoflorescence
have a severity and urgency for repair of greater than 33%. This
result is related to the progressive deterioration characteristics
typical of these types of defects.
Incidence of Probable Causes
As stated, many of the pathological problems evident of IGPs are
caused by the presence of water, which can occur for various rea-
sons. However the isolated occurrence of each type of defect under
study in this paper is, in fact, an ideal occurrence and not one that
typically occurs in service conditions. Usually, two or all three
defects occur simultaneously because their causes are similar or
correlated. Therefore, it is essential to identify and analyze each
Fig. 9. Repair urgency of each defect in the sample
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individual defect for its cause, such as condensation, soluble
and hygroscopic salts, dampness of materials, and sundry acciden-
tal causes. This process helps in formulating a correct defect diag-
nosis and the subsequent choice of an appropriate repair action.
There were 53 probable causes of defects of IGPs included in
the inspection system and these were classified as follows: design
cal action, environmental action, and maintenance errors. A de-
tailed and illustrated description of the causes can be found in
Pereira et al. (2011).
During the course of the program of inspection described in this
paper, 3,154 probable causes were identified, which gives an aver-
age of 9.5 causes for every IGP defect type. The inspections
consisted solely of a visual examination of the IGP (time and cost
limitations prevented in situ or perfomance of laboratory tests) and
were documented in standard inspection and validation files. This
explains the large average number of probable causes per defect.
This would likely decrease if a diagnosis procedure were put into
practice that facilitated the detection of the actual cause of defects
identified during inspection.
Execution errors were the most important group of causes of
defects in the sample set representing almost 40% of all those
causes identified of the 119 IGP coatings inspected. These defect
causes can be related to substrate preparation (e.g., excessive water-
proofing or lack of humidity) or to incorrect execution of some
coating components (e.g., waterproofing barriers, ventilation sys-
tems, air gaps, and drainage holes). In this group, the most frequent
causes were incorrect or lack of installation of waterproofing
barriers and protection profiles specified in the design and incorrect
or lack of installation of ventilation system. The high incidence of
both causes can be explained by the direct relationship between the
presence of water and early deterioration and the occurrence of
most of the defects in IGP.
Of environmental actions, which comprised 8% of all the defect
causes in the inspection program, the most important was excessive
humidity for reasons already stated. Finally, within the causes
related to maintenance errors, insufficient ventilation had a high
number of occurrences, especially in defects found in water closets
and kitchens because of its relationship to poor design and execu-
tion errors in these systems or improper use of the room by users.
Correlation between Probable Causes and Defects
The causes of defects in IGPs were correlated with defects by using
a classification system. After the defects were identified and linked
with their probable causes, a matrix was then produced by using a
correlation index for these two items. The correlation matrix en-
abled identifying the probable cause(s) of each defect and thereafter
rated each defect cause with a number according to its degree of
correlation (0, 1 for indirect causes or 2 for direct causes); the com-
plete set of values for the correlation matrix can be found in Pereira
et al. (2011). The theoretical correlation matrix for IGP defects and
their probable causes, which is on the basis of the experience of the
authors and on specialized literature, was validated through the use
of the inspection program. The correlation between defects and
their causes taken from the sample set obtained in this study is
analyzed subsequently and the results are discussed.
Fig. 10 presents the main probable causes of dampness defect
(incidence above 66 ). This defect was found in 59 of the 119 IGP
coatings and was associated with 621 probable causes; the average
number of causes for this defect was thus 10.5. The information
provided in Fig. 10 shows that the defect is caused by excessive
humidity in almost every instance (90%). This results from a strong
relationship between the defect and faults in the waterproofing or
ventilation systems of the rooms, which is evident from the high
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Fig. 10. Contribution of the causes to the occurrence of dampness

incidence of incorrect design and detailing of waterproofing system
(design error 71%), and incorrect or lack of installation of water-
proofing barriers and protection profiles specified in the design
(execution error 69%). These directly contribute to the presence
of high humidity in the spaces that were inspected, even if the
humidity was caused by water vapor. Insufficient supervision
and quality control is also an execution error that had a significant
incidence (85%) and may help explain the inefficiency or lack of a
ventilation system that resulted in humidity that was observed to
occur on an IGP coating. The maintenance error related to lack
of conservation and maintenance works was also prevalent (71%
of the sample set was represented by this type of error).
Fig. 11 shows the contribution of the main causes of the bio-
deterioration defect having an incidence of occurrence of more than
66%. This defect was found in 31 IGP coatings with a total of 365
probable causes, thus representing an average of 11.8 probable
causes per occurrence. A comparison between Figs. 10 and 11
helps confirm the similarity of causes of both defects. This was
expected because the presence of dampness encourages the devel-
opment of microorganisms.
Fig. 12 shows the primary probable causes for the occurrence of
efflorescence and cryptoflorescence in the sample set (incidence
more than 66%). This defect was observed in 13 IGP coatings with
a total of 180 probable causes, an average of 13.8 probable causes
per occurrence. The high number of probable causes associated
with this defect was expected given the two main factors that
can provoke it: the quantity of salts within materials and the fact
that the presence of water often affects the surfaces of walls and

Fig. 11. Contribution of the causes to the occurrence of biodeterioration

Fig. 12. Contribution of the causes to the occurrence of efflorescence/cryptoflorescence

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 ceilings. Fig. 12 also provides a means to highlight the causes re-
lated to errors in the choice or use of materials for walls or ceilings,
i.e., mistakes made at the design or execution stage. The most
significant of these causes are: incorrect prescription of materials
(a design error, 85%); use of material with production defects
(a problem with materials, 77%); use of nonprescribed, incorrect,
or incompatible materials (also a problem with materials, 100%);
and disregarding instructions for mixing quantities and procedures
(an execution error, 85%). The occurrence of one of these situations
increases the likelihood of products used that contain an excessive
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concentration of salt or that are chemically incompatible; the
outcome will be destructive crystallization reactions under or on
the IGPs.
In the second group of causes of this defect are problems related
to the prolonged presence of water in the coating. These causes
include, from the group categorized as design errors, incorrect
design and detailing of waterproofing system (92%) and incorrect
application of mandatory construction rules or standards (85%),
whereas from that categorized as execution errors include: incorrect
or lack of installation of waterproofing barriers and protection pro-
files specified in the design (85%), insufficient supervision/quality
control (92%), and the environmental action excessive humidity
(92%). Finally, the group of causes relating to environmental
effects includes: chemical and biological attack (85%) and the
maintenance error excessive or incorrect cleaning of IGP (92%);
both these errors have a high incidence in the sample set.
Diagnosis
Indicators of dampness and microbial growth include the presence
of condensation, visible mold, perceived moldy odor, and a history
Fig. 13. Relative incidence in the sample of the main diagnosis meth-
ods for dampness and biodeterioration
Fig. 14. Relative incidence in the sample of the main diagnosis methods for efflorescence/cryptoflorescence
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of water damage, leakage, or penetration. It was shown that the
severity, extent and potential evolution of these defects in IGP
can be confirmed from an inspection and use of appropriate meas-
urement methods to assess the defect (WHO 2009). Accordingly,
the classification of diagnostic methods was previously proposed in
Pereira et al. (2011) and includes techniques that can be used to
characterize the defects in IGP. These techniques have been divided
into ten groups or families. The diagnosis methods were then
correlated with defects associated with IGP following the same
method already described for causes. The resulting theoretical
correlation matrix was therefore validated during the inspection
program and can be found in Pereira et al. (2011). The correlation
between the diagnostic methods and defects in the sample set is
analyzed subsequently.
The inspections found that 1,010 methods were suitable for
characterizing defects, representing an average of 3.1 methods
per defect detected in IGP. In Fig. 13 the main diagnostic methods
are presented that were considered suitable to characterize damp-
ness and biodeterioration when they occurred in the sample set.
The damp measurement (i.e., superficial and/or environmental-
humidity) and methods for the measurement of interior damp were
used in more than 90% of all occurrences of these two defects be-
cause they are directly related to measurement of the water content.
Temperature measurement (i.e., surface and/or ambient) was also
strongly correlated with biodeterioration because of the possibility
of identifying likely surfaces for condensation. Also, Infrared ther-
mography may be used to determine the extent of dampness in
an IGP.
In Fig. 14, the main diagnostic methods are given that were
considered suitable to characterize efflorescence and cryptoflores-
cence. Damp measurement (i.e., surface and/or ambient-humidity),
measurement of interior damp, salt identification, and percussion
test are the methods associated with all the occurrences of this
defect. The first three types of test methods enable characterization
of the causes of this defect, and the last method determines the
severity of degradation in the affected IGP coating.
Repair
The most effective way to avoid adverse health effects arising from
the action of water in IGP is to prevent or reduce persistent damp-
ness and from this, the presence of microbial growth on interior
surfaces and in building structures (WHO 2009). Repair techniques
were prescribed for defects identified from inspections, but they
were not actually implemented because of time and cost con-
straints. Repair techniques were chosen from those in the proposed
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by UFSCAR - Universidade Federal De Sao Carlos on 11/28/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 15. Incidence of the recommended repair techniques in the sample
classification system as described in Pereira et al. (2011). Over
the entire set of available repair techniques, 437 were considered
appropriate for the 331 defects observed, giving an average of 1.3
repair techniques per defect. This is an approximate figure because
the corrective measures only cover the repair of the IGP, not nec-
essarily the elimination of the causes, and they were reduced to the
best one for each situation considering both the technical aspects
and those related to the cost of the repair technique. The choice
of each repair solution, nevertheless, took into account the stabi-
lized or nonstabilized nature of each defect. For example, if
biodeterioration has stabilized and is only a superficial defect, then
only cleaning with a sterilizing product is required to remedy it.
Whereas, if it has not stabilized, perhaps because of the presence
of condensation, it would be better to choose application of fungi-
cide following the cleaning process. Finally, if biodeterioration
has already proliferated deep into the plaster, but it has definitely
stabilized, the best option is to replace the IGP. However, if this
problem has gone deep into the plaster but is not yet stabilized,
then a better option to the replacement of the IGP is to add an
application of fungicide inside the IGP.
All techniques were similarly prescribed for walls and ceilings,
with the exception of three, one of which was the application of
fungicide inside the IGP. As previously stated, this technique was
used when biodeterioration had already propagated deep within the
IGP and had not stabilized. This kind of problem was normally
associated with the ceilings of rooms, in which considerable water
vapor was produced, and also, the ventilation in the room was poor.
Because vapor rises to a cooler ceiling surface, condensation occurs
and prolonged dampness on the surface creates ideal conditions for
the fixation and development of fungi and molds. Thus, the appli-
cation of fungicide inside the IGP is better suited to ceilings when
the progress of biodeterioration is caused by high indoor humidity
levels.
Regarding the distribution of repair techniques by area of coat-
ing effected, only the application of fungicide and application of
fungicide inside the IGP were prescribed more for reentrant corners
than for regular areas. Typically these areas are less well-ventilated
and favor the persistence of dampness and thereby defects, such as
biodeterioration, occur.
The repair techniques were also correlated with defects in IGP
before the inspection program by using theoretical figures taken
from the literature. This correlation matrix was then validated from
results derived from the inspection program (Pereira et al. 2011).
However, only the correlation between the repair techniques and
defects in the sample set is analyzed in this paper, as shown in
Fig. 15, in which how often each repair technique was used per
is given. The technique IGP cleaning was associated with the
JOURNAL OF PERFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTED FACILITIES © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2012 / 431
J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 2012, 26(4): 424-432
dampness defect in almost 80% of all situations, whereas the ap-
plication of fungicide (58%) was considered the most appropriate
repair for biodeterioration. The IGP cleaning and application of
fungicide inside the IGP techniques had a usage incidence of
almost 50%. The suitability of these techniques depends on the
severity of each defect thus, highlighting the heterogeneity of
the sample. The IGP replacement (85%) was considered the best
for the efflorescence and cryptoflorescence defect, even though
the application of fungicide inside the IGP was also frequently
recommended (nearly 77%). This was caused by the strong link
between this defect and bioremediation.
Conclusion
An expert system to support the inspection and diagnosis of gyp-
sum plaster coatings applied to partition walls and ceilings (IGP)
proposed in this paper was validated through standard inspections
of IGP applied to 119 walls or ceilings in 23 buildings located
throughout Portugal. No other work of this type has yet been pub-
lished that offers a scientifically validated and statistically signifi-
cant analysis of IGP defects. The statistical analysis of the results of
the program of inspection, i.e., the pathological problems related to
the action of water on IGP because of their significance and severity
in the sample, included the characteristics and incidence of damp-
ness, biodeterioration, and efflorescence and cryptoflorescence,
together with the primary causes of their occurrence, the most suit-
able diagnosis methods, preventive measures, and repair solutions
prescribed for them in the sample set. The detailed characterization
of the pathological process of these defects is important not only
because IGP has a high tendency to deteriorate under the action of
water but also because of the resulting deterioration that affects and
reduces the quality of indoor air to the extent that may lead to un-
warranted respiratory ailments in occupants given what is already
known about the direct connection between healthiness of air and
respiratory problems (WHO 2009).
The prevention of pathological problems in IGP is a cause of
concern even in drier areas. It can include the application of a final
layer over the IGP to improve its resistance to the action of water.
Maintenance of IGP should avoid cleaning with large amounts of
water or with chemically aggressive products. Condensation must
be prevented to avoid the persistence of water in or over the IGP. An
antifungal product must be added to the IGP, or a coat of antifungal
paint should be applied over it when it is used in a wet area or one
with poor or no ventilation.
 Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the ICIST
Research Institute, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, and of
the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT).
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