Introduction: Political Science

Concept and nature

Political Science is the science that begins and ends with the state. It endeavors to study the state in its
fundamental conditions - in its origin, objects, essential nature, various manifestations and
development. It investigates the nature, the origin, organization and the activities of the state. It deals
with the life of man as organized under the state.

Political Science is one of the most important and oldest social science. In fact it is as old as human
community. As Alan Ball says, politics is one of the oldest activities of humanity. The most important
form of human grouping is the state. Politics is, in fact, all about the human beings are governed which
involves order, power, and justice.

The term “politics” is derived from the Greek word polis which means a city-state. Aristotle gave the
name “Politics” to his famous book on the study of government. Many modern writers, however, used
the word in two senses, theoretical and applied politics. Theoretical Politics deals with the fundamental
features of the state, such as its origins, nature, attributes, etc. while the study of actual administration
of the affairs of the government is undertaken in Applied Politics. The majority of writers, however,
apply the term, Political Science, to include what is studied under Theoretical Politics. And they reserve
the term “Politics”, to denote what is called Applied Politics. So politics refers to the current problems of
management of the affairs of the government .Politics is the way that the people livings in groups make
decision. It is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as
tribes, cities and countries.

Politics and Political Science have often been used interchangeably. However, the distinction between
them is very thin, it is becoming indistinguishable. As such, it is very difficult to give a universally
accepted definition of Politics and Political Science. There are as many definitions as there are many
scholars.

The New Shorter English Dictionary defines Political Science as “the branch of knowledge that deals with
the state and systems of government; the scientific analysis of political activities and behavior” and
Politics” as “The art or science of government, dealing with form, organization, and administration of a
State or part of a State, and with the regulation of its relations with other states.”

According to Aristotle, politics covers the study of each and every aspects of society, and he, therefore,
regards politics as the “Master Science.”

Bluntschli says,” Political Science is the science which is concerned with the state, which endeavors to
understand comprehend the state in its essential nature, its various forms of manifestation and its
development.”

As per J.W. Garner, “Political Science begins and ends with the state. In a general way its fundamental
problems include, first, an investigation of the origin and nature of the state; second, an enquiry into the
nature, history and forms of political institutions; and third, a deduction there from, as far as possible, of
the laws of political growth and development.”

According to Leacock, Political Science deals with government.” Similarly Paul Janet writes, “Political
Science is that part of social science which treats of the foundation of the state and principles of
government.”

The above-mentioned definition of Political Science shows that there are two types of viewpoint about
Political Science that is traditional and modern. The traditionalist scholars like Bluntchli and Garner
focused their study on the study of the state where as the scholars like Leacock and Janet focused their
study on the government. The above definitions touch upon Political Science as the study of either the
state or the government or both the state and the government. Though there are differences on the
definition of Political Science among the Political scientists, they should not be considered opposed to
one another rather they are supplementary and complimentary to one another. There are attempts
being made towards establishing coordination between seemingly conflicting views.

Politics, in the broadest sense, is the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the
general rules under which they live. It is very much linked to the phenomena of conflict and
cooperation. It is often portrayed Politics is as a process of conflict resolution, in which rival views or
competing interests are reconciled with one another. However, politics is better thought of as a search
for conflict resolution than as its achievement, as not all conflicts are or can be resolved. The
inescapable presence of diversity and scarcity ensures that politics is an inevitable feature of the human
condition.

The intractable difficulty is that even respected authorities cannot agree what the subject is about.
Politics is defined in different ways: as the exercise of power, the exercise of authority, the making of
collective decisions, the allocation of scarce resources, the practice of deception and manipulation, and
so on. To study the politics is in essence to study the government or to study the exercise of authority.
Politics is associated with the policy of the government. The different views of politics examine here are
as follows:

 Politics as the art of government

 Politics as public affairs
 Politics as compromise and consensus
 Politics as power and the distribution of resources.
Scope of Political Science

In ancient Greek, the scope of politics or political science was limited to the study of city-state. Like
other discipline, Political Science also has its own scope. Such scope depends on the subject matter of a
discipline concerned. Regarding the scope of Political Science also, there is some uncertainty and
controversy. Traditionalists have limited the scope of Political Science to the study of the state and the
government, whereas modern political scientists have expanded its scope to the political aspects of the
entire world. Despite some differences among the political scientists regarding the scope of Political
Science, they generally agree on the following subjects under its scope:
  State and government,
 Power,
 Political philosophy,
 Judicial and legal process,
 Executive process,
 Administrative organization,
 Legislative politics,
 Political parties and interest groups,
 Voting and public opinion,
 Political socialization and political culture,
 Comparative politics,
 Political development and dynamics,
 International politics and organization,
 International law,
 Political theory and methodology.

Importance of Political Science

Why do we study politics at all?

Politics play a very significant role in the modern world. A proper study of politics enables the people to
acquire knowledge of very useful subjects which broadens and enlarges their mind and outlook. As
modern man and woman are always directly or indirectly, more or less, involved in politics, it is
imperative that they should study and understand politics. It is an unavoidable fact of human growth
and existence. Everyone is involved in some fashion at some time in some kind of political system.

Knowledge of politics and citizenship go side by side. The study of politics helps the individuals in the
following ways:

It enables the individual to enrich his or her mental abilities and serves as a progressive cultural force.
One is not expected to be an active citizen in real sense unless s/he has some degree of knowledge of
politics. In a democracy, every citizen is required to possess a fair knowledge of the way in which the
government operates. Otherwise, s/he cannot understand and take intelligent decisions upon a number
of political and social problems which occur from time to time. And s/he must study politics if s/he is
interested in understanding the state, government, constitution of states, forms of governments and
international relations. So politics is worth studying.

It not only helps the people to understand the goals and objectives, responsibilities and functions, duties
and the rights of the state and the people, but also the relationship between citizens and the state.
Thus the knowledge of politics creates political consciousness and awareness among the people with
regard to their rights, freedom and obligations, that enables them to be vigilant all the times. The
politically conscious electorate can better understand and safeguard their rights and freedom against
any arbitrary rule of the state. Therefore, the politically conscious people are in fact, the asset of the
state. Political development is not possible without such persons as they understand the theory and
practice of the politics.

It also enables the people to know why a given election is won or lost and why people vote for one or
another in an election, why one or another has power and exercise it appropriately or inappropriately,
why the institutions of government are stable or instable, why there are rapid change of leadership
(election), why there are processes for the average members of the society to influence government,
etc. It helps us understand the complex world around us.

The knowledge of politics also enables the individual to understand whether the government and its
workings are sound or not depends on the quality of the opinion and support or criticism of the people.
According to Carl J. Friedrich, politics is the study of the working of government which is “the most
important study of all. Without an understanding of politics, men’s other works are in danger of being
destroyed.”

The study of politics also provides for an understanding of the principles of the conduct of public affairs.
As Lasswell writes, politics helps the participants (statesmen, parties or voters) in the decision-process to
know the outcomes and effects of public policy. Likewise, the study of politics is essential for the
statesmen, politicians, legislators, and administrators etc. to discharge their duties efficiently,
competently and honestly. It is through the knowledge of politics that they may know the theory and
practice of the administration of the government.

The study of politics is of special value to the students and rest others of Nepal on account of the hard-
earned democracy they fought for.

Thus, for all the members of the society, the knowledge of politics is of immense value and utility to
constitution-makers, executive, judges etc. George Bernard Shaw therefore writes, “Political Science is
the science by which alone civilization can be saved.

Approaches to the study of politics

Politics was originally seen as arm of philosophy, history, or law. Its central purpose was uncovering the
principles upon which human society should be based. From the late nineteenth century onwards,
however, this philosophical emphasis was gradually displaced by an attempt to turn politics into a
scientific discipline. The high point of this development was reached in the 1950s and 1960s with an
open rejection of the earlier tradition as meaningless metaphysics. Since then, enthusiasm for a strict
science of politics has diminished, and there has been a renewed recognition of the enduring
importance of political values and normative theories.

There are different methods by which a subject may be studied .Writers of Political Science have
adopted different methods in their study of subject which are as follows:

 Experimental method
 Philosophical/Comparative method
 Historical Method
Experimental method

Experimental method has been adopted by the students of physical sciences. But this method cannot be
used in the same way in political science. The student of physics can isolate the subject matter of his /
her study, and conduct experiments over and over until a definite result is reached. But the students of
politics cannot conduct an experiment in the same way. If he wants to know the effect of the
introduction of democracy, he cannot select the state at his will, conduct his experiment of democracy
and wait for definite result. The ideas, opinions and emotions which influence politics cannot be exactly
measured. But it does not mean that the experimental method is inapplicable in political science.
Indeed, political experiments are constantly taking place before our eyes as the forms of state are
undergoing changes through the process of time. The enactment of every new law, the establishment of
every new institution, the inauguration of every new policy is experimental in the sense that it is
regarded merely as provisional or tentative until the results have proved its fitness to become
permanent.

Philosophical or comparative method

Aristotle, the father of political science, employed the comparative or philosophical method with
excellent results. Those who follow this method make a comparative study of the different states, their
organizations, their policies and their activities .By means of comparison, we can find out the common
cause of many political events. But care should be taken in using this method. In comparing the different
political organizations, we must pay regard to the difference in the genius and temperament of the
people, in their political training and experience, in the economic and social conditions in the countries.
Otherwise our conclusions are liable to be fallacious.

Historical method

The historical method is a particular form of the comparative method. This method seeks to study the
different states with reference to their origin, their growth and development. The study of the history of
the institutions supplies the facts which enable the students of political science to deduce their laws and
principles. These can be further verified by a historical study of other organization. But this method has
important limitations. As Lord Bryce pointed out, historical comparisons are usually interesting and
sometimes illuminating but they are often misleading. The historical investigator is liable to be
influenced by the prevailing emotions and sentiments and so cannot maintain that detached frame of
mind, so they are necessary to students of science. Moreover, the historical method enables us to
gather facts and materials. But mere accumulation of facts leads us nowhere unless we know how to
reason, define and generalize. So this method by itself does not always enable us to fine reasoned
solutions of the problems of practical politics. The science of politics is not static subject. It is a dynamic
subject of investigation. It is not content with studying what the state has been in the past. It seeks to
know the state as it should be in the future.
 The State and Society

State

The state is one of the most important subject component of the Political Science subject. There are
various definitions about the state. Some of them are as follows:

Aristotle says, “The state is a union of families and villages having for its end perfect and self-sufficient
life by which we mean a happy and honorable life.”

Woodrow Wilson defines the state as “the people organize for law within a definite territory.”

As per Oppenheim, “the state exists when a people is settled in a country under its own sovereign
government.”

According to Phillimore, “The state is a people permanently occupying a fixed territory, bound together
by common laws, habits and customs into one body politic, exercising through the medium of an
organized government, independent sovereignty an control over all persons things within its
boundaries, capable of making war and peace and of entering into all international relations with the
communities of the globe.”

In the words of Bluntschli, “The state is the politically organized people of a definite territory.”

Harold Laski writes, “The state is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming,
within its allotted physical area, supremacy over all other institutions.”

The most comprehensive definition of the state is given by Garner. According to him, “The state is a
community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory,
independently or nearly so, of an external control, and to which the great body of inhabitants render
habitual obedience.”

The analysis of the above definition clearly shows that the state possess the four essential elements
which are territory, population, government and sovereignty.

Territory

The territory is one of the most essential elements of the state. In the absence of the fixed territory, no
state can be imagined. However, no definite limit can be prescribed with regard to the size of the state.
A state may be as small as Monaco, on the Mediterranean, which is only 1.95 sq. km, much smaller
than Kathmandu which is 545 sq. km, where as Russian Federation is, 17,075,000 sq. km. The size of
territory is not the required criteria but territory is a must which distinguishes a nomadic people from a
state.

Population
Like territory, Population is another essential constituent of a state. No state can exist without people.
There is no any hard and fast rule regarding the size of population. Size of population is not an important
matter for the state. While the People’s Republic of China has a population of 1,313,973,713, Andora, a
state in the Pyrenees, has only 71,201.

It may be noted that if a state is small with a limited population, there may be greater unity and
patriotism among the people but it may be militarily weak. A population that is neither too large nor too
small seems to be ideal.

Government

Government is an indispensable part of the state through which the will of the state is expressed and
realized. The government of a state consists of three organs that is the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary.

The legislature enacts laws from time to time. These laws have to be obeyed by the people. The failure
to do so is punishable according to laws. The executive is charged with the duty of enforcing the laws
enacted by the legislature. The Judiciary interprets the laws and decides upon their application on
individual cases.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty is also an important element of the state. Sovereignty means supremacy. It is the supreme
power of the state to make laws and enforce them with all the coercive power it commands. It is this
characteristic that differentiates a state from individuals and association. Sovereignty has two aspects.
Internally, the state has the power to make laws and enforcing them on all individuals within its
territory. Externally, the state is independent of foreign control. Sovereignty of a state is inalienable,
indivisible, absolute and permanent.

Each of the above mentioned elements is as essential as the others. No people, no state. No people, no
state and no territory, no state. A people living in a territory may possess a government but they will not
form a state if they do not possess a government. They must also be independent of any foreign control
which distinguishes whether an areas a state or not. For example, 1) States of India 2) The State of New
York 3) The League of Nations.

1. The States of India are not States proper. They possess the first three features of a state, but
lack the last one. They are not independent as their internal and external affairs are controlled
by the government of India.
2. The State of New York is not a state. It has a government, territory and population but no
sovereign power. The powers of its government are limited by the Federal Constitution of the
U.S.A.
3. The League of Nations had no fixed territory and no population over which it could exercise
exclusive jurisdiction. It had of course, a government in the shape of a council, an Assembly and
 Secretariat but it had no sovereign authority over its members. Hence it was not regarded as a
State.

Now a day, the State should also have the recognition as a state from other States. Although the refusal
of one or some States to accord such recognition does not deprive it of its legitimate should have wide
recognition from as many States as possible in the world.

Society

Society is the most general form of human organization. Whenever a number of people group
themselves together to carry out a certain purpose or purposes, they form a society. In other words, a
Society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social grouping sharing
the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals who
share a distinctive culture and institutions.

Differences between the State and Society

Society State

Society is organized by the collection of individuals.
Society fulfils the various needs of the individual.
The objective of the society is to maintain the
principle of equality among all. Different kinds of
human organization are under the sphere of society.
Once the objective of the society fulfilled, it may
dissolve. So society is a voluntary organization.
For the organization of society, no definite territory
is required, because it has no fixed territorial area.
The inhabitants of one society can live anywhere in
the world. A fixed habitation is not essential to
constitute a society. As they follow the same usages,
traditions and practices, they are known as the
followers of one particular society.
Society does not possess sovereign power over its
members. It does not formulate or execute laws at
all. For social crime, though certain 3.punishments is
there, they are purely general. Society does nor
execute customs, traditions, practices etc.
Society does not possess a government because it is
not an essential element of society.
State is also organized by the collection of
individuals but it is the supreme organization among
all. When the individual was not satisfied with the
social life, he was bound to organize the state for
the fulfillment of political desired. Thus, the state is
permanent political organization.
The state has definite and fixed territorial area.
Once a child is born, automatically he will get
membership of the state. As a result, the citizens of
one state cannot be the citizens of another state at
the same time.
State is sovereign institution, organized for political
purpose to maintain social security and welfare of
the people. State also punishes the criminals in the
process of interpreting laws. But it cannot destroy
sovereignty.
State must have a government without which no
state can exits.
Differences between State and Association
State
1. The State is a permanent institution. As a result,
soon after birth, man becomes a member of the
state.
2. The State has definite, fixed territory.
3. Membership of the state is compulsory. Every
individual after birth becomes a member of the
state automatically. Again, one individual can be a
citizen of one particular state No citizen can be a
citizen of many states at a time, but cannot reject
the citizenship of one state.
4. The State is sovereign. It executes authority. State
sovereignty is final and absolute. No one can
destroy or disobey sovereignty. The destruction of
sovereignty means destruction of the state itself.
5. The State is permanent, universal institution. It is
not subject to dissolution unless it is conquered or
annexed. The pattern of government may be
changed, but the State continues.
Association
1. Individuals organized associations voluntarily,
which may be temporary.
2. Associations have no definite territory. It is
difficult to imagine the area of Association. It may
also be worldwide.
3. Membership of an Association is voluntary, not
compulsory. An individual can become the member
of more than one Association at a time. Voluntarily,
one can reject or refuse the membership of any
Association.
4. Associations are not sovereign, and they cannot
enforce authority above State.
5. Associations are purely voluntary. At any time
they may be dissolved Dissolution of an association
does not hamper the State. For example, a man may
leave the Christian Church, and joined the great
brotherhood of Islam without any difficulty. But he
cannot change the so easily.
 Difference between State and Government
State
1. The State is a human organization. It consists of four
elements, namely, territory, population, government
and sovereignty.
2. The State is a permanent organization. It does not
change.
3. The State possesses sovereignty which is absolute,
final over all.
4. The state always refers to a territory.
5. The State has only one form. It is universal in nature.
Differences between the State and Nation
State
1. A State must have four essential elements, namely,
territory, population, government and sovereignty. So
long as these elements exist, there is a State .A State
may lack the feeling of oneness among its people, yet
remains a State.
2. A State must possess sovereign power.
3. The State is a condition of law. The Statehood is an
enforceable obligation.
4. A State means simply a people possessing a political
organization.
Government
1. Government is one element of the State. It is not only
the administering agency of the State but also the
representative body by which the State’s will and power
is carried on.
2. Government is usually temporary. It changes from
time to time. The form of government may often change
without affecting the form of the State.
3. Government does not possess sovereignty. The
authority of the government is derived from the state
sovereignty and enforced in the name of state
sovereignty. Government has to function by the terms of
constitution of the state. As such, its authority is not final
and unlimited.
4. Government refers to a number of men, not territory.
5.Governments have different differences between
forms like monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, autocracy,
dictatorship, unitary, federal etc.
Nation
1. Nation indicates the feeling of oneness among the
people.
2. Nation may not possess sovereignty.
3. Nation is a condition of mind. Nation is possession.
4. Nation means people possessing both political
organization and racial, cultural or spiritual unity. A
Nation is thus a broader concept than the State.
5. The State is objective. 5. Nation is a subjective.

6. The State emphasizes political unity. 6. Nation emphasizes the consciousness of unity due to
psychological or spiritual feelings.
Political Culture

Political culture is one of most significant concepts of Political Science. Without understanding political
culture, no political system can be understood properly.

The term “political culture” is generally used in social science. It refers to historically based, widely
shared beliefs, feelings, and values about the nature of political systems, which can serve as link
between citizens and government.

Political culture has been defined by various political scientists in various ways which are as follows:

According to Almond and Powell, “political culture consists of attitudes, values, and skills which are
current in an entire population, as well as those special propensities and patterns which may be found
within separate parts of that population.”

In the words of Alan R Ball, “A political culture is composed of the attitudes, beliefs, emotions and values
of society that relate to the political system and to political issues.”

As per Lucuan Pye, “The notion of political culture assumes that the attitudes, sentiments, and
cognitions that inform and govern political behavior in any society are not just random congeries (a
disorderly collection) but represent coherent patterns which fit together and are mutually reinforcing.”

Political system operates within the framework of a set of meanings and purposes, which are described
by Almond as the political culture of a society. The political culture of a society is greatly affected by the
political structure, while the structure is conditioned by the cultural context in which it is set. Thus a
political culture is the product of both collective history of a political system and the life history of the
individuals who currently make up system, and thus it is rooted equally in public and private
experiences.

Political thinkers through the ages have acknowledged the importance of attitudes, values and beliefs.
However these past thinkers did not see them as a part of a “political culture” For example, Burke wrote
about custom and tradition, Marx wrote about ideology, and Herder about national spirit. All of them
agreed about the vital role that values and beliefs play in promoting the stability and survival of a
regime. The interest of the political scientists on political culture is emerged in 1950s and 1960s as new
techniques of behavioral analysis displaced more traditional , institutional approaches to the concerned
subject. The interest in political culture faded in 1970s and 1980s, but the debate has been revitalized
since 1990s as a result of efforts in Eastern Europe to construct democracy out of the ashes of
communism, and growing anxiety in mature democracy, such as the USA, about the apparent decline of
social capital and civic engagement.
Components of Political Vulture

As political culture is the patterns of an individual’s attitudes and orientations towards politics among
the members of a political system, such individual orientations evolve, according to Almond and Powell,
the three components are as follows:

 a ) Cognitive orientation
 b) Affective orientation and
 c) Evaluative orientation.

a) Cognitive orientation.
Cognitive orientation means people’s knowledge and beliefs about the political system, its role,
its objects, and officials, and inputs and outputs.
b) Affective orientation.
Affective orientation means the feeling of attachment, involvement, rejection and the like about
the political system, its personnel’s and performance, and other political objects.
c) Evaluative orientation.
Evaluative orientation means judgment s and opinions about political objects which usually
involves applying value standards to political object and events.

Types of Political culture

As per Alan R. Ball, “ Political cultures can be classified according to whether members of society take
an active role in the political process and expect benefits from governmental activity, or whether there
is a passive relationship in which individuals know very little about governmental activity, and do not
expect to share in the decision making process."

Almond and Verba have classified political culture into the following three types:

A) Parochial Political Culture. A parochial political culture is marked by the absence of a sense of
citizenship, with people identifying with their locality rather than the nation, having neither the desire
nor the ability to participate in politics. People have little or no awareness of their political system. Such
individuals are found in every society. Their number is greater in a traditional and backward society. So
there is no specialization and no special political roles in the society. In such a society the headman or
chieftain alone assesses political, economic and religious role as in African chiefdoms.

Thus, by Parochial Culture we mean a system in which there is low cognition of political objects. The
people, by and large, have no awareness of their national political system. The society is, therefore, by
and large, traditional and backward.

B) Subject Political Culture. In this type of Political culture, people have high frequency of orientation
towards the input objects and towards the self as an active participation is zero and recognition that
they have very limited capacity to influence the government. This category includes all those individuals
who are oriented to the political system or aware of various governmental roles such as collection of
taxes, law making etc, and of the government good or bad, legitimate or illegitimate. In other words, in
the political system they are very much unaware about their responsibilities.

C) Participant Political Culture. It is the one in which members of the society pay close attention to
politics and regard popular participation as both desirable and effective. They are explicitly oriented to
the system as a whole, for example, to both political and administrative structures and processes. In
other word, they are oriented to both input and output aspects of the political system. They tend to be
oriented towards an active role of the self in the polity.

However, their feelings and evaluations of such a role may vary from acceptance to rejection. The
people of this category are always engaged in the articulation of demands on the political system and
are also participating or involving in the making of public decisions. Individuals are active members of
society. This type exists in highly developed society where people take active part in people activities by
considering themselves the active members of the polity and are well conscious of their rights and
duties.

The above mentioned three types of political culture are interdependent and one cannot replace
another. Usually all the three get mixed and combined with one another. Pure types of political culture
are quite unlikely to be found in modern society. It is mixed political culture which is generally found in
all societies.

In addition to the above three types of political culture, there few other types of political culture which
are:

a) Civic Political Culture,

b) Secular Political Culture,
c) Ideological Political Culture,
d) Homogeneous Political Culture, and
e) Fragmented Political Culture.

Civic Political Culture or Civic Culture is not a modern culture. It combines modernity with tradition.
According to Almond and Verba Civic Culture is a blend of all three in that it reconciles the participation
of citizens in the political process with vital necessity for government to govern. In a democratic country,
a conscious citizen is supposed to be active in the politics of the country and his or her participation in
the political process is based on rational criteria rather than emotions. This type of participation can be
expected if the people have Civic Culture. This Civic Culture makes people behave rationally. Those who
have Participant Political Culture will have Civic Culture too. Civic Culture enables people to participate
in the political process more meaningfully.

In democratic politics, those who are in power have to act responsibly and exercise powers. If people
realize the linkage between power and responsibility, it would solve a number of problems of politics. It
is the Civic Culture that promotes the understanding of the relationship the power and responsibility.
The capacity of Civic Culture to maintain a balance between power and responsibility is an index to the
quality of democratic politics. For example, UK came closest to the Civic Culture exhibiting both
participant and subject features. In other words, while the British thought that they could influence
government, they were also willing to obey authority. The USA also scored highly that, its relative
weakness being that, as participant attitudes predominated over subjects one, Americans were not
particularly law abiding. Even a decade and a half after the collapse of facism, West Germany and Italy
could not have strong participant Politic Culture in the country. Subject Culture was dominant in
Germany and Parochial attitudes remained entrenched in Italy.

Sincerity, hard work, frankness, public initiative etc are the broad feature of American political culture.
Manual dexterity, hard work, beliefs in the inferiority of other civilizations, etc constitute important
attributes of the Chinese political culture.

It is to be noted that hard work, discipline, belief in superiority of race, leadership etc. is regarded as the
elements of German political culture. The elements of British political culture are resourcefulness,
stamina and courage, and cool-headedness. The Japanese political culture comprises such components
as sincerity, hard collective achievement, and respect for age and work, team spirit, pride in collective
achievement, and respect for age and authority.

In Secular Political Culture, the people are Secular, rational and analytical. In Ideological Political
Culture, one particular ideology is encouraged. In Homogeneous Political Culture, people hold similar
views about the political objectives and means of their attainment. But in Fragmented Political Culture,
the people do not hold similar views about political objectives and the means of their attainment.

Foundation of Political Culture

The Political Culture is a product of several interrelated factors like historical, geographical and socio-
economic factors. Ethnic differences, traditions, degrees of trust in political leaders and spirit of
tolerance, degree of love for liberty, loyalty to the masses and social harmony are other determinants of
the Political Culture.

Significance of Political Culture

Political Culture provides for an understanding of the link between the political system and the people’s
approach towards it. The study of Political Culture not only enables individuals to know the connection
between private socialization process and the working of the public institutions but also enables them to
know the dynamics of continuity and changes in political system. It also enables to understand the
connection between social and economic factors on the one hand and political development on the
other. It tells quite a lot about non political dimensions of life and helps to realize the impact of those
dimensions on the political behavior of man and woman.

The study of Political Culture make able the individual to understand how laws and constitutions are
observed by individuals and groups as well. It also helps to understand the attitudes of the citizens to
the political system.
The Political Culture is an important tool to analyze the success and failure of political system. The
Political Culture Approach based on the assumption that every political system works by the Political
Culture. If there is no harmony between the political culture and Political system then political system
cannot work fruitfully and process of conversion input into output is not be fulfilled efficiently.

Political Communication

Political Communication is related to communication of knowledge, values and attitudes of the people.
The political activity of individual is determined by the process of political communication.

Philip Althroff and Michael Rush write:”Political Communication is the transmission of politically relevant
information from one part of political system to another and between the social and political system.

As per Karl W. Deutsch, “Political Communication—the transmission of politically relevant information

from one part of political system to another and between the social and political system is the dynamic
demand of a political system.”The communication system is very essential to all kinds of interactions
among human beings and political process. The basic purpose of communication is the transfer of
meaning. The meaning may be transfer through speech, gestures, signs, pictures or other means of
media.

Political Communication generally involves communication of factors centralizing around politics. There
are four factors involve in political communication which are:

a) The idea part of politics

b) The business part of politics
c) The complaints-settlement part of politics
d) The final performance of achievement part of politics

The idea part of politics relates to the communication of ideas which means thinking, ideas, ideals,
principles, ideologies, goals, objectives, aims, policies, plans, etc.

The business part of politics relates to the communication concerned with business which indicates a
variety of things such as work, task, duties, responsibilities, etc. It is concerned with the “how to do it”
part of politics.

The complaints-settlement part of politics iImplies the settlement of the various complaints or charges
that may be necessary, that maybe pointed out or that maybe demanded. This part of communication is
concerned with complaints in the sense that changes may take place in the thinking, feeling or demands
of the people, and these changes may have to be communicated among the people concerned. The
changes maybe brought about through petitions, representation, memoranda, complaints, grievances,
troubles, miseries, differences, disputes, quarrels, etc.
The effects, consequences, responses, reactions, etc maybe described in words like changes,
modifications, revisions, rephrasing, rescheduling, mid-term or mid-course corrections, etc.

The performance part of politics is concerned with those things which assist in the performance or
achievement of the basic objectives of politics. Communication is concerned, here, with the creation or
bringing into existence of the end product. For such a performance or achievement, communication
may have to be concerned with the spread or dissemination of influences or things desired variously the
words like right outlook, right attitude, right atmosphere, morale, resourcefulness, grit, courage,
stamina, suggestions, corrections, improvements, reforms, etc.

Power and communication

Political communication is closely related to power in the wider sense of the term so the nature,
strength and effectiveness of communication depends upon the nature and amount of power employed
for the purpose of communication in various contexts.

Thus, political communication is a powerful instrument of political participation. Political participation is

resorted to by citizens for various purposes on politics, and the realization of these purposes depends
very much on the effectiveness of communication.

Functions of communication

a) Maintenance of adaptability
b) System capability expansion
c) Conservation

Types of Communication structures (Structure of political communication, or means of political

communication, or channels of political communication).

The main structures of political communications are as follows:

a) Informal face to face contact

b) Traditional social structures
c) Political output structures
d) Political input structures
e) Mass Media

Informal face to face contact- In any political system, informal channels pervade the most developed
communication system. The persons who for one reason or another have greater interest in the
following political events and who communicate information and opinions to friends, neighbors and co-
workers, serve as ‘opinion leaders’. They directly shape the knowledge and beliefs of others on whom
the mass media don’t make a direct impact.
Traditional social structure- In traditional and developing societies these traditional social structures
influence people very much. Tribal heads, councils of elders, religious leaders, etc. may play a powerful
role as initiators and interpreters of information for large sections of the nation.

Political output structures- The governmental structures, particularly the bureaucracy, make it possible
for the political leaders to communicate directions for rule implementations to various political office
holders in an efficient and ambiguous manner.

Political input structures- The input structures such as interest groups and political parties constitute
another significant information channel. By their very nature they are engaged in transmitting popular
and special interest demands to the political leadership.

Mass Media- Last but not least, the mass media, including newspapers, television, radio, magazines, and
books, constitute the significant class of communication structures. They are the most specialized and
differentiated of such structures, existing primarily for the purpose of communication rather than
depending upon it in course of other activities. The mass media are capable of transmitting information
to very large numbers of people at low cost and with minimum distortion.

Importance of political communication

Political communication plays a very important role in a political system. It makes a crucial impact on
society through socialization, social mobilization or capabilities, rule making and interest articulation.
Input-output functions of political system are not possible without political communication.