QUESTION 3 ANSWERS

FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability
among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially
lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For
example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables
mainly reflect the variations in two unobserved variables

EIGENVALUE
Eigenvalues are a special set of scalars associated with a linear system of
equations (i.e., a matrix equation) that are sometimes also known as characteristic
roots, characteristic values (Hoffman and Kunze 1971), proper values, or latent roots
(Marcus and Minc 1988, p. 144).

The determination of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a system is extremely

important in physics and engineering, where it is equivalent to matrix
diagonalization and arises in such common applications as stability analysis, the
physics of rotating bodies, and small oscillations of vibrating systems, to name only a
few. Each eigenvalue is paired with a corresponding so-called eigenvector (or, in
general, a corresponding right eigenvector and a corresponding left eigenvector; there
is no analogous distinction between left and right for eigenvalues).

The decomposition of a square matrix   into eigenvalues and eigenvectors is known in

this work as eigen decomposition, and the fact that this decomposition is always
possible as long as the matrix consisting of the eigenvectors of   is square is known as
the eigen decomposition theorem.

KMO TEST
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test is a measure of how suited your data is for
Factor Analysis. The test measures sampling adequacy for each variable in
the model and for the complete model. The statistic is a measure of the
proportion of variance among variables that might be common 

BARTLETT TEST
Bartlett's test (see Snedecor and Cochran, 1989) is used to test if k samples are from
populations with equal variances. Equal variances across populations is
called homoscedasticity or homogeneity of variances. Some statistical tests, for example
the analysis of variance, assume that variances are equal across groups or samples. The
Bartlett test can be used to verify that assumption.
In Bartlett test, we construct the null and alternative hypothesis. For this purpose
several test procedures have been devised. The test procedure due to M.S.E (Mean
Square Error/Estimator) Bartlett test is represented here. This test procedure is based
on the statistic whose sampling distribution is approximately a Chi-Square distribution
with (k-1) degrees of freedom, where k is the number of random samples, which may
vary in size and are each drawn from independent normal distributions. Bartlett's test is
sensitive to departures from normality. That is, if the samples come from non-normal
distributions, then Bartlett's test may simply be testing for non-normality. Levene's
test and the Brown–Forsythe test are alternatives to the Bartlett test that are less sensitive
to departures from normality.[1]

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF RESEARCH REPORT

There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report:

1.    Introduction
2.    Review of Literature
3.    Methods
4.    Results
5.    Discussion
As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper,
Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3.

Section 1: Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.

Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample, treatment, design, results, and
implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if required.
Section 3: Introduction (1-3 paragraphs)
•    Basic introduction
•    Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals)
•    Statement of Purpose
•    Statement of Significance
Section 4: Research question(s) or hypotheses
•    An overall research question (optional)
•    A quantitative-based (hypotheses)
•    A qualitative-based (research questions)
Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using hypotheses.
Section 5: Review of Literature

    Should be organized by subheadings

    Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence

    Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries

Section 6: Methods

    Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment, including IRB approval

    Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics

    Setting: Describe the setting, if applicable (generally only in qualitative designs)

    Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail, how you implemented the treatment

    Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; Describe the reliability and
validity associated with the instrument

    Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) and software (if use
Section 7: Results

    Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative)

    Describe results

    Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative)

    Describe results
Section 8: Discussion

    Restate Overall Research Question

    Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall question

    ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed
Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to practice)
Section 10: Limitations

    Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study.

    Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately)

    Sample

    Instrument/s

    Other limitations
Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary)
Section 12: References (APA format
QUESTION 4 ANSWERS

Sample size determination :

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of
observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample
size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to
make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample
size used in a study is usually determined based on the cost, time, or
convenience of collecting the data, and the need for it to offer
sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there may be several
different sample sizes: for example, in a stratified survey there would be
different sizes for each stratum. In a census, data is sought for an entire
population, hence the intended sample size is equal to the population.
In experimental design, where a study may be divided into
different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each
group.

Sampling Frame :
In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device
from which a sample is drawn.[1] It is a list of all those within
a population who can be sampled, and may include individuals,
households or institutions
A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a
complete list of everyone or everything you want to study. The
difference between a population and a sampling frame is that the
population is general and the frame is specific. For example, the
population could be “People who live in Jacksonville, Florida.” The
frame would name ALL of those people, from Adrian Abba to
Felicity Zappa. A couple more examples:
Population: People in STAT101.
Sampling Frame: Adrian, Anna, Bob, Billy, Howie, Jess, Jin, Kate,
Kaley, Lin, Manuel, Norah, Paul, Roger, Stu, Tim, Vanessa,
Yasmin.
Population: Birds that are pink.
Sampling Frame:
 Brown-capped Rosy-Finch.
 White-winged Crossbill.
 American Flamingo.
 Roseate Spoonbill.
 Black Rosy-Finch.
 Cassin’s Finch.

Error in hypothesis testing

Type I Errors: False Positives

When you see a p-value that is less than your significance level, you get excited
because your results are statistically significant. However, it could be a type I error. The
supposed effect might not exist in the population. Again, there is usually no warning
when this occurs.

Why do these errors occur? It comes down to sample error. Your random sample has
overestimated the effect by chance. It was the luck of the draw. This type of error
doesn’t indicate that the researchers did anything wrong. The experimental design, data
collection, data validity, and statistical analysis can all be correct, and yet this type of
error still occurs.

Even though we don’t know for sure which studies have false positive results,
we do know their rate of occurrence. The rate of occurrence for Type I errors equals the
significance level of the hypothesis test, which is also known as alpha (α).

The significance level is an evidentiary standard that you set to determine whether your
sample data are strong enough to reject the null hypothesis. Hypothesis tests define
that standard using the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is actually true. You
set this value based on your willingness to risk a false positive.
Type II Errors: False Negatives

When you perform a hypothesis test and your p-value is greater than your significance
level, your results are not statistically significant. That’s disappointing because your
sample provides insufficient evidence for concluding that the effect you’re studying
exists in the population. However, there is a chance that the effect is present in the
population even though the test results don’t support it. If that’s the case, you’ve just
experienced a Type II error, which is also known as beta (β).

What causes Type II errors? Whereas Type I errors are caused by one thing, sample
error, there are a host of possible reasons for Type II errors—small effect sizes, small
sample sizes, and high data variability. Furthermore, unlike Type I errors, you can’t set
the Type II error rate for your analysis. Instead, the best that you can do is estimate it
before you begin your study by approximating properties of the alternative
hypothesis that you’re studying. When you do this type of estimation, it’s
called power analysis.

To estimate the Type II error rate, you create a hypothetical probability distribution that
represents the properties of a true alternative hypothesis. However, when you’re
performing a hypothesis test, you typically don’t know which hypothesis is true, much
less the specific properties of the distribution for the alternative hypothesis.
Consequently, the true Type II error rate is usually unknown!

POWER OF A TEST
The power of a test is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it
is false; in other words, it is the probability of avoiding a type II error.
The power may also be thought of as the likelihood that a particular study will
detect a deviation from the null hypothesis given that one exists

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND

VALIDITY.

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research.

They indicate how well a method, technique or test measures
something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is
about the accuracy of a measure.
SAMPLING VERSUS NON SAMPLING
ERROR
The sampling errors are assigned to an estimate because it is based on a
'part' from the 'whole' while non-sampling errors are assinged because there
is departure from the prescribed rules of the survey, such as survey design,
field work, tabulation andanalysis of data , etc.

CLUSTER ANALYSIS
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in
such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more
similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups
(clusters).

CONJOINT ANALYSIS
'Conjoint analysis' is a survey-based statistical technique used in market research that
helps determine how people value different attributes (feature, function, benefits) that
make up an individual product or service.
The objective of conjoint analysis is to determine what combination of a limited number
of attributes is most influential on respondent choice or decision making. A controlled
set of potential products or services is shown to survey respondents and by analyzing
how they make choices between these products, the implicit valuation of the individual
elements making up the product or service can be determined. These implicit valuations
(utilities or part-worths) can be used to create market models that estimate market
share, revenue and even profitability of new designs.

Conjoint originated in mathematical psychology and was developed by marketing

professor Paul E. Green at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Other
prominent conjoint analysis pioneers include professor V. "Seenu" Srinivasan of Stanford
University who developed a linear programming (LINMAP) procedure for rank ordered
data as well as a self-explicated approach, Richard Johnson who developed the
Adaptive Conjoint Analysis technique in the 1980s [1] and Jordan Louviere (University of
Iowa) who invented and developed choice-based approaches to conjoint analysis and
related techniques such as best–worst scaling.
Today it is used in many of the social sciences and applied sciences
including marketing, product management, and operations research. It is used frequently in
testing customer acceptance of new product designs, in assessing the appeal
of advertisements and in service design. It has been used in product positioning, but there
are some who raise problems with this application of conjoint analysis.