PRELIM

M1L1: THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS

Ethics has been defined as the philosophical science dealing with the morality of human acts. It provides
the principles on the morality of human acts. Studying ethics is a must for every person because he has
to live a moral life.

PHILOSOPHY

 Taken from two Greek words, “PHILOS” and “SOPHIA” which literally means “love of wisdom”
 It seeks to find out the importance of it, the desire to understand the existence of everything.
 Philosophical methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of any vocation.
 Philosophical training enhances one’s problem-solving capacities, one’s abilities to understand and
express ideas, and one’s persuasive powers.
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
o PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY
o SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY

SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY

 It is the division of Philosophy that is primarily good for CONTEMPLATIVE UNDERSTANDING. It

provides knowledge of a subject or area for the sake of knowledge.
 BRANCHES OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY
o EPISTEMOLOGY
 It is the branch of philosophy that deals with the THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE – its
sources, kinds, and reliability. It is concerned with the definition, sources kinds, and
criteria of knowledge possible, and the degree to which each is certain.
o METAPHYSICS
 It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the NATURE OF EXISTENCE. It is
customarily divided into Ontology and Metaphysics proper.
 ONTOLOGY deals with the question of how many fundamentally distinct
sorts of entities compose the universe
 METAPHYSICS PROPER describes the MOST GENERAL TRAITS OF REALITY.
o COSMOLOGY
 It is the scientific STUDY OF THE UNIVERSE ON THE LARGEST SCALES OF SPACE AND
TIME, particularly the propounding of theories concerning its origin, nature,
structure, and evolution.
o ANTHROPOLOGY
 It is the STUDY OF MAN AND HIS DESTINY. It reflects upon man in order to
understand him in his entirety, grasping the fundamental principles of his existence
in the world and his behavior.
o AESTHETICS
 It is a PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY ABOUT BEAUTY IN ALL OF ITS FORMS. It also deals
with the question of whether such qualities are objectively present in the things
they appear to qualify, or exist only in the mind of the individual.
 o THEODICY
 It is the branch of philosophy that deals with the STUDY OF SUPREME BEING,
defined as both omnipotent and good in the light of evil in the world.
o RATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
 It is primarily concern with the principles of living things, especially that of man,
focusing mainly on the relevance of the soul and self-knowledge which arises from
common sense and natural reason.
o SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
 It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of the nature of society,
relation between the individual, and social interaction that takes place in the given
community.
o POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
 It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of the ultimate foundation of
the state, the nature of legitimate authority, the form of government, and the
perfect form of society.

PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY

 It is the division of philosophy that is good for REAL LIFE APPLICATION. It provides knowledge to be
used or applied in concrete actions or situations.
 BRANCHES OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY
o LOGIC
o ETHICS

LOGIC

 It is the formal and systematic study of the principles of VALID INFERENCE AND CORRECT
REASONING. It is commonly known as the ART AND SCIENCE OF CORRECT THINKING.

ETHICS

 It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the concepts and principles or MORALITY.
 It is a NORMATIVE SCIENCE OF THE CONDUCT OF HUMAN BEING living in societies; a science which
judges the conduct to be right or wrong, to be good or bad.
 ETHICS VS. MORALITY
o Etymologically, there is no difference between ethics and morality, because both Ethics and
MORALITY comes from the Latin word MOS or MORIS, which means CUSTOM.
o However, there is a slight difference between ethics and morality. Ethics provides man with
theoretical knowledge of the morality of human act while morality actualizes the theory.
Morality is nothing else but doing of ethics.
 DIVISION OF ETHICS
o GENERAL ETHICS
 It presents truths about human acts, and from these truths deduce the general
principles of morality. General ethics is applied to individual in relation to himself,
to God and to his fellow man.
o SPECIAL ETHICS
  This one is APPLIED ETHICS. It applies to the principles of general ethics in different
departments of human activity, individual and social. It includes man’s relation to
the family, to the state and to the world.
 The importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the meaning of ethics itself. Ethics
means living in proper way and it is in the development of a good moral character and virtues that
man finds perfection and understands his purpose of existence. The Greek triumvirate, the Christian
teachings and majority of Oriental Philosophers affirmed that the ULTIMATE PURPOSE OF HUMAN
EXISTENCES is not acquisition of material possession, power and prestige but in the DEVELOPMENT
OF MORAL QUALITIES that make men unique and supreme from all creation. Confucius laid great
emphasis on the cultivation of character, the purity of heart and conduct. He extorted to the people
a good character first, which is a priceless jewel and which is the best of all virtues.
 RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS TO OTHER SCIENCES
o ETHICS AND LOGIC
 Logic is the science and art of correct reasoning. Ethics is the science of good and
proper living. But good living presupposes correct thinking and reasoning. Doing
follows thinking.
o ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY
 Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive mental process. Both
involve the study of man, human nature, and human behavior.
o ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY
 Sociology is the scientific study of society and culture while Ethics is concerned with
the moral order, which also includes social order.
 Society exists because of the observance of moral laws that makes sociology
dependent on Ethics. Both are complimentary, norms and cultures of the people
which are the basis of ethical standards of a particular society.
o ETHICS AND ECONOMICS
 Economics is the proper allocation and efficient use of available resources for the
maximum satisfaction of human needs.
 His means of livelihood therefore must be morally acceptable. He must observe
justice and fairness with his fellow being.
o ETHICS AND EDUCATION
 Education liberates men from ignorance not only from ethical standards but also
from laws that are implemented by the society. Education is concerned with the
total human development.
o ETHICS AND LAW
 Laws imposed by the society must be fair, just, and humane. It must be for the
welfare of the majority of the people and not offensive to morality. There is a
difference between what is moral and what is legal.
 Thee legal covers only the external acts of man; the moral governs even the internal
acts of man, such as the volitional and intentional activities of the will and mind.
o ETHICS AND ART
 Man’s artistic creation must have a noble purpose, which should not be offensive to
morality. A piece of art should reflect beauty and must inspire every person who
sees it.
 o ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
 Political Science is the study of state and government. Politics covers the
administration and management of our government.
 Politics is also concerned with the material needs of man while ethics is primarily
concern with the spiritual needs of man, these two are inseparable.
 Politics is not bad at all, if it used properly; the politicians must set aside their
personal interest and rather promote the general welfare of the citizens.

SUMMARY

 Philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos and sophia, meaning love of wisdom. It has two
divisions namely: speculative and practical. On the other hand, Ethics has been defined as the
philosophical science dealing with the morality of human acts. It has two divisions, namely: general
ethics and special ethics.
 M1L2: THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF ETHICS

Ethics are moral principles that guide a person’s behavior. These morals are shaped by social norms,
cultural practices, and religious influences. Ethical decision making is the process of assessing the moral
implications of a course of action. All decisions have an ethical or moral dimension for a simple reason—
they have an effect on others. Ethical decision making requires judgment and interpretation, the
application of a set of values to a set of perceptions and estimates of the consequences of an action.
Sometimes ethical decisions involve choosing not between good and bad, but between good and better
or between bad and worse. Making ethical decisions also involves choice about who should be involved
in the process and how the decision should be made.

Looking closely, human actions ought to be understood clearly in a very strict sense, because it has
something to do with human movements that are ruled by one’s freedom.

Freedom figures closely into action and inclination. Freedom here, means not only the ability to act free
from outside influences or independence from the impediments to one’s wishes.

It is the willful act and decision that gives form and shape to the actions and inclinations of the human
person.

The human person himself/herself is significant only in considering the result in matters of “to poiein” or
“gawa”.

KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICS

 CHARACTER
o It is an evaluation of an individual's STABLE MORAL QUALITIES. The concept of character can
imply a variety of attributes including the existence or lack of virtues.
 MORAL CHARACTER
o It primarily refers to the ASSEMBLAGE OF QUALITIES THAT DISTINGUISH ONE INDIVIDUAL
from another.
o Although on a cultural level, the set of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can
be said to unite and define it culturally as distinct from others.
 MORAL COURAGE
o It is a result of morally developed will. It is the CAPACITY TO INITIATE AND SUSTAIN YOUR
RESOLVE whenever you are certain of doing the good.
 GAWA
o The term refers to the FREE ACTION that is ORIENTED TOWARDS A PARTICULAR END. For
example, a worker uses his/her free imagination and will to bring about services and
products that contribute to the well-being of society.
o As governed by free decisions making, the creative workers embrace all the information
he/she can gather to effectively realize his/her purpose.
 GAWI
o The term refers to the free kind of work. However, instead of focusing on a particular end
like a product or fulfillment, gawi refers to the kind of ACTS THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE USED
 TO ACCOMPLISHING. It does not only refer to particular acts of a person. A person’s
habitual action or kagawian reveals truth about himself/herself.
 REASON
o It sets the course for MAKING ETHICAL AND IMPARTIAL DECISIONS especially in moral
situations although it is NOT THE SOLE DETERMINING FACTOR in coming up with such
decision.
 FEELINGS
o It provides the individual with an INITIAL RECKONING OF A SITUATION, but they should not
be the sole basis for one’s motives and actions.
 FREEDOM
o It is the WILLFUL ACT AND DECISION that gives form and shape to the ACTIONS AND
INCLINATIONS of the individuals.
o Freedom is oriented towards the wherefore, the what for, and the whom for, of the doings
of the individuals
 GOOD ACTS
o A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the intention of the agent, and of
the circumstances together.
 EVIL ACTS
o It is an act that CORRUPTS THE ACTION even if the object is good in itself.

APPROACHES TO NORMATIVE ETHICS

 CONSEQUENTIALISM
o At the heart of consequentialist theories is the idea that the MORAL ACTION IS THE ONE
THAT PRODUCES THE BEST CONSEQUENCES.
 DEONTOLOGY
o According to deontological theories, MORALITY IS PRIMARILY A FUNCTION OF DUTIES OR
OBLIGATIONS, REGARDLESS OF THE CONSEQUENCES of acting in accordance with those
duties.
 VIRTUE ETHICS
o It gives primacy of importance not to rules, but to particular habits of character such as the
virtue of courage and other types of virtue that the person is personally inclined to perform.

MORAL STANDARDS

 It refers to the norms which we have about the types of actions which we believe to be morally
acceptable and morally unacceptable.
 Specifically, it involves sets of recognized and permanently acceptable character or norms
commonly used as primary measure of quality, value, and extent.

NON-MORAL STANDARDS

 It refers to rules that we have about the types of actions that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations.
 These refers to the peoples customary, and habitual ways of doing things. These customary ways
are accumulated and become repetitive patterns of expected behavior, which tend to become
permanent traditions.

DERIVATION OF MORAL STANDARDS

 The foundations of evolving moral systems rest on a complex cybernetic process that sustains and
preserves the human species.
 This is a dynamic process that drives the creation of moral and ethical standards, namely: emotion,
and rules.
 Every human action inspires a corresponding reaction whether subtle in nature or violent. Some
people are more emotionally reactive than others.
 Emotions can get out of control if not regulated by laws, customs, moral codes, professional codes
and even the rules of etiquette.
 Rules are considered as an essential stabilizing force that enhance the survivability of individuals,
families and nations.

DILEMMA

 It is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither
of which is acceptable. As we can see, the key here is that the person has choices to make that will
all have results she does not want.
 ETHICAL DILEMMA
o It is a decision-making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is
unambiguously acceptable or preferable.
o In ethical dilemma, the complexity arises out of the situational conflict in which obeying
would result in transgressing another.
 MORAL DILEMMA
o There are THREE IDENTIFIED CONDITIONS that must be present for situations to be
considered moral dilemmas:
1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision about which
course of action is best. Here, the moral agent must choose the best option and act
accordingly.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from. Hence, as already
pointed out above, there must be two or more conflicting options to choose from
for moral dilemmas to occur.
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always
compromised.
o TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA
 EPISTEMIC DILEMMAS: SELF-IMPOSED AND WORLD-IMPOSED DILEMMAS
 It involves situations wherein TWO OR MORE MORAL REQUIREMENTS
CONFLICTED WITH EACH OTHER and that the moral agent hardly knows
which of the conflicting moral requirements takes precedence over the
other.
 In other words, under the epistemic dilemma, the moral agent in this
situation does not know which option is morally right or wrong.
  SELF-IMPOSED DILEMMA
o This is caused by the moral agent’s wrong doings.
 OBLIGATION DILEMMAS AND PROHIBITION DILEMMAS
 This pertains to particular situations in which there are MORE THAN ONE
FEASIBLE ACTIONS IS OBLIGATORY,
 SINGLE AGENT AND MULTI-PERSON DILEMMAS
 The moral agent is COMPELLED TO ACT ON TWO OR MORE EQUALLY THE
SAME MORAL OPTIONS but he/she CANNOT CHOOSE BOTH.

THE SOURCES OF MORALITY

 THE OBJECT
o It is the aim or goal of a certain action acquired. To make an act morally good, it’s object or
aim must conform to the law of God or the conscience of the doer of the action must attest
it.
 THE INTENTION OF THE AGENT
o It refers to the means of attaining the object.
 THE CIRCUMSTANCES
o These pertains to the types of environment, situation, or condition prevailing when the
action is done.

SUMMARY

 Looking closely, human actions ought to be understood clearly in a very strict sense, because it has
something to do with human movements that are ruled by one’s freedom. The key elements of
Ethics involves the application of a set of values to a set of perceptions and estimates of the
consequences of an action.
 M2L1: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

Culture undeniably does play a significant pseudo role within shaping moral behavior and extends even
further to social norms. Arguably, rather than defining our moral behavior per se, it influences and
changes our definitions of what ought to be deemed morally acceptable by consistent exposure to it.
Culture, itself, is an individualistic, man-made concept of collective identity that is open to complete
subjectivity. The fact so many cultures exist is evidence of this - solely due to the differentiation of
societal norms from place to place. The subjectivity argument for culture can be stretched further and
applied to morality. Where culture does form the basis of some of our morality is in the fact that, whilst
we might share certain moral views, what is deemed morally acceptable differs from person to person.

The beginning of human civilization is a proper reference point in treating the interesting subject of
culture.

A human being’s adaptation to their society, conformity to the culture of their time, and their education
have work alongside each other putting their present status.

CULTURE

 It is derived from the Latin word CULTURA or CULTUS which means CARE or CULTIVATION. Culture
is analogous to caring for an infant. Because an infant has prolonged dependency, he/she has to be
taken care by people around him/her.
 Culture has been defined as all modes of thought, behavior, and production that are handed down
from one generation to the next by means of COMMUNICATIVE INTERACTION rather than by
genetic transmission.
 Culture as cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of his/her own social
group. He/she is endowed with certain innately useful qualities.
o However, he/she cannot develop these inborn talents without the help of other people.
 It is an indelible (indelible = cannot be erased) manifestation of human existence that shows how far
a human being has gone in the course of time and how much he/she has learned.
 The growth of culture anywhere at any given time is a result of an individual’s reaction to the several
stimuli that motivates his/her way of thinking and challenge his/her mode of living. Without
him/her culture will be at a standstill.

ORIGIN OF CULTURE

 Anthropologists believe that CULTURE IS A PRODUCT OF HUMAN EVOLUTION. Humans devised a

common way of classifying experiences and transmitting them symbolically.
 Since these experiences were learned and transmitted, the developed distinctly, independent from
biological evolutions. Hence, a person may transmit beliefs, values, norms or way of life to another
person even if they are not related by blood.
 This view of culture argues that people from different places develop distinct cultures. However,
elements of a culture can be transmitted from one society to another.
 Being dynamic, culture can be taught and learned, making it potentially rapid form of adaptation to
changes in the human environment.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

 MATERIAL CULTURE
o It includes the physical objects a society produces. These are tools, pieces of furniture,
clothing, automobiles, and computer systems, to name a few.
o Awareness of these kinds of objects created and how people use them brings about greater
understanding of culture of society.
 NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
o It consists of elements termed norms, values, belief, and language shared by the members
of a society. Non-material culture is considered as the CARRIERS OF CULTURE.
o ELEMENTS OF NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
 LANGUAGE
 The most defining characteristics of the human being is the ability to
develop and use highly complex systems of symbols like language.
 A symbol, as sociologist says, is the very foundation of culture. The essence
of culture is the sharing of meanings among members of the society.
 Unless one shares the language of culture, one cannot participate in it.
Languages influences people’s way of perceiving, behaving and feeling, thus,
tends to define and shape the world around them.
 It is through language that ideas, values, beliefs and knowledge are
transmitted, expressed and shared.
 BELIEFS
 These are ideas that people hold about any part of the total reality
surrounding them. It shows how people see reality.
 The subject of human beliefs may be infinite and may include ideas
concerning the individual, other people, and any aspects of the biological,
physical, social, and supernatural world, be it primitive or scientific.
 VALUES
 These are the SHARED IDEAS ABOUT DESIRABLE GOALS. These are person’s
IDEAS ABOUT WORTH AND DESIRABILITY or an abstract of what is important
and worthwhile.
 Values makes up human judgments of what is moral and immoral, good and
bad, right or wrong, beautiful and ugly, and so on.
 NORMS
 These are shared rules of conduct that specify how people should ought to
think and act. Norms is simply defined as specific rules of behavior.
 TYPES OF NORMS
o MORES
 These are norms associated with strong ideas of right and
wrong. Mores are standard of conduct that are highly
respected and valued by the group and their fulfillment is
felt to be necessary and vital to group welfare.
 They are considered essential to group’s existence and
accordingly, the group demands that they be followed
 without question. They represent obligatory behavior
because their infractions result in punishments, formal or
informal.
o FOLKWAYS
 These are norms that simply the CUSTOMARY, NORMAL
AND HABITUAL WAYS a group does things. These
customary ways are accumulated and become repetitive
patterns of behavior, which tends to become permanent
traditions.
o LAWS
 These are often referred to as FORMAL NORMS. They are
rules that are enforced and sanctioned by the authority of
the government.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

 Culture is LEARNED
 Culture is SHARED
 Culture is CUMULATIVE
 Culture is DYNAMIC
 Culture is DIVERESE

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

 The importance of culture cannot be overemphasized. Although human beings possess instinct,
they generally rely on their culture in order to survive. Next to this, are some functions of culture:
o Culture helps people adapt to the demand of the surrounding physical environment.
o Culture compensates for many human physical limitations.
o Culture provides ways and means to regulate human collective existence.
o Culture prescribes behavioral patter insides ways and means to regulate human.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

 The concept refers to the notion that each culture should be evaluated according to its own merits
and standards rather than from the standpoint or bases of a different culture.
 In other words, norms, values, and beliefs should be judged only from the viewpoint of the culture
where they belong.
 The goal of cultural relativism is to promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically
part of one’s own culture.
 Using the perspective of cultural relativism, it leads to the view that no particular culture is superior
than another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, and so on.
 It is a concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context.

MODES OF ACQUIRING CULTURE

 IMITATION
 o It is human action by which one tends to duplicate more or less exactly the behavior of
others.
 INDOCTRINATION
o This takes the form of FORMAL TEACHING OR TRAINING which may happen anywhere. The
formal teaching takes into account the cultural components of society where the learning
individuals lives.
 CONDITIONING
o THROUGH NORMS prevailing in one’s social and cultural milieu and through the process of
conditioning, the individual acquires certain patterns of beliefs, values, and behaviors.
 ACCULTURATION
o It is a process by which societies with different cultures are modified through fairly CLOSE
AND LONG CONTINUED CONTACT.
 AMALGAMATION
o It is the INTERMARRIAGE OF PERSONS coming from different cultural groups resulting in
some kind of biological fusion.

SUMMARY

 Culture plays a significant role in shaping moral behavior and extends even further to social norms.
It influences and changes our definitions of what ought to be deemed morally acceptable by
consistent exposure to it. This is solely due to the differentiation of societal norms from place to
place.
 M2L2: DEVELOPING CULTURE AS HABIT

Moral education and development is a major part of virtue ethics. Moral development, at least in its
early stages, relies on the availability of good role models. THE VIRTUOUS AGENT ACTS AS A ROLE
MODEL AND THE STUDENT OF VIRTUE EMULATES HIS OR HER EXAMPLE. Initially this is a process of
habituating oneself in right action. Aristotle advises us to perform just acts because this way we become
just. Virtue in itself is not a habit. HABITUATION IS MERELY AN AID TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF VIRTUE,
but TRUE VIRTUE REQUIRES CHOICE, UNDERSTANDING, AND KNOWLEDGE. The development of moral
character may take a whole lifetime. But once it is firmly established, one will act consistently,
predictably and appropriately in a variety of situations.

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT

 Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual practice of virtue, which essentially translates
into having a virtuous or excellent character.
 A virtuous character is the result of proper combination of PRACTICAL WISDOM (PHRONESIS) and
HABITUATION IN THE PURSUIT OF THE MEAN (MESOTES).
 Being ethical is all about being excellent in human being, which is being excellent in fulfilling one’s
essence as a rational being that has cultivated an excellent character and capable of making the
most prudent decisions in all circumstances.
 Through the constant interaction of thought and action as prompted by various situations that calls
for one’s decision, a person comes to know himself/herself as a certain type of character or
personality.
 Being a certain way or having a particular personality or character implies a certain understanding of
the good.
 Personality or character is an approach or a way of reckoning the different situations that one faces
in his/her life - a way of navigating one’s way towards his/her flourishing as a human person.
 Character is not merely a theoretical construct but a product of action in the world – a constant
doing or way of being that is made apparent by the possession and actualization of particular virtues
or vices.

MORAL CHARACTER

 It is an evaluation of an individual's stable moral qualities. The concept of character can imply a

variety of attributes.
 A moral character includes THE EXISTENCE OR LACK OF VIRTUES such as empathy, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good behaviors or habits.
 Moral character primarily refers to the ASSEMBLAGE OF QUALITIES that distinguish one individual
from another.
 Although on a cultural level, the set of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can be said
to unite and define it culturally as distinct from others.
 PSYCHOLOGIST LAWRENCE PERVIN defines moral character as A DISPOSITION TO EXPRESS
BEHAVIOR IN CONSISTENT PATTERNS OF FUNCTIONS ACROSS A RANGE OF SITUATIONS.
 NORMATIVE ETHICS involve MORAL STANDARDS THAT EXHIBIT RIGHT AND WRONG CONDUCT. It is
a test of proper behavior and determining what is right and wrong.
 PLATO believed that the soul is divided into THREE PARTS OF DESIRE, namely:
o RATIONAL
o APPETITIVE
o SPIRITED
 In order to have moral character, we must understand what contributes to our overall good and
have our spirited and appetitive desires educated properly, so that they can agree with the guidance
provided by the rational part of the soul.
 ARISTOTLE tells us that there are good people in the world. These are those who
exhibit EXCELLENCES – excellences of thought and excellences of character.
o Excellence of character, then, is a state concerned with choice, lying in a mean relative to us,
this being determined by reason and in the way in which the man of practical wisdom would
determine it.
 We have been informed that Ethics is a branch of Philosophy concerned about actions, the action
either human act or act of man. Ethics and values have a common role; they even interplay with
each other.
 ETHICS WITHOUT VALUES IS HOLLOW AND SHALLOW AND THEREFORE WEAK. WHILE VALUES
WITHOUT ETHICS IS PARALYTICS.

VALUES

 These are BELIEFS OR IDEALS SHARED BY THE MEMBER OF A CULTURE about what is good or
desirable and what is not. It strongly influences the behavior of an individual and serve as board in
all situation.
 Through heredity or through the environment, an individual acquires values. The influence of the
family, community, society, nation, and other individuals makes the person unique as he/she
develops a set of values. These values determine the priorities and lifestyle of the person.
 3 ROOTS/ORIGINS OF FILIPINO VALUES
o LIFESTYLES
o HUMAN NATURE
o CULTURAL INCLINATION
 PATTERNS OF FILIPINO VALUES
o EXOGENOUS PATTERN
 It is also identified as LEGAL or FORMAL. The word itself would help us deduce its
root to the time when Filipinos began to form a link with cultures.
o INDIGENOUS PATTERN
 It is considered TRADITIONAL or NON-FORMAL pattern of Filipino values. Indigenous
values are ACQUIRED IN THE SUBCONSCIOUS MIND.
 FILIPINO VALUES
o BAYANIHAN
 The Filipino community spirit of cooperation in which a group of individuals extends
a helping hand without expecting any remuneration.
o FAMILY CLOSENESS
  The Filipino trait of prioritizing the family above other things and maintaining the
close connections and cooperation among its members.
o HOSPITALITY
 The Filipino trait of being receptive and generous to guests and to anybody that
enters into their homes.
o COMPASSION
 The Filipino trait of being kind and emphatic to others even if the person is a not
known to them or a stranger.
o REGIONALISM
 The Filipino trait of giving his province mates preferential treatment as well as
priority over natives of other provinces.
o FRIENDLINESS
 The Filipino quality of being friendly and can easily get together with others in a
sincere, loyal, and kind ways.
o POLITENESS
 The Filipino quality of being courteous to anybody, most especially to the elders,
and it is usually associated with the used of Po and Opo.
 FILIPINO VALUES AND NON-FILIPINO VALUES
o While it is true that Filipinos have their own sense of values and valuing system, it is also an
accepted fact that these distinct values came from the universal human needs and wants.
o For instance, everyone in the world has a want to own a car. However, how serious the
Filipinos are on this want may be different from that of the Americans.
 BIPOLAR FILIPINO VALUES
o HIYA OR SHAME
 It gives the Filipinos a picture of refinement, culture and education. It avoids
harshness or crudeness. This value limits the Filipinos to desire so much and it gives
them peace of mind.
o NINGAS COGON OR PROCRASTINATION
 Its positive aspects rely on the fact that a person with such a value is definitely
simple. It has a negative effect because a man with that value refuses to take
responsibility, and a man who does not take responsibilities seems to be far from
improvements.
o BAHALA NA OR RESIGNATION
 It has a positive effect because it is a demonstration of dependence to God. Bahala
na is an expression of humility; it is the opposite of arrogance. However, it also has
a negative effect because it legitimizes laziness.
o MAÑANA HABIT
 Being a positive value, it allows things to move on their pattern. They assure peace
of mind in the person. They are like allowing wound to heal on its own. However,
they also have a negative part. It keeps problems to a heap until solving them
becomes impossible.
o UTANG NA LOOB OR INDEBTEDNESS
 It is a recognition of a favor. It is a way of paying back something or a way of
repayment. It is also negative; the success of one is like a debt to someone. This is
 one weakness of the Filipinos that many times it results to prejudices during
elections.

SUMMARY

 Moral education and development is a major part of virtue ethics. The development of moral
character may take a whole lifetime. But once it is firmly established, one will act consistently,
predictably and appropriately in a variety of situations. Moral development relies on the availability
of good role models. Virtue in itself is not a habit. Habituation is merely an aid to the development
of virtue, but true virtue requires choice, understanding, and knowledge.
 M2L3: MORAL DEVELOPMENT

In human nature theory or AXIOLOGY, moral development notions convey a sense of ourselves as
DYNAMIC AND PROGRESSIVE BEINGS. It is normal for us to be ever-evolving and aspiring beyond
ourselves even beyond the maturity of adulthood. BEING POTENTIALLY PERFECT OR SELF-REALIZING, we
inherit a natural legacy to fulfill in our individual characters and through community, which reveals our
hidden but awesome inherent worth. On this view, we owe it to ourselves not to sit still or languish in
anything less than the full completion and perfection of all our potentials and powers. These are the
basic tenets of moral development in its most vital, to forecast the flowering of our species’ most
humane and admirable potentials. Only in the LATTER 19TH CENTURY did moral development revive as a
lively research field in social science led by the COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH of JEAN PIAGET
and LAWRENCE KOHLBERG.

The notions of morality development have been developed over centuries, the earliest came from
philosophers like CONFUCIUS, ARISTOTLE, and ROUSSEAU, who all took a more HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE
and focused on the development of the conscience and sense of virtue.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

 It focuses on the EMERGENCE, CHANGE, AND UNDERSTANDING OF MORALITY from infancy through

adulthood.
 Morality develops across a lifetime and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their
behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods of physical and cognitive
development.
 MORALITY in itself is often a synonym for RIGHTNESS or GOODNESS. It refers to a certain code of
conduct that is DERIVED FROM ONE'S CULTURE, RELIGION OR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY that guides
one's actions, behaviors and thoughts.
 In the modern day, empirical research has explored morality through a moral psychology lens by
theorists like SIGMUND FREUD and its relation to cognitive development by theorists like JEAN
PIAGET, LAWRENCE KOHLBERG, AND B. F. SKINNER.
 LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING
o PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
 It is where a child’s sense of morality is EXTERNALLY CONTROLLED. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.
 STAGES OF PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL REASONING
 Stage 1: OBEDIENCE/PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION
o It focuses on the child’s DESIRE TO OBEY RULES AND AVOID BEING
PUNISHED. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong
because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for
the act is, the more bad the act is perceived to be.
 Stage 2: INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION
 o It expresses the WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME? position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in
their best interest.
o Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others,
only to the point where it might further the individual’s own
interests.
o CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
 It is where a child’s sense of morality is tied to PERSONAL AND SOCIETAL
RELATIONSHIPS. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
 STAGES OF CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL REASONING
 Stage 1: GOOD BOY/GOOD GIRL ORIENTATION
o In this stage, children want the approval of others and ACT IN WAYS
TO AVOID DISAPPROVAL. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and
people being nice to others.
 Stage 2: LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
o In this stage, the child BLINDLY ACCEPTS RULES AND CONVENTION
because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
o Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by
doing what one is supposed to do is seen as valuable and important.
o POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
 It is where a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more ABSTRACT
PRINCIPLES AND VALUES. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should
be changed or eliminated.
 STAGES OF POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL REASONING
 Stage 1: SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
o In this stage, the world is viewed as holding different opinions,
rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected
as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social
contracts rather than rigid edicts.
 Stage 2: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL ORIENTATION
o In this stage, moral reasoning is based on ABSTRACT REASONING
USING UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES. Generally, the chosen
principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such
as equality, dignity, or respect.

CONSCIENCE

 It refers to the inner sense or consciousness of the moral goodness or blameworthiness of one’s
own conduct, intentions, or character together with a feeling of obligation to do right or to be good.
 CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL DECISION
o In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so and not because he or she
wants to avoid punishment, it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is
previously agreed upon.
 o In this type of decision, laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a
commitment to justice carries with it, and an obligation to disobey unjust laws.

SUMMARY

 Moral development conveys a sense of ourselves as dynamic and progressive beings. It is normal for
us to be ever-evolving and aspiring beyond ourselves even beyond the maturity of adulthood. These
are the basic tenets of moral development in its most vital, to forecast the flowering of our species’
most humane and admirable potentials.
MIDTERM
 M3L1: THE HUMAN ACTS

A human act is an act that is performed only by a human being freely and knowingly. Not every act that
a human being does is a distinctively human act. What makes an act performed by a human being
distinctively a human act is that it is voluntary in character, that is, an act in some way under the control
or direction of the will, which is proper to man. One can therefore identify the human act with the
voluntary act. A voluntary act proceeds either from the will itself - for example, an act of love or of
choice - or from some other human power that can in some way be moved by the will, whether an act of
the intellect, of sense cognition, or of emotion; even an act of some bodily member as commanded by
the will can be a voluntary act.

HUMAN ACTS

 Human acts are actions that proceed from the deliberate free will of man. In a broader perspective,
the term human acts refer to any activity performed by man freely and knowingly.
 Moral philosophy, however, treats of the term human acts not in its broader but in its stricter
meaning. Moral philosophy, therefore, understands human act as actions that are proper only to
man.
 These actions are those which man does not share with the brutes, because human acts are rational
and willed acts.

ACTS OF MAN

 Acts of man are man’s actions which man shares with the brutes. These are actions that proceed
without man’s deliberate free will such as the beating of the heart, palpitating, salivating, breathing,
winkling of an eye, etc. All these activities do not need man’s freedom and will.

ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS

 KNOWLEDGE
o A human act is an act done with knowledge. Doing an act with knowledge makes the act
deliberate. This means that the one who performs the act has intellectual knowledge of the
act.
o Further, in performing an act with knowledge, the one who performs the act has awareness
of the means to employ as he performs an act and the agent has also the awareness of the
end to achieve in his action.
 FREEDOM
o A human act is an act done with freedom. An act done with freedom means that the agent
does an act under the control of his will.
o This suggests that the agent performs an act with freedom, his will is not affected or
influenced by any constraint either within himself or outside himself.
o In simple terms, it means that the one who do the act is not forced to do or not to do a
particular action. And because of this, a human act is purely and solely determined by the
will.
 VOLUNTARINESS
 o Of the three constituents of human acts, it is voluntariness that requires the presence of
the two other constituents, namely: knowledge, and freedom. This means that the
voluntary act is synonymous with human act.
o Voluntariness requires the presence of knowledge and freedom in the agent because for the
agent to will an act, he/she must have knowledge of what the act is and he/she must also
have freedom to perform or not to perform the act. Thus, a voluntary act is a willful act.

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACT

 Human Act in relation to the WILL

o Human acts in relation to the will refer to those actions which are started, performed, and
completed by the will either by the will alone or through other faculties which are under the
control of the will.
o KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO THE WILL
 ELICITED ACTS
 Elicited acts are those actions which are started in the will, performed by
the will, and are completed by the will as a sole agent without bodily
involvement.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELICITED ACTS
o WISH
 It refers to the primordial desire, like, or inclination of the
will to a thing conceived by the will as good and known by
the intellect. Embedded in the inclination of the will is its
wish to act. This where all human acts start the wish to act.
o INTENTION
 It refers to the purposive tendency of the will towards a
thing regarded as realizable, whether the thing is actually
done or not. This means that through intentions, the will is
assured that the object of its inclination is attainable.
o CONSENT
 It refers to a definite decision as to what means should be
used. This means that the will and intellect are in a process
of picking or choosing rightly the should-be-used means.
o ELECTION
 It refers to the active commitment of the agent to follow
what means the intellect has finally opted as the right pick,
so much so that the will shows acceptance of the choice of
the intellect in order to achieve the desired good.
o USE
 After the mind has selected the means to carry out the
intention, this time the mind uses the means.
o FRUITION
 It refers to the actual attainment of the desired good. This
means that the will is enjoying because it possesses
satisfaction since it achieved what it willed.
  COMMANDED ACTS
 Commanded acts are those which are begun in the will, performed by the
will, but completed through bodily involvement which is under the control
of the will.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMANDED ACTS
o INTERNAL ACTS
 It refers to those actions done by man by way of his internal
mental powers under the command of the will. Examples of
this could be the act of remembering, the act of nerving
oneself to meet an issue, and the act of deliberate use of
the imagination in visualizing a science.
o EXTERNAL ACTS
 It refers to those actions that are affected by bodily powers
of man under the command of will. Examples of this could
be that of deliberate writing, walking, eating, spitting.
o MIXED ACTS
 It refers to actions that include the use of bodily and mental
powers. Examples of this could be that of painting, where
the artist uses the power of his intellect through
imagination and the power of his hands in sketching the
contents of his imagination.
 Human Act in relation to REASON
o human acts in relation to reason refer to those actions that are either in agreement or in
disagreement with reason.
o KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO REASON
 GOOD ACTS
 It refers to those actions done by man in harmony with the dictates of right
reason.
 EVIL ACTS
 This pertains to those actions done by man in contradiction to the dictates
of right reason.
 INDIFFERENT ACTS
 It refers to those actions that neither good nor evil. Indifferent acts bear no
positive relation to the dictates of right reason. For clarity’s sake, it exists
only in theory and not in the actual situation. The reason is that in the
concrete advertence of actions, actions are only either good or bad.

MORALITY OF THE HUMAN ACT

 It refers to the goodness or badness of an act. These are what they call morally good and morally
evil. When an act is done in accordance with the law of God and human reason, which is attested to
by the conscience, the act is morally good.

SUMMARY
 A human act is an act done by man freely and knowingly. Not every act that a human being does is a
distinctively human act. What makes an act performed by a human being distinctively a human act is
that it is voluntary in character. On the other hand, an act of man refers to the involuntary actions in
man.
 M3L2: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

Moral reasoning as a species of practical reasoning is a type of reasoning directed towards deciding
what to do and, when successful, issuing in an intention. Of course, we also reason theoretically about
what morality requires of us. It is also true that, on some understandings, moral reasoning directed
towards deciding what to do involves forming judgments about what one ought, morally, to do. In order
to do justice to the full range of philosophical views about moral reasoning, we will need to have a
capacious understanding of what counts as a moral question. For present purposes, we may understand
issues about what is right or wrong, or virtuous or vicious, as raising moral questions.

REASON

 It refers to the sufficient ground of explanation and logical defense. It also reflects the power of
comprehending, inferring, or thinking especially in orderly rational ways.

IMPARTIALITY

 It is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on
the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons.

THE MORAL ACT

 Human beings are complex beings. Unlike other organism that are simply driven by survival instincts,
human beings experience the world in a variety of ways through a variety of perceptive capacities.
 Apart from our rational capacity which allows us to reckon reality with imaginative and calculative
lenses, our feelings also play a crucial part in determining the way we navigate through various
situations that we experience.
 Being human, we have the capacity to reflexively examine a situation before proceeding to act with
respect to how we feel. In other words, although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning of a
situation, they should not be the sole basis for our motives and actions.
 A person who is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely unable to
process the possible consequences of his/her actions done impulsively. Feelings seek immediate
fulfillment, and it is our reason that temper these compulsions.
 Feelings without reasons are blind. Reason sets the course for ethical ethical and impartial decisions
especially in moral situations although it is not the sole determining factor in coming up with such
decisions.
 Reason and feelings must constructively complement each other whenever we are making choices.
When feeling anger and jealousy, and shame are out of control, reason puts these emotions in their
proper places.

7 STEPS OF MORAL REASONING

1. STOP AND THINK

 o Before making any decision. It is best to take a moment to think about the situation itself,
your place in it, and other surrounding factors which merit consideration such as the people
involved and the potential effects of your decision on them.
2. CLARIFY GOALS
o It is also necessary to clarify your short-term and long-term aims. One often decides on the
basis of what he/she wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat of the moments, short-
term wants eclipse long-term goals.
3. DETERMINE FACTS
o Make sure you gather enough information before you make a choice. An intelligent choice is
one that is supported by verified facts. You must first make sure that that what you know is
enough to merit action.
4. DEVELOP OPTIONS
o Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to come up with alternative options
to exhaust all possible courses of actions. Most of the time, the pressure of a situation may
make you feel you have less options than you think.
5. CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES
o Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the unethical choices bearing in mind both
your motives and the potential consequences of your action. Think of long - term
consequences and act in accordance with the principles of justice and fairness.
6. CHOOSE
o Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try consulting others who may have
knowledge or experience of your situation. Find people with virtuous character and
compare your reasoning with their moral analysis.
7. MONITOR AND MODIFY
o Monitor what happens after your decision and have enough humility to modify your actions
or behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way of admitting that you might have not
thought out a decision well enough.

MORAL CHARACTER TRAITS

 Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is appropriate to hold agents
morally responsible. A trait for which the agent is deserving of a positive reactive attitude, such as
praise or gratitude, is a virtue
 Moral character traits are relatively stable and reliable dispositions, and thus should be reasonably
good predictors over time of an agent’s behavior if that agent is in a trait-relevant situation.
 Moral character traits are not just dispositions to engage in certain outward behaviors; they can also
be dispositions to have certain emotions or affections.
 In order for a moral character trait to be a virtue, it must not only be in accord with the relevant
moral norms, but the disposition must also be informed by proper reasoning about the matter at
hand.

MORAL DISPOSITION

 It refers to the person’s ability to behave in certain ways in certain sorts of circumstances in
accordance to the appropriate virtues.
SUMMARY

 Moral reasoning is a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do and it involves forming
judgments about what one ought to do. In order to do justice to the full range of philosophical views
about moral reasoning, we need to have a capacious understanding of what is right or wrong, or
virtuous or vicious.
 M3L3: BIOETHICS

This module contains the concepts of Biomedical Ethics otherwise known as Bioethics, the importance
of personal health responsibility, the different types of crime against human life, and the negative
consequences and evil effects of committing crime against human life.

Bioethics is a rather young academic inter-disciplinary field that has emerged rapidly as a particular
moral enterprise against the background of the revival of applied ethics in the second half of the
twentieth century. The notion of bioethics is commonly understood as a generic term for three main
sub-disciplines: Medical Ethics, Animal Ethics, and Environmental Ethics. In addition, Bioethics is
concerned with a specific area of human conduct concerning the animate (human beings and animals)
and the natural world against the background of the life sciences and deals with the various problems
that arise from this complex amalgam. Furthermore, bioethics is not only an inter-disciplinary field but
also multidisciplinary since bioethicists come from various disciplines, each with its own distinctive set of
assumptions.

At the turn of the 20th century personalists theorist emerged as a reaction to perceived
depersonalization caused by the advent of science, technology, and totalistic systems in philosophy. It
posits the value of personhood as a center of life, experience, decisions, and actions.

BIOETHICS

 It refers to the discipline dealing with the ethical implications of biological research and its
application in order to preserve the sanctity of life.

HEALTH

 It refers to the state of the body, which enables it to perform every functions, which can reasonably
expected of it, to accommodate itself to each ordinary tasks.

PERSONAL HEALTH RESPONSIBILITY

 Taking charge of one’s own health is an essential step in disease prevention as well as protocols for
healing and recovery from disease. It involves active participation in one’s own health and healing
plan through education and lifestyle changes.
 One needs to be sensitive about the importance of good health. A simple everyday exercise,
avoiding alcohol and tobacco and illegal drugs, proper hygiene, enough rest like 8-hour sleep, eating
in proper time and a balance diet are few things that we can do for our body.
 People should think more on prevention not on cure. Diseases may be avoided if everyone is
conscious about what they do, since most diseases are acquired as a product of unhealthy lifestyle.
 Part of personal responsibility to health is to know their family history, this is one way to determine
hereditary illnesses which can be avoided in the future.
 In our country, several measures have been enacted to instill health awareness and impose personal
responsibility towards health.
 Like the anti-smoking campaign, discouragement to take medicines without medical prescription,
and encouragement to seek medical assistance and services from licensed physician.
 Abusing one’s body violates God’s commandments. It is a common belief that our body comes from
God – we are tasked to take care of it and not to destroy it. It is owned by God and it is for our love
one and fellowmen.

CRIMES AGAINST HUMAN LIFE

 SUICIDE
o It is literally derived from Latin word suicide combining the pronoun for self and a verb for to
kill. Thus, suicide in essence, is an act of human being intentionally causing his or her own
death.
o OTHER METHODS OF SUICIDE includes:
 Blunt Force Trauma
 Exsanguinations
 Internal Drowning
 Electrocution
 Immolation
 Intentional Starvation
 STERILIZATION
o It refers to the procedure performed to stop fertility permanently, in either male or female.
It is considered as the most reliable and most commonly used type of contraception.
o Sterilization is done either to the male or female through operation. Operation on women
are commonly called tubal ligation as the procedure aims to occlude or ligate the fallopian
tubes.
o Male sterilization on the other hand, is achieved by the operation of vasectomy; cutting or
legating, on both sides the vas deferens, which transport sperm from the testicles to the
penis.
 EUTHANASIA
o It usually refers to the act of quickening death for a merciful motive. Euthanasia, however,
is different from suicide because death is not a certain in suicide; while the opposite is true
for euthanasia.
o TYPES OF EUTHANASIA
 PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
 It simply refers to the rights of the patients to refuse life support, medicines,
and medical procedures. It is said that it is more widely accepted because
there is no law that forces an individual to receive involuntary life support.
 ACTIVE EUTHANASIA
 On the other hand, is more controversial and as such remains illegal
worldwide. It simply pertains to the voluntary agreement between the
physician and the dying patient to pursue acts that eventually lead to death.
 DRUG ADDICTION
o This is the state of periodic and chronic intoxication detrimental to the individual and to the
society, produced by the repeated consumption of a drug.
o The Bible teaches that Christians should take care of their bodies and use them to serve
God. One’s body and life belong to God, and we are only entrusted to use it in order to
 accomplished His will like a stewards. It is intrinsically evil to do things that will harm our
health.
 ALCOHOLISM
o This is an act of drinking alcoholic drinks at a level that interferes with physical health,
mental health, and social, family, or job responsibilities.
o The Bible does not prohibit the drinking of alcoholic beverages. What it does condemn is
drinking excessively which can be associated with gluttony. Alcoholism will always be
regarded as immoral if it is a habit.
 ABORTION
o This refers to the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus or
embryo resulting in or causing its death.
o TYPES OF ABORTION
 SPONTANEOUS ABORTION
 It is often the body’s way of preventing the birth of a defective child,
although sometimes they are due to maternal health problems.
 INDUCED ABORTION
 This results from the planned interruption of a pregnancy. It prevents a
conception from becoming a live birth.
 THERAPEUTIC ABORTION
 This term refers to abortions thought necessary because of fetal anomalies
or to protect the health of the mother when a birth might be life
threatening or physically damaging.
 ELECTIVE OR VOLUNTARY ABORTION
 This refers to the interruption of a pregnancy before viability at the
woman’s request for reasons other than fetal anomalies or maternal risks.
o LEGAL ABORTION AND ILLEGAL ABORTION
 A LEGAL ABORTION is a procedure performed by a licensed physician intended to
terminate a suspected or known intrauterine pregnancy. An ILLEGAL ABORTION is
induced by someone who is not a physician, or self-induced.
 SELLING ORGANS FOR TRANSPLANTS
o It refers to exchanging organs for money or other valuable considerations which leads to
commoditization of the human bodies and exploitation of the poor for the benefit of the
rich.

SUMMARY

 Bioethics refers to the discipline dealing with the ethical implications of biological research and its
application in order to preserve the sanctity of life. The notion of bioethics is commonly understood
as a generic term for three main sub-disciplines: Medical Ethics, Animal Ethics, and Environmental
Ethics.
 Module 4: Lesson 1
ARISTOTLE’S THOUGHTS
Aristotle numbers among the greatest philosophers of all time. His works shaped centuries of
philosophy from late antiquity through the renaissance, and even today continue to be studied with
keen interest. His extant writings span a wide range of disciplines, from logic, metaphysics and
philosophy of mind, through ethics, political theory, aesthetics and rhetoric, and into such primarily non-
philosophical fields as empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animal observation and
description. In all these areas, Aristotle’s theories have provided illumination, met with resistance,
sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding readership.

Aristotle’s Short Biography

 Aristotle was born in the Greek colony of Stagira in Macedonia.

 Father: Nicomachus - a student of natural history and an eminent physician, who served under
Amytas II, King of Macedonia, father to Philip the Great.
 Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy and is unanimously considered to be Plato’s greatest student.
He provided philosophical basis of science which proved dominant for 18 centuries.
 In 342 B.C., he returned to Macedon as tutor and then adviser to King Philip II of Macedon's son
Alexander, who became Alexander the Great.
 Later he became a public teacher in Athens, using a garden he owned where he founded his own
school called the Lyceum.
 His collected lectures cover most of the knowledge of the time in science, and some other fields
such as Logic and Ethics, and include much of Aristotle's own work in Zoology and Anatomy.

Aristotle’s View

 Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good but actually doing or
practicing the good habitually.
 For Aristotle, we can only fully actualize our potential as human beings once we understand what
being human essentially aims to and do the necessary things to fulfill that in the most excellent way
possible.
 According to Aristotle, Ethics is grounded in the formation of one’s character - a way of being and
living in harmony with the human person’s proper end (telos).

The Concept of Ethics

 Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims towards some ends or good.
acquired.
 For Aristotle, Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual practice of virtue which
essentially translates into having a virtuous or excellent character.
 Aristotle is not simply interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for human life. He
wants to find out what our chief end is. He is interested in finding out what all our lives essentially
and ultimately aim to.
 Aristotle names the chief good for the human person as happiness or eudaimonia, which is an
activity of the soul that purposively attempts to choose the mean between two extremes in the
realm of morality.
 For Aristotle, happiness is the self-sufficient, final, and attainable goal of human life. It is self-
sufficient because to have it makes human life complete.
 For Aristotle, our chief god is not something we merely possess but something that we continually
actualize. According to him, Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. He
postulates that happiness is an activity of the soul.
 Aristotle teaches us that character is the most essential component of Ethics. A virtuous character
is the result of the proper combination of practical wisdom and habituation in the the pursuit of the
mean.

The Concept of Soul

 For him, the soul is the part of the human being that emanates the body. It is the life principle in
man. It is composed of both rational and irrational elements.

 The rational part of the soul is divided into two parts

(1) the speculative which is responsible for knowledge

(2) the practical which is responsible for choice and action.

 The speculative part is concerned with pure thought and is essentially the base of contemplation,
while the practical intellect is in charge of action and the practical determination of the proper
means to attain a specific end.

The Concept of Virtue

 The Greek word for virtue is arête which means excellence. By excellence, the Greeks thought of
how a thing fulfills its functions in accordance with its nature.
 Virtue - It is a state or character which makes a person good and capable of fulfilling his/her end
(telos) as a human person.
 For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one’s character that is the result of choice. This choice is
governed by prudence or practical wisdom (phronesis).
 Phronesis is the human person’s instrument in dealing with moral choices. It is a kind of
knowledge that deals with practical matters and not just with ideas or concepts. It is the
intellectual virtue responsible for bringing the human person closer to his/her chief good in the
realm of morality.
 Aristotle believed that there are two kinds of virtues – moral and intellectual.
(1) Moral virtues has to do with excellence in the performance of decisions relating to moral and
practical activity.
(2) Intellectual virtues have something to do with one’s capacity to harness reason’s
contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge.
 Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral virtue. No person is
born morally virtuous . However, all persons have the latent potentiality to be so, if only they
habitually do excellent deeds.
Summary

Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy and is unanimously considered to be Plato’s greatest student.  He
provided philosophical basis of science which proved dominant for 18 centuries. He considers that
morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good but actually doing or practicing the good
habitually.  
 Module 4: Lesson 2
ST THOMAS AQUINAS’ THOUGHTS
Thomas Aquinas lived at a critical juncture of western culture when the arrival of the
Aristotelian corpus in Latin translation reopened the question of the relation between faith and reason,
calling into question the modus vivendi that had obtained for centuries. This crisis flared up just as
universities were being founded. Thomas, after early studies at Monte Cassino, moved on to the
University of Naples, where he met members of the new Dominican Order. It was at Naples too that
Thomas had his first extended contact with the new learning. When he joined the Dominican Order he
went north to study with Albertus Magnus, author of a paraphrase of the Aristotelian corpus.

St Thomas Aquinas Short Biography

 He was a scholastic philosopher and theologian, born in the Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy.
 He studied with the Benedictines of Monte Cassino, and at the University of Naples. Against the
bitter opposition of his family, he entered the Dominican Order of mendicant friars.
 His brothers kidnapped him and kept him a prisoner in the paternal castle for over a year; in the
end he made his way to Cologne to become a pupil of Albertus Magnus.
 In 1252 he went to Paris, and taught there, until in 1258 he was summoned by the pope to teach
successively in Anagni, Orvieto, Rome, and Viterbo.
 He died at Fossanuova on his way to defend the papal cause at the Council of Lyon, and was
canonized in 1323.
 His prolific writings display great intellectual power, and he came to exercise enormous intellectual
authority throughout the Church.
 In his philosophical writings he tried to combine and reconcile Aristotle's scientific rationalism
with Christian doctrines of faith and revelation.
 His best-known works are two huge encyclopedic syntheses.
(1) Summa contra Gentiles that deals chiefly with the principles of natural religion.
(2) Summa Theologiae that contains his mature thought in systematic form, and includes the
famous five ways or proofs of the existence of God. Thomism now represents the general
teaching of the Catholic Church.

St. Thomas Aquinas’ View

 St. Thomas Aquinas begins from the standpoint of faith. His perspective presupposes the existence
of a God who is the author (source) and the goal (end) of all eternity.
 For Aquinas, God reveals His goodwill as the eternal law reflected in the order of reality. Relating
with the law as governing all is relating with God himself whose will emanates to govern all that is.
 Human freedom for St Thomas Aquinas, is an imprint of the Divine will in the very being of the
human person. This sharing of human reason in the eternal will or divine will is for him/her the
natural law.
 Aquinas describes law as a certain rule and measure of acts whereby man is induced to act or is
restrained from acting.
 Because the rule and measure of human actions is reason, law has an essential relation to reason;
in the first place to divine reason; in the second place to human reason, when it acts correctly.
 Law is directed by its nature to the good, and especially to the universal or common good. It is
addressed not primarily to private persons but to the whole people meeting in common.
 The application of the law to those to whom it is applied, and the communication of this law to
them -is essential to the nature of the law.

The Four Main Kinds of Law

(1) Natural Law - It is the law inscribed by God into the heart and mind of every man which help them
discern what is good from what is not.
- It is based on first principle, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All
other precepts of the natural law are based on this.
- For Aquinas, the natural law impinges on the very freedom of the human being who can know
his/her options and voluntarily will to take actions.

(2) Eternal Law - It is identical to the mind of God as seen by God Himself. It can be called law because
God stands to the universe which He creates as a ruler does to a community which He rules.

(3) Divine Law - It iis derived from eternal law as it appears historically to humans, especially through
revelation, it appears to human beings as divine commands. Divine law is divided into the Old Law
and the New Law.

- The Old Law and the New Law roughly corresponds to the Old Testaments and the New
Testaments of the Bible.
a) Old Law, St. Thomas Aquinas is thinking mainly of the Ten Commandments. The Old Law
commands conduct externally and it reaches humans through their capacity for fear. This law
promised earthly rewards.
b) When he speaks of the New Law, the teachings of Jesus Christ. The New Law commands
internal conduct, it reaches humans by the example of divine love. This law promises heavenly
rewards.

(4) Human Law - It is what we commonly call positive law, the laws actually enacted and put in force in
our human communities. Aquinas thinks of human laws as laws, devised by human reason, adapted
to particular geographical, historical, and social circumstances.
- Human law is directed to the common good. The promotion of virtue is necessary for the
common good, and human laws are instruments in the promotion of virtue.

Conscience

 For Aquinas, the conscience refers to the proper functioning of reason in moving the human person
towards an end goal that is fitting of his/her dignity.
 According to him, there are different kinds of conscience
a) Correct Conscience - It judges what is really good as good and what is really evil as evil
b) Certain Conscience - It has a subjective assurance of the lawfulness of unlawfulness of an act. This
implies that the person is sure of his decision.
c) Perplexed Conscience - This type of erroneous conscience unable to grasped something clearly and
fears sin in whatever choice it makes.
d) Doubtful Conscience - This is a state of mind when it cannot decide with certainty whether an
action or behavior is good or bad leaving you unsure of what to do or not having any peace of mind
after performing a certain action.
e) Erroneous Conscience - It judges incorrectly that is what is good is evil and what is evil is good. It is
a result of long time persistence in doing, that the self is no longer concerned whether what he/she
does is good or not bad.

The Relational and Perfection of Love

 The human person is not only bound to find full maximum capacity of one;s own being in a search
for self-actualization. But by thoroughly relating with other other human persons and all of
creation.
 St Thomas Aquinas holds that the true destiny of man lies in a gratuitous perfection that is beyond
the human person yet relates with him/her thoroughly in freedom, and therefore, in fullness of
love.
 The highest perfection of man for St Thomas Aquinas is in his/her wanting to be with God. In
other words, the ethical man is not the perfect man but one who wants to be saved by
cooperating in freedom with what is attainable for him/her.
 Thomas's ethics are based on the concept of first principles of action. Thomas defined the four
cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude. For him, the cardinal virtues are
natural and revealed in nature, and they are binding on everyone.
 Thomas also greatly influenced Catholic understandings of mortal and venial sin. Thomas viewed
theology, as a science, the raw material data of which consists of written scriptures and the
tradition of the Catholic Church.
 According to him, faith and reason, while distinct but related, are the two primary tools for
processing the data of theology. St. Thomas believed both were necessary for one to obtain true
knowledge of God.
 Thomas believed that the existence of God is neither obvious nor unprovable. In the Summa
Theologica, he considered in great detail five reasons for the existence of God. These are widely
known as the quinque viae, or the Five Ways.
 Concerning the nature of God, Thomas felt the best approach, commonly called the via negativa, is
to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five statements about the divine qualities:
- God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
- God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of
God's complete actuality.
- God is infinite. That is, The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's
existence. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
- God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
- God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's
essence is the same as God's existence.
Summary

 St. Thomas Aquinas was a scholastic philosopher and theologian, born in Aquino, Italy. He studied with
the Benedictines of Monte Cassino, and at the University of Naples.  His best-known works are two huge
encyclopedic syntheses: the Summa Contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologiae. St. Thomas Aquinas
begins from the standpoint of faith. His perspective presupposes the existence of a God who is the
source and the end of all eternity.