NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOHY SIKKIM

Ravangla Campus
Barfung Block, Ravangla Sub Division, South Sikkim 737139

Subject: Engineering Physics (PH11101)

Module 2: Quantum Mechanics

• Failure of classical mechanics:

Given at time t = 0 Find at time t??



m x a ?

u  0 v?

F x ?
• Towards the end of nineteen century, classical physics attain near perfection and had
tremendous success both in theoretical and experimental front.
• Classical mechanics describe the motion of the particle, rigid bodies, fluids etc., under the
influence of appropriate forces.
• The laws of electromagnetism, thermodynamics, geometrical and physical optics which
constituted the classical physics described the corresponding phenomenon successfully.
• However, many new phenomena, such as blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect etc.,
observed during the last decade of nineteenth century and the early part of twentieth century,
which could not be explained within the framework of classical physics.
• In order to explain these phenomena the concept of classical physics were modified in favor
of new revolutionary concepts. This process gave the birth to quantum physics.
• Blackbody Radiation:
• A black body is one which absorbs all the electromagnetic
radiations incident on it. It is a perfect absorber and emitter of
radiation.
• A perfect blackbody is an idealization and does not really exist.
However, most glowing substances like a piece of red hot iron
or the sun are good approximations of a black body.
• A hollow closed cavity with blackened inner walls and small
opening serves as a very good approximation of a blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody
radiation.

1
 • When the cavity is held at a fixed temperature, it emits radiation of all frequencies ranging
from zero to infinity.
Distribution of radiant energy among the various frequency component of the blackbody
radiation depends on its temperature.

T3

T2

u()
u()

T3 T1

T2
T1
νm ν m m 
0 0
 Features of energy distribution curves:
1. At a given temperature, the energy density has maximum value corresponding to a value of
frequency or wavelength.
2.The frequency corresponding to maximum energy density increases with increase of
temperature.
3. The energy density decreases to zero for both higher and lower values of frequency or
wavelength.
4. The energy density corresponding to a given frequency or wavelength increase with increase
of temperature.

Many attempts were made to formulate laws to explain the above experimental observations.

 Stefan-Boltzman Law:

At a given temperature (T) the total energy due to all frequencies radiated by a blackbody per
unit surface area per unit time [(i.e. R(T)] is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the black body.
i.e. RT T 4
 RT   T 4 ………..(1) Where, σ Stefan’s constant
• This is known as Stefan-Boltzman law, and agrees with experimental observations.
• The value of σ is 5.6710-8 W m-2 K-4.

2
 Wein’s Displacement Law:
The product of wavelength (m) corresponding to maximum energy density and the absolute
temperature (T) is constant.
i.e. λ mT  constant

 mT  b …...……..(2) Where, b  2.89810-3 mK

• This is called Wien’s displacement law, and agrees well with experimental observations.
Note: Wein’s displacement law states that the hotter an object, the shorter the wavelength at
which it will emit most of its radiation.

 Wein’s Distribution Law:

According to Wein, the energy density (E) emitted by a blackbody in a wavelength interval 
and is +d is given by:

c1 -c 2 /λλ
i.e. E λ dλ  e dλ ………….(3) Where, c1, c2  constants
λ5

• This is known as Wien’s distribution law, or Wein’s law, and agrees well with experimental
observations for smaller values of  but does not match the result for larger values of .
• Wein received the Nobel Prize for his work on heat radiation in 1911.

 Rayleigh-Jeans law:

• Classical wave theory says that, the electromagnetic

inside the cavity of the blackbody at equilibrium
temperature T forms the standing waves (possible
modes) and the number of standing waves that can fit
the cavity depends on wavelength.

i.e. The number of possible mode in the cavity is large if

wavelength is small and vice versa.

• According to Rayleigh and Jeans, the increase in

number of modes is proportional to 1/2 or 2, and each
of the standing wave must be assigned an average
kinetic energy kT, where k is Boltzman constant.

3
 • This leads to Rayleigh-Jeans law:
8ν
dN  dν ………..(4) Rayleigh-Jeans law
c3
• The Rayleigh-Jean’s law agrees well with the
experimental data of black body radiation in the

u()
low frequency region.
Experimental
• But, there is disagreement in the high frequency result
or in the ultraviolet region, and is called
ultraviolet catastrophe.

 Failure of classical mechanics 0 ν

 Introduction to Quantum mechanics:

• The idea of quantum mechanics was first introduced by Max Planck’s in the year 1900 in an
attempt to explain the observed the energy distribution of black body radiation.
• The idea was later used successfully by Einstein to explain photoelectric effect.
• Neils Bohr used a similar quantum concept to formulate a model for hydrogen atom and
explain the observed hydrogen spectra successfully.
• These developments led to following conclusions:
1. Radiant energy such as electromagnetic wave also exhibit particle nature.
2. Dynamical properties such as energy such as energy, mometum, angular momentum of
bound system has discrete values.
• The concept of dual nature of radiation was extended to particle by Louis de Broglie.
i.e. All the physical properties of a system can not be determined simultaneously with
ultimate accuracy.
• A probabilistic interpretation of the physical system in quantum mechanics was introduced
by ‘Max Born’.
i.e. Every system is characterized by a wave function Ψ, which describe the state of the
system completely.
• Wave mechanical formation of quantum theory was developed by Schrodinger, in which a
wave function satisfies a partial differential equation called ‘Schrodinger equation’.
• The matrix mechanics method to quantum mechanics was formulated by Heisenberg.
• P. A. M. Dirac formulated relativistic quantum mechanics to incorporate the effect of special
theory of relativity in quantum mechanics.

4
This led to the development of quantum field theory which successfully describes the interaction
of radiation with matter.
 Planck’s Radiation Formula:

Max Planck’s proposed an empirical formula for energy distribution in the spectrum of black
body radiation in the form of
aν 3
u ν dν  dν ….……..(5) Where, a, b  Stefan’s constant
e bνν  1
This is called Planck’s radiation formula, and agrees well with experimental observations.

 Derivation of Planck’s Radiation Formula:

Max Planck’s proposed a hypothesis regarding exchange of energy between the atomic
oscillators in the wall of the enclosure and blackbody radiation.

Planck’s Hypothesis:

1. Energy of an oscillator is quantized.

 The energy of an oscillator of frequency  is restricted to one of the values En = nh.

Where, h  Planck’s constant (6.626 10-34 Js)

n  0, 1, 2, 3,……

2. The energy exchange between the oscillators and blackbody radiation takes place in integral
multiples of a discrete amount called a quantum energy h.

Derivation:

Let, N 0 , N1 , N 2 ,.... : Number of atomic oscillators having energy E 0, E1, E3,… respectively.
n 
Total number of oscillators: N   Nn ………..(6)
n 0
Planck’s assume Maxwell’s distribution of energy for oscillators at temperature T. According to
which the number of oscillator with energy E at temperature T is given by:

N  ce  En / kT  ce  En …………(7)

Where, c  a constant

 = 1/kT  k is Boltzman constant

5
Using Equation (7) in (6):
 
N  c  e  En  c e nhν
n 0 n 0


 c 1  e  hν  e 2 hν  ... 
 c1  e   hν 1
…..……….(8)

Total energy possessed by these oscillators:

n  
E   En N n  c  nhνe  nhν
n 0 n 0


 c 0  hνe  hν  2hνe 2 hν  .... 

 chνe  hν 1  2e  hν  3e 2 hν  .... 
 chνe  hν 1  e  hν 2

chνe  hν …..……..(9)

E
1  e   hν 2

The average energy per oscillator of frequency at temperature T is given by:

E chνe  hν 1
E  
   
 1 [Using Equation (8) and (9)]
c 1  e  hν
 2
N 1 e hν

hνe  hν

 1  e hν 
hνe  hν

 1 
e  hν   hν  1
e 
hν ………..(10)
 E  hν
e 1  

According to Planck’s, thermal equilibrium is established in the isothermal exposure by

exchange of energy between the oscillators in its wall and the radiation inside it.

6
Moreover, the number of independent modes of oscillation per unit volume associated with
electromagnetic radiation having frequency range between  and  + d is:
8ν …………(11)
dN  3
dν
c
Energy density of radiation within the frequency range  + d is:
8ν 2 8ν 2 hν
uν dν  EdN  ν   hν/kT dν
c 3
d E
c 3
e 1  
8hν 3
 uν dν 
1
 hν/kT dν
c 3
e 
1  …..……(12)

This is called Planck’s radiation formula.

c c c
ν  dν   d  d
Again,  2
2
c …..………(13)
 dν  d
 2

Using Equation (13) in (12), Planck’s radiation formula can be written as:
3
c
8h 
u  d    1 c
d
c 3
e hc/kT

 1 2 
8hc ………..(14)
 u  d 
1
 d
 5
e hc/kT
1
This is called Planck’s radiation formula in terms of wavelength.

(a) At low frequency (0):

 hν   x2 
e hν/kT  1     e x  1  x   .....
 KT   2! 

Equation (12) becomes:

8hν 3 8hν 3 kT
 u ν dν 
1
 dν   dν
c3  hν  c 3
hν
1   1
 kT 

7
 8ν 2
 u ν dν  kTdν ………..(15)
c3

This is Rayleigh-Jeans formula, and which holds good for low frequency range.

(b) At high frequency limit ():

hν
    e hν/kT  1  e hν/kT
kT

Equation (12) becomes:

8hν 3
 u ν dν 
1
3
 hν / kT dν
c e

8hν 3 hν / kT
 u ν dν  e dν …..………(16)
c3

This is Wein’s radiation formula, and which holds good in high frequency range.

 Photoelectric Effect:

The emission of electrons from the surface of metals when a beam of light of suitable frequency
is incident on them is called ‘photoelectric effect’.

Light

Ie

A C
A
V

Battery (polarity reversing)

8
A &C : Two electrodes enclosed in an evacuated quartz bulb. The electrode A is photosensitive
and connected to negative terminal of potentiometer. The electrode B is connected to
the positive terminal through a microammeter.

V : A voltmeter connected to measure the potential difference between electrodes.

• In absence of any light there is no flow of current.

• When monochromatic light of appropriate frequency is allowed to fall on metal surface, a

photocurrent starts flowing in the circuit. The current is known as ‘photocurrent’.

• The photocurrent is caused by the emission of electron from metal surface caused by incident
radiation.

• Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of incident light which cause photoelectric
emission is called ‘threshold frequency (0)’.

• With the supply of negative potential to electrode B, the photocurrent decreases and become
zero at sufficiently higher negative potential V0.

• Stopping potential: The negative potential V0 of plate B at which the photocurrent becomes
zero is called ‘stopping potential’.

 Characteristics of Photoelectrons

1. Effect of intensity of incident radiation:

• For a given metal with constant potential

difference between electrodes, the photocurrent
increases with increasing intensities of the incident

radiation of a particular frequency. IS
 Photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity
of incident light.

0 Intensity (I) 

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2. Effect of potential difference:

• Saturation current increases with increase of

intensity of incident light.

• The stopping potential is same for light of three Is I 
different intensities having same frequency.
I 
I
Note: The maximum K. E. of the photoelectron is
independent of the intensity of the incident radiation.
I   I   I 
V0 0 V 

3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation:

• Stopping potential depends upon the frequency 

of incident light.
IS
• Greater the frequency of light, greater is the
stopping potential. ν1  ν 2  ν 3
ν1
• Saturation current is independent of frequency. ν 2ν
3

Note: Maximum K. E. of photoelectron depends

on the frequency of incident radiation.
V01 V02V03 0 V 

4. Effect of Photometal:

For all metals the maximum K. E. (E K) and

frequency follow the linear relation with same 
slope but different intercept.
CsK W
EK
E K  a1ν  a2
Where, tan   a1  Slope 
OA  a2  Intercept 0 ν0 ν
A
Note: Threshold frequency is a function of B tan  a1
photometal.
OA  a 2
i.e. Threshold frequency depends on nature of C
photometal.

10
 Fundamental laws of Photoelectric Effect:

 The number of electron emitted per second (photoelectric current) is directly proportional to
the intensity of incident light.

 For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency of
incident radiation which can cause photoelectric emission.

 If the frequency is less than threshold frequency, then no electrons can be emitted from the
metal surface however intense the incident light.

 For a given metal surface, the stopping potential and hence the maximum K. E. of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency but is independent of the intensity of
incident light.

 Electron emission from a photosensitive surface is almost instantaneous. The time lag
between the incident radiations and the emission electrons is less than 10 -8 sec.

 The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a photosensitive surface is independent of its
temperature.

 Einstein theory of Photoelectric effect:

• Einstein in 1905 explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of Plank’s quantum theory of
light.

• According to Einstein, when light of frequency  is incident on a metallic surface, each

photon interacts with one electron and completely transfers its energy to the electron.

• The gain in energy of the electron is used in two parts:

1. From atom and away from metal surface. The minimum amount of energy needed to free
an electron from the metal surface is called photoelectric ‘work function (W0)’ of metal.
2. The other part is used in giving kinetic energy to the electron.

Thus,
1
hν  W0  mv 2 ………..(17) Where, m mass of electron
2
v velocity of electron

This is Einstein’s photoelectric equations.

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 • If the frequency of incident light is 0 so that the energy h0 of the photon is such that it can
only liberate the electron from the metal, then the kinetic energy of the electron will be zero.

 Putting  = 0 and v = 0, equation (17) becomes:

hν 0  W0 …….…..(18)

• The frequency 0 is called threshold frequency, and is defined as the minimum frequency
which can cause photoelectric emission.

• The wavelength corresponding to the threshold frequency is called long wavelength limit
denoted by 0, and given by:
c
0  ……………(19)
ν0
• Substituting equation (18) in (17):
1
hν  hν 0  mv 2
2
 mv  hν  ν 0 
1 2 ………(20) (Kinetic energy of photoelectron)
2
This is another form of Einstein’s photoelectric equations.

 Explanation of the experimental results:

a) From equation (20):

mv 2  h  ν  ν 0 
1
2
For a particular emitter, work function W0= constant.
1
Hence, mv 2νh
2
 vν ………..(21)

Thus the increase in frequency of incident light causes increase in velocity of photoelectron and
hence kinetic energy.

b) An increase in the intensity of incident radiation is equivalent to an increase in the number

of photons falling on the emitting surface.
 An increase in the number of incident photons results in an increase number of emitted
electrons.

Hence,
Intensity of emitted electrons  Intensity of incident radiation

12
 c) If V0 is the stopping potential, then:

1
mv 2  eV0 ……..….(22) 
2
Substituting equation (22) in (20):
EK
eV0  hν  ν 0 
 eV0  hv  hν 0 0 ν
hv hν 0
 V0  
e e B
 V0  Av  B …………(23)
h
Where, A   Slope
e
hν
B  0  Intercept
e
Thus the graph between stopping potential (V0) and frequency () would be a straight line of
slope A = h/e and negative intercept B = h0 /e.

Example 1: Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a certain metal surface when it is
exposed to radiations of  = 6800 Å. Calculate the threshold frequency and work function of the
metal.

  6800 A  6800 1010 m

Solution: Given: Long wavelength limit:

Threshold frequency:
c 3 108
ν0    0.44 1015 Hz
0 6800 1010

hc 6.626 10 34  3 108

Work function: W0  hν 0  
0 6800 10 10
 2.92 1019 J

 1.82eV

13
Example 2: Lithium has work function of 2.3 eV. It is exposed to light of wavelength 4.810-7
m. Find the maximum kinetic energy with which the electron leaves the surface. What is the
longest wavelength which can produce the photoelectrons?

Solution: Given: Work function of Tungsten: W0  2.3eV  2.3 1.6 1019 J

 3.68 1019 J

Wavelength of light:   4.8 107 m

hc6.626 10 34  3 108
Energy of incident light: E 
 4.8 10 7
 4.14 1019 J
Maximum kinetic energy of the electron: KEmax  E  W0
 4.14 1019 J  3.68 1019 J

 0.46 1019 J
 0.28eV

W0
Cut-off frequency: ν0 
h

 Cut-off wavelength (longest wavelength):

ν0 ch
0  
h W0
3 108  6.626 10-34

3.68 10-19
 5.4 10-7 m

Example 3: The work function of Aluminum is 4.2 eV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the
fastest and slowest photoelectron, the stopping potential, and the cutoff wavelength when light of
wavelength 2000 Å falls on a clean aluminum surface. (h = 6.63  10-34 J-sec).

Solution: Given: Work function of Tungsten: W0  4.2eV  4.2 1.6 1019 J

 6.72 1019 J

Wavelength of light:   2000 A  2000 10 10 m

14
 hc 6.626 10 34  3 108
Energy of incident light: E   9.94 1019 J
 2000 10 10

Kinetic energy fastest electron: KE  E  W0  9.94 1019 J  6.72 1019 J

 3.22 1019 J
 2.0eV

Kinetic energy of slowest photoelectron is zero.

If V0 is the stopping potential, then: eV0  KEmax

KEmax 2eV
 V0    2V
e e
W0
Cut-off frequency: ν0 
h
ν0 ch 3 108  6.626 10-34
 Cut-off wavelength: 0     2.96 10-7 m
h W0 6.72 10-19
 Compton Effect:

The phenomenon of increase in the wavelength (or decrease in frequency) of X-ray radiation by
inelastic scattering with free electron in known as ‘Compton effect’.

(h/λ)sin
Scattered E = hν
Photon p = h/λ m0 : Rest mass of electron
Target
Incident electron  : Wavelength of incident X-ray
Photon (h/λ) cos

 m0 v
  : Wavelength of scattered X-ray
hν cos 
1  v2 / c2      : Compton shift
m0 v
p 
1  v2 / c2
m0 v
sin  Recoiled
1  v2 / c2 electron

15
 hc
Energy of incident X-ray photon: E  hν 


h
Momentum of incident X-ray photon: p


hc
Energy of scattered X-ray photon: E  hν 


h
Momentum of scattered X-ray photon: p 


Kinetic Energy of recoiled electron: Ek  m  m0 c 2

 m0 
   m0 c 2
 1 v / c 
2 2

m0
Momentum of recoiled electron: p 
1  v2 / c2

According to conservation of energy:

Energy of incident photon=Energy of scattered photon

 E  E  Ek

 m  m0 c 2
hc hc
 
 
hc hc  m0 
     m0 c 2
   1  v2 / c2 
h h  m0 
     m0 c
   1  v2 / c2 
h h m0 c
   m0 c 
  1  v2 / c2 …………(24)

16
According to conservation of momentum:

h
sin  
m0 v
sin  …………(25)
 1  v2 / c2

h h m0 v
And  cos   cos 
  1  v2 / c2

h h m0 v
  cos   cos  ……….. (26)
  1  v2 / c2

Squaring and adding equation (25) and (26):

2 2
h2 h2 h2 2h 2 m0 v 2 m0 v 2
sin   2  2 cos  
2 2
cos   sin  
2
cos 2 
2
    1 v / c
2 2
1 v / c
2 2

2
h 2 h 2 2h 2 m0 v 2
 2 2 cos  
     1  v2 / c2
2
h 2 h 2 2h 2 m v 2c 2
 2 2 cos   02 ……………(27)
     c  v2

Squaring equation (24):

2
h2 h2 2h 2 2hm0 c 2hm0 c m0 c 2
     
2 2
m c
2  2     1  v2 / c2
0

 1 1  m0 c
4 2
h2
h 2 2h 2
 2 2  2hm0c    2  m0 c 2
2

         c  v
2

h2
h 2 2h 2
 2 2
      m0 c  m0 c c  v
 2hm0c 
4 2 2 2 2 2
 
         c2  v2

      m0 c  m0 c  m0 c v
4 2 4 2 2 2 2
h2 h 2 2h 2
    2 hm0 
c  
2  2       c2  v2

      m0 c v
2 2 2
h2 h 2 2h 2 …………..(28)
    2 hm c   
2  2       c  v
0 2 2

17
Comparing equation (27) and (28):

h 2 h 2 2h 2 h 2 h 2 2h 2     
  cos      2hm c 
 2 2   2  2      
0

2h 2 2h 2     
 cos     2hm0c 
       
      2h 2h
2 2
 2hm0c    cos 
       

      2h
2
 2hm0c  1  cos 
     

    
h
1  cos   ………….(29)
m0 c

  
h
1  cos   …………..(30)
m0 c
2h  .. ..………..(31)
   sin 2
m0 c 2

Equation (30) and (31) are called Compton shift. The factor (h/m0c) has the dimension of length
and is called Compton wavelength (c) of the electron.

   c 1  cos    2c sin 2
………..(32)
2
Note: The Compton shift depends upon the angle of scattering  and is independent of the
wavelength of incident radiation.

The wavelength of scattered photon,

   
h
1  cos      2h sin 2  ……….(33)
m0 c m0 c 2

The Compton wavelength:

h 6.626 10 34 o

c    2.426  10 12
m  0 . 02426 A
m0 c 9 10 31  3 108

18
Discussion:

1. When  = 0,  = 0

 There is no scattering along the direction of incidence.

2. When  = /2,  = c = 0.02426 Å

3. When  = ,  = 2c = 0.04852 Å

 Direction of Recoil Electrons:

Dividing equation (25) by (26):

h
sin 
sin    ν sin 
  tan  
cos  h  h cos  ν  ν cos 
 
ν sin 
 tan  
ν  ν cos  ……….(34)

From equation (29):

   
h
1  cos    c  c  h 1  cos  
m0c ν ν m0 c

ν - ν
 
h
1  cos  
νν m0 c 2

   
h
1  cos   c  c  h 1  cos  
m0 c ν ν m0 c
ν - ν
 
h
1  cos  
νν m0 c 2
hνν
 ν - ν  1  cos  
m0 c 2
hνν
 ν  ν  1  cos  
m0 c 2
hνν
 ν - νcos  ν - νcos  1  cos  
m0 c 2

19
 hνν
 ν - νcos  ν1 - cos   1  cos  
m0 c 2

 hνν 
 ν - νcos   ν  1 - cos 
2 
 m0 c 

 hν 
 ν - νcos  ν1  1 - cos 
2 
 m0c 
 hν
 ν - νcos  2 ν1   sin 2 …………(35) Where,  
2 m0 c 2

Using equation (35) in (34):

  
ν sin  2ν sin cos cos
tan    2 2  2
2
2 ν1   sin 2 ν1   sin 2
1   sin 
2 2 2

cos
 tan   2
1   sin 
2

 cot   1    tan ………….(36)
2
1. When  = 0, cot = 0

  = 90

2. When  = 180, cot = 

  = 0

Note:
 As  varies from 0 to 180, the wavelength of the scattered photon varies from  + 2c,
provided the wavelength of scattered photon is sufficiently small.
 As the scattering angle  varies from 0 to 180, the recoil angle varies from 90 to 0.

20
 de-Broglie hypothesis:
In 1924 de-Broglie proposed that all the moving material particles have particle as well as wave
nature. The wave associated with the material particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave.

v 

m 
x

• The wavelength “” of matter wave associated with a moving particle of linear momentum
“p” is given by:

h
 ………. (37) Where,
p
h  Planck’s constant

 Mathematical Treatment:

• According to Plank’s theory, photon carries energy

E  hν …………(38)
• According to Einstein’s theory of relativity

E  p 2c 2  m02c 4 …………(39)

Rest mass of photon is zero

 E  pc …………(40)

Comparing equation (38) and (40):

pc  hν
hc
 pc 

h
  ……….(41)
p

This is de-Broglie equation.

Where,  wavelength of matter wave
p  momentum of the moving body
h  Plank’s constant

21
 De-Broglie wavelength in different forms:
• In terms of K. E (E).
 p2 
h …………..(42)  E  
  2m 
2mE   p  2mE 
 
• In terms of potential difference (V).
 p2 
h  qV  
 ……….(43)  2m 
2mqV   p  2mqV 
 
Where, q charge of particle
• In terms of temperature (T).
 p2 
 KT  

h  2m 
………..(44)   p  2mKT 
2mKT  
Where K  Boltzman constant.
• For a relativistic particle:
 E  p 2 c 2  m 2 c 4 
 0 

hc   E 2  p 2c 2  m 2c 4 
E  m02 c 4
2 ………..(45)  0

  p c  E  m02 c 4 
2 2 2

 
 E  m0 c 
2 2 4

 p  
 c 
Significance:
 De-Broglie hypothesis demands that wave and particle are interconvertable and
complementary in nature.
 The de-Broglie hypothesis was experimentally verified for electron by Clinton Davisson
and Laster Germer jointly.

 Characteristics of Matter-wave:
 Only moving particle exhibit matter wave.
 Lighter the particle, greater will be wavelength and vice versa.
 Greater the velocity of particle, smaller will be the wavelength and vice versa.
 Wavelength of matter wave vary from 0 to .
 Matter wave can produce interference, diffraction and polarization phenomenon.

22
Example 4. (a) Assume that a photon (m = 0) and a particle have the same wavelength. Compare
the linear momenta of the two particles.
(b) Both an electron (m = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon (m0 = 0) have momenta 5.00 MeV/c.
Compare their total energy.
Solution: (a) Given: Mass of photon: m0
Wavelength of photon = Wavelength of electron

E hν h c h
Linear momentum of photon: p    
c c c  
h
Linear momentum of electron: p


(Linear momentum)photon = (Linear momentum) electron

(b) Given: Mass of photon: m0

Momentum of photon and electron: p  5.0MeV / c
Mass of electron: m0  0.511MeV / c 2

Energy of photon: E  pc  5.0MeV

Energy of electron: E  m02c 4  p 2c 2

 0.511MeV / c  c  5.00MeV / c c
2 2 4 2 2

 0.262  25MeV

 25.262MeV

 5.026MeV

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

The law states that the product of uncertainties in position and momentum of a particle at a given
instant of time is greater or equal to ħ/2.
Mathematically,
Where, x uncertainty in position

 x p 
2 ……….(46)  p  uncertainty in momentum
This is known as Uncertainty relation. ħ  h/2

23
 • In 1927 Werner Heisenberg enunciated that “one can not measure simultaneously both
position and momentum of a particle with absolute accuracy”.
i.e. if position is determined accuracy, the determination of momentum become inaccurate
and vice versa.
 when x = 0, then p = 

• The uncertainty relation for energy and time is:

 ………….(47)
E t 
2

• The uncertainty relation for angular momentum and angle is:


J  …………(48)
2

 Applications of Uncertainty principles:

1. Absence of electron in nucleus:
The diameter of a nucleus is: 10 14 m
Uncertainty in the position of electron is: x  1014 m
 Uncertainty in the momentum of electron is:

p   5.3 1021 kgm/ s
2 x
 Energy of electron is:

E  p 2c 2  m02c 4  5.3 10  3 10   9.110  310 

 21 2 8 2 31 2 8 4

 28.09 10 9 10  82.8110 8110 

 42 16  62 32

 252.811026  0.6708 1026

 253.5 1026
 15.92 10 13 J
15.92 1013
 eV
1.6 1019
 E  9.95MeV

24
However, the experimental observation shows that electron emitted in -decay have K. E. of
about 1 MeV, which is much smaller than our calculated value.
 The nucleus does not contain electrons.

2. Ground state energy of harmonic oscillator

Energy of an harmonic oscillator in x-axis is:

p2 1
E  m 2 x 2 ………… (49)
2m 2

Let, x  x, p  p

 Uncertainty relation becomes:


x p 
2
 ………….(50)
 p
2x

Using Equation (50) in (49):

2 1
E  m 2 x 2
2
8mx 2 …………(51)

In ground state, oscillators have minimum Energy.

 dE 
  0 Where, q  charge of particle
 dx  xa

 d  2 1 2 2

   2
 m x 
  0
 dx  8mx 2  x a

 2 2 1 2 
  3
  2m x  0
 8mx 2  x a

2
 3
 m 2 a  0
4ma
2
 m 2 a 
4ma3

25
 1/ 4
2  2 
a  4  a   2 2 
4m 2 2  4m  


a …………..(52)
2m

Energy is minimum when x = a.

2 1 2 1   
 Emin  2
 m 2 a 2  Emin   m 2  
8ma 2    2  2m 
8m 
 2m 
1 1
 Emin    
4 4
1 …………(53)
 Emin  
2

 Ground state energy of an oscillator can not be zero.

Example 5. The position and momentum of a 1.00 keV electron are simultaneously measured. If
the position is located to an accuracy of 0.200 nm, what is the percentage of uncertainty in its
momentum?
Solution: Given: Energy of electron: E  1.00keV
and x  0.1nm
According to Heisenberg Uncertainty principle:
 1.054  10 34 Js
xp   p 
2 2  0.2  10 9 m

 2.63 1025 kgm/ s

Momentum of electron: p  2mE  2  9.11031 11.6 1019

 1.711023 kgm/ s

p 2.63 1025
Percentage of uncertainty: 100  100  1.5%
p 1.711023

26
 Wave function:
Wave functions are the mathematical representation of a particle which contains all the
information required for the probabilistic description of the particle. It is denoted by .
• It must be well behaved, that is, single valued and continuous everywhere.
• Mathematically,

r , t   Aei k r t 

 
………..(54)
Where,
 
r, t   wave function r  Position vector at time t

A  amplitude of wave   angular frequency

 2
k  propagation vector

 Basic properties of wave function:

1. It relates the particle and wave nature of matter statistically.

2. It is the function of space coordinate and time.


i.e. r, t   x, y, z, t 
3. It is as complex quantity and hence we can not measure it.

4. It is a single valued function.


i.e.  has only one value at a point “ r ” for time “t”.

5.  and its partial derivatives i.e.    must be continuous everywhere.

, ,
x y z
6.  is square integrable function i.e.   dv = finite quantity.
2

7.  must satisfy Schrodinger’s equation.

 Physical significance of :

Square of absolute magnitude of  i.e.   2 at a particular point and time is directly

proportional to the probability of finding the system at that point and time.

• The possibility of finding a particle within a volume dv is:


……...(55)

2
P dv


27
 • As the total probability of finding the particle somewhere at all times is unity.



2
So, dv  1 ……..(56)

The wave function which obeys the above condition is said to be normalized.

 Dimension of :

 
  L-3/2 for 3-dimension

  L 
-1
for 2-dimension

 
  L-1/2 for 1-dimension

 Schrodinger’s wave equation:

The equation that describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form is known as
Schrodinger wave equation.
• In 1926 Schrodinger developed a mathematical theory known as Schrodinger’s wave
equation.
• It is an equation which involves the partial derivative of wave function w. r. t. time and space
coordinate.
• Schrodinger wave equation is the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics, just as
Newton’s 2nd law of motion is the fundamental equation of classical mechanics.
• There are two types of Schrodinger equation:
1. Time dependent Schrodinger’s equation
2. Time independent Schrodinger’s equation

 Time dependent Schrodinger equation:


v x, t  Let  be the wave function of a particle of mass m
moving with velocity ‘v’ along x-axis.

m x So, x, t   Aei kx t  ………(57)

28
Differentiating equation (57) w. r. t. x and t:


 ikAei kx t   ik
x

 2
 ik ik Aei kx t    k 2  ……….(58)
x 2

 ………..(59)
 iAei kx t   i
t

Multiplying ‘ i ’ both side of equation (59):


i  i  i 
t
  E   
 i  
t
  2k 2 
 i  E …………(60)  E   (for free particle)
t  2m 

  2 k 2 ………..(61)
 i  
t 2m

Using equation (58) in equation (61):

  2  2
i  ………..(62)
t 2m x 2
(Time dependent Schrodinger equation for a free particle in 1-D)

Special case:
 For a particle moving in a potential difference v:
2 2
Total energy: E  p  V  E   k  V
2m 2m

  2  2
Hence, i   V ……..(63)
t 2m x 2

29
  For a particle moving in 3-D with potential field V:

  2   2  2  2 
i       V
t 2m  x 2 y 2 z 2 
 2 2
 i     V ………(64) Where, 2  Laplacian operator
t 2m
Note: Schrodinger equation is linear second order differential equation.

 Time independent Schrodinger equation:

• Let the solution be product of two functions:

x, t    x f t  ……….(65) Where, (x)  function of x

f(t)  function of t

Differentiating w. r. t. x and t:
  x, t  df …………(66)

t dt

 2   x, t  d 2
 f ….………(67)
x 2 dx 2

Using equation (66) and (67) in (63):

df  2 d 2
i  f  Vf
dt 2m dx 2

Dividing both side by f:

1 df  2 1 d 2
i  V ………..(68)
f dt 2m  dx 2

The left side of equation (68) is function of t alone, and the right hand side is a function of x
alone.

30
Therefore, the only way it can possibly be true is if both side are in fact constant. Otherwise, by
varying t, it could change the left side without touching the right side and two would no longer
be equal. For this reason we shall call this separation constant E.

Then,  2 1 d 2
 V  E
2m  dx 2
 2 d 2
  V  E
2m dx 2
d 2 2m
 2  2 E  V   0 ……….(69)
dx 

This is time independent Schrodinger equation in 1-D.

1 df
and, i E …………(70)
f dt
1 iE
 df   dt
f 
Integrating both side:
1 iE iE
 f df     dt  ln f  

t

iE
 t
 f e 
………..(71)

 Principle of superposition:

If Ψ1 and Ψ2 are the wave function of any two states of a system, then their linear combination
describe another state of the system.

i.e.   c11  c22 ………….(72)

This is known as principle of superposition of states.

Where, c1 and c2  probability amplitudes

Note: Squares of coefficient give the probability of finding the system in the correspond state.

i.e. c1 2  probability of finding a system in state amplitudes Ψ1

31
 Operator:
An Operators represents a mathematical operation that transforms one function into other.
i.e. Aˆ f ( x)  g ( x) ……….(73)

Where, f(x) old function

  operator
g(x)  new function
d
Example 6: Given Aˆ  and f ( x)  x 3
dx
Find Aˆ f ( x ).
d
Answer: Aˆ f ( x)  ( x 3 )  3x 2
dx

 Linear Operator:
• If an operator satisfies the following properties, it is said as linear operator.
• Â[f1(x)+f2(x)] = Âf1(x) + Â [f2(x)
• Â[cf(x)] = cÂf(x)
Where, c  an arbitrary constant
Note:
 To every observable in classical mechanics, there exists a corresponding linear operator
in quantum mechanics.
 All the operators in quantum mechanics are linear.

32
 Classical Observable and Quantum mechanical Operator:

Classical Observable Quantum mechanical Operator


Eˆ  i
Total Energy (E) t

pˆ x  i
Linear momentum (p) x
ˆ 2 2
Tx  
K. E. 2m x 2

Potential Energy (V) Vˆ  V

xˆ  x
Position
tˆ  t
Time
2 2
Hˆ   V
Hamiltonian (H) 2m x 2

 
Velocity (v) vˆ  i
m x

 Derivation of Quantum Mechanical Operator:

1. Hamiltonian and Energy Operator:

 2  2 
  V  i
2m x 2
t
   2 2
 
    V   i
 2m x t
2

 Hˆ   Eˆ ………..(74)

2 2
Where, Hˆ   V  Hamiltonian operator
2m x 2


Eˆ  i  Energy operator
t
33
2. Kinetic Energy and momentum Operator:

Hamiltonian operator

2 2
Hˆ   V
2m x 2
2 2
 Tˆ  Vˆ   V
2m x 2 Where, Tˆ  K. E. operator

Vˆ  P. E. operator

Comparing both sides:

2 2
Tˆ   (K. E. operator)
2m x 2
p2 2 2
 
2m 2m x 2
2
 p 2   2
x 2
2 2
 p2 
i 2 x 2
 
 p
i x

 pˆ  i (momentum operator)
x

3. Velocity Operator:

Momentum operator

pˆ  i
x

 mvˆ  i
x
 
 vˆ  i (velocity operator)
m x

34
 Quantum mechanical Operator in 3D:

Positions operator: r̂

Momentum operator: p̂  i


Energy operator: Eˆ  i
t

2 2
Hamiltonian Operator: Hˆ  i   V (r )
2m

2 2
Kinetic Energy operator: Tˆ  i 
2m

Velocity Operator: 
vˆ  i 
m

 Eigen Functions & Eigen Values:

• Often when an operator “” operates on a function f(x), it simply multiplies f(x) by a
constant K.

i.e. Aˆ f ( x)  Kf ( x) …………(75)

This equation is called Eigen value equation.

Here, f(x)  called an eigen function of the operator Â.

K  Eigen value

The function f(x) is said to be the eigen function of an operator (Â) if  f(x) = Kf(x), where K is
called the eigen value of the operator.

35
 Eigen function
Based on correspond
to their eigen values
different same

Non degenerate Degenerate

Case-I: If the equation is as Aˆ fi ( x)  Ki fi ( x)

i.e. all the eigen functions correspond to different eigen values. The eigen value is said
to be non degenerate.

Case-II: If the equation is as Aˆ fi ( x)  Kfi ( x)

i.e. all the eigen functions correspond to same eigen value. The eigen value is said to be
degenerate.
d
Example 7: Given Aˆ  and f ( x)  e
4x

dx
Find eigen value of the operator.
d
Answer: Aˆ f ( x)  (e 4 x )  4e x  4 f ( x)  Eigen value = 4
dx

d
Example 8: Given Aˆ  and f ( x)  2e
3x

dx
Find eigen value of the operator.
d
Answer: Aˆ f ( x)  (2e )  2  3e  3 f ( x)
3x
 Eigen value = 3
3x

dx

d2
Example 9: Given Aˆ  2 and f ( x)  sin 2 x
dx
Find eigen value of the operator.
d2
Answer: Aˆ f ( x)  2 (sin 2 x)  4 sin 2x  4 f ( x)  Eigen value = -4
dx

36
 Expectation value:

• If a system in a state represented by normalized wave function , the average or expectation

value of any observable ‘a’ having operator  is given by:

a   ψ* Aˆ ψdx …………..(76)


• Note: If the wave function is not normalized



 ψ Aˆ ψdx
*

a  

………..(77)
 ψ ψdx
*



 Expectation value of some observables:

1. Expectation value of position ‘x’:


x   ψ* xˆψdx ………..(78)


2. Expectation value of momentum ‘p’:


p   ψ* pˆ ψdx



  
  ψ*   i ψdx
  x 


ψ
 p  i   ψ * dx …..………(79)

x

3. Expectation value of Energy ‘E’:

 
* 
E   ψ* Hˆ ψdx   ψ  i ψdx
   t 

ψ
 E  i  ψ * dx ……..……(80)

t

37
 Normalization of :

• A wave function  is said to be normalized if




2
dx  1 ……….(81)

• A wave function 1 which is not normalized then



2
dx  N ………(82) Where,

N  normalization constant or Norm.

Note: Normalizable wave function have finite norm and the wave function with unit norm are
normalized.

 Probability:

• The probability of finding the particle between the point x1 and x2 is:
x2

p    *dx …………..(83)
x1

 Since the particle is definitely present somewhere along the x-axis, the probability of
finding the particle along x-axis is 1 or 100%.

p  dx  1 …………….(84)
2
i.e.


 Probability density:

Probability density is defined as the probability of finding the particle per unit volume of a given
space at a particular time.

Probability density is expressed as the product of normalized wave function () and its complex
conjugate (*).

  * ψ
2
i.e. …………..(85)

 Probability of finding the particle in volume dv:

    dv
2
..………..(86)

38
  Probability of finding the particle in entire volume:

 dv    ……….(87)
2
dv
v v

 Orthogonal and Orthonormal wave function:

i ( x, t ) and  j ( x, t ) : Two wave functions

i* ( x, t ) and  *j ( x, t ) : Complex conjugates

Orthogonal condition:


  ( x, t ) ( x, t )dx  0 for ………….(88)

*
i j
i j


Normalized condition:


  ( x, t ) ( x, t )dx  1
i
* for i j ………….(89)
j


Orthonormality condition:


  ( x, t ) ( x, t )dx   (i, j ) Where, ………….(90)

*
i j

 (i, j )  0 for i j

 (i, j )  1 for i j

 Particle in a box:

  m: mass of electron confined to potential barrier

L: length of infinite potential barriers.

V ( x) Potential Function:

V ( x)  0 0 x L
………..(91)
0 x L  0 xL

39
 Time independent Schrodinger Equation in 1-D:

d 2 n ( x) 2m
dx 2 
 
 2 En x  V  n ( x )  0 Where, Ψn(x)  electron wave function

En  energy of electron
d  n ( x) 2mEnx
2
V ( x)  0
   n ( x)  0
dx 2 2

d 2 n ( x)
  kn2x n ( x)  0 …….. (92) Where,
dx 2
2mEnx
k nx  ………..(93)
2

Solution of equation (92):

 n ( x)  A sin k n x  B cos k n x
x x
………..(94)

Where, A and B  normalized constant

Boundary Condition:
 n (0)   n ( L)  0 ……….(95)

At x = 0,  n (0)  A sin 0  B cos 0  0  B  0

At x = L,  n ( L)  A sin k nx L  0  sin k nx L  sin n

n
 k n x L  n  k nx  ……….(96)
L
 n 
Solution:  n ( x)  A sin  x ……….(97)
 L 

From equation (91) and (94):

2mEnx n n 2 2 2
  En x 
2 L 2mL2
n 2 2 2
 En x 
2mL2 ……….(98)

40
  2 2
For n = 1, E1x   2 2

Quantum Number (n)

2mL2
2mL2 9 3
 2 2
E2 x  4 

Energy in units:
For n = 2,
2mL2
 4 E1x
 2 2 4 2
For n = 3, E3 x  9  2
2mL
 9 E1x
1 1
Eigen function: L
0 x
According to normalization condition:

 n   n 
L L

 x xdx  1   An sin  x   An sin  x dx  1

*

0 0  L   L 

 n 
L
 An  sin
 x dx  1
2 2

0  L 
 2 n 
L 1  cos x
 An 
2  L 
dx  1
0
2

2  2 n  
L L
 An   dx   cos x dx   2
0 0  L  
   2 n   
L

  sin  L x   
 An x 0       2
2 L
   2 n    
 
  L   
 0
2  L  
 An L  0   sin 0  sin 2n   2
  2n  

2  L  
 An  L   0  0  2
  2n  

 An L  2
2

2
 An  ……………( 99) (normalized constant)
L

41
 Normalization wave function:

2
 n   L
 n x  
2
sin  x  ………(100) 3

Quantum Number (n)

L  L 

Wave function (Ψ)

9E1 3
 
 1 x  
2
For n = 1, sin  x 
L L 
L

 2 
4E1 2
 2 x  
2
For n = 2, sin 
L  L 
x   2L
E1 1
 3 
 3 x  
2
For n = 3, sin  x x L
L  L  0

Probability of finding the electron:

 3 (x)
2
 n 
 n x 
2
 sin 2  x  …….…(101)
2

Quantum Number (n)

L  L 
Probability( 2)

 
9E1 3
 1 x 
2
 sin 2  x 
2
 2 (x)
For n = 1, 2
L L 

2 2  2 
For n = 2,  2 x   4E1 2
2
sin  x
 1 (x )
2
L  L 

 3 
E1 1
For n = 3,  3 x 
2
 sin 2 
2
x
L  L  0 x L

Note: The probability distribution is not uniform. This feature contradicts the expectation of
classical physics, according to which the probability of finding the particle is uniform throughout
the well.

42
 Potential barrier:

V0: potential barrier height

V ( x)
L: width of potential barrier.
V0
Ae ik1 x Feik1 x Potential Function:
Ce k 2 x
E x0
V ( x)  0
Be  ik1 x De  k 2 x
III  V0 0 x L ..……(102)
I II
0 xL
0 L x

E: energy of the particle incident on the barrier.

Ψ1, Ψ2, Ψ3 : particle wave function in region I, II, and III.

Schrodinger Equations for the system:

In region I (x < 0):

d 2 1 ( x) 2mE
 2  1 ( x)  0 V ( x)  0
dx 2 
d 2 1 ( x) ……….(103) Where, k1 
2mE
………….(104)
  k12 1 ( x)  0
dx 2
2

In region II (0 < x < L):

d 2 2 ( x) 2m
 2 E  V0  2 ( x)  0
dx 2 
d 2 2 ( x) 2m
  2 V0  E  2 ( x)  0
dx 2 

d 2 2 ( x)
 2
 k 22 2 ( x)  0
dx …………(105)

Where, 2mV0  E  ………….(106)

k2 
2

43
In region III (x > L):

d 2 3 ( x) 2mE V ( x)  0
 2  3 ( x)  0
dx 2 

d 2 3 ( x) …………..(107) Where, k1  2mE

 2
 k12 3 ( x)  0 2
dx

General solution of equation (103), (105) and (107):

 1 ( x)  Aeik x  Be ik x
1 1 ……..…(108)

 2 ( x)  Ce k x  De  k x
2 2 ……..….(109)

 3 ( x)  Feik x  Geik x
1 1 …………(110)

There cannot be a wave propagating in the –x direction in region III.

G=0

Therefore,  3 ( x)  Feik x 1
………..(111)

At the boundary x=0:

 1 (0)   2 (0)


 Aeik1x  Be  ik1x 
x 0 
 Cek2 x  De  k 2 x x 0

 A B  C  D …………(112)
  1    
Also,    2 
 x  x0  x  x 0

   
 
Aeik1x  Be ik1x    Cek2 x  De k2 x   
 x  x 0  x  x 0


 ik1 Aeik1x  ik1 Be ik1x  x 0

 k 2Cek2 x  k 2 De  k2 x 
x 0

 ik1 A  ik1B  k2C  k2 D

 ik1  A  B  k2 C  D

 A B 
k2
C  D  ………..(113)
ik1
44
Adding Equation (112) and (113):

2 A  C  D  
C  D 
k2
ik1
1  k   k 
 A   C  2 C    D  2 D 
2  ik1   ik1 

1  k 2   k2  
 A 1  C  1   D 
2  ik1   ik1  
 k2    k2  
1    1   
 A  ik1  
C
ik1  
D
2   k2   …………..(114)
 1   
  ik1  

At the boundary x = L:

 2 ( L)   3 ( L)


 Cek2 x  De  k2 x xL 
 Feik1x 
xL

 Cek2 L  De  k2 L  Feik1L …………….(115)

 d 2   d 
Also,    3 
 dx  x  L  dx  x  L
d
 
  Cek2 x  De k2 x   
d
 
Feik1x   
 dx  x L  dx  xL


 k 2Cek2 x  k 2 De  k2 x 
xL

 ik1 Feik1x 
xL

 k2Cek2 L  k2 De  k2 L  ik1Feik1L
ik1 ik1L
 Ce k2 L  De  k 2 L  Fe
k2 ………..(116)

Adding Equation (115) and (116):

ik1 ik1L
2Ce k 2 L  Feik1L  Fe
k2
1  ik1  ik1L 
C  1   Fe 
2e k2 L  k 2  

45
 1  ik 
 C  1  1 e k2 L Feik1L …………(117)
2  k2 

Subtracting Equation (113) from (112):

ik1 ik1L
2 De  k2 L  Feik1L  Fe
k2
1  ik1  ik1L 
D 1   Fe 
2e  k2 L  k 2  

1  ik 
 D  1  1 e k2 L Feik1L
2  k2  ………..(118)

For wide and high barrier:

k 2 L  1

e k2 L is very large

e  k2 L is very small

C is very small

D is very large

Neglecting C in equation (114):

1 k  ………..(119)
A  1  2  D
2  ik1 

46
Using equation (116) in (117):

1  k 2  1  ik1  k2 L ik1L 
A 1    1  e Fe 
2  ik1  2  k 2  
1  ik1 k 2  
1 
   1e k2 L Feik1L 
4  k 2 ik1  
1  k k  
 2  i 2  1 e k2 L Feik1L 
4   k1 k 2  
A 1  i  k k  
  1   2  1 e k2 L eik1L  ………..(120)
F 2  2  k1 k2  

 A  1  i  k2 k1  k2 L ik1L 
*

and    1    e e  ………..(121)

 F  2  2  k1 k2  

Multiplying equation (120) and (121):

 A  A  1  i  k2 k1  k2 L ik1L  1  i  k 2 k1  k2 L ik1L 
*

    1    e e   1    e e 

 F  F  2  2  k1 k 2   2  2  k1 k 2  

1  1  k 2 k1   2 k2 L 
2 2
A
  1     e 
F 4  4  k1 k 2   
  
1   k k   
2

 4   2  1  e 2 k2 L 
16   k1 k 2   
  

1   k 2   k1   
2 2

 4        2e 2 k2 L 
16   k1   k 2   
 
1  k   k   
2 2

  2    1   2e 2 k2 L 
16  k1   k 2   
 

2
1 k k 
2
A
   2  1  e 2 k2 L …………(122)
F 16  k1 k 2 

47
Transmission co-efficient:
v  ( x)
22
J F
T t  1 t 2 
……………(123)
Ji v1  i ( x) A
2

2
k k 
 16 2  1  e  2 k 2 L (using equation 122)
 k1 k 2 
2
 2mV  E  /  2 2mE /  2 
 16 0
  e 2 k2 L
 2mE /  2 2mV0  E  /  2 
 
2
 V E E  2 k2 L
 16 0  e
 E V  E 
 0 
2
 V  E  E  2k L
 16 0  e 2
 E V E 
 0 
2
 V 
 16 0  e 2 k2 L
 E V E 
 0 
 E V0  E    2 k 2 L
 16 2
e

 V 0 
E  E  2 k2 L
 T  16 1  e
V0  V0  ………(124)

 T  e 2 k 2 L ………..(125)

In quantum world the particle the particle has finite

probability to cross/penetrate the barrier whatever E
small it may by. This process is called “quantum
mechanical tunneling”. L x
0
Example:

 and -decay in which particle posses less kinetic energy than the nuclear potential.

48
Example 10: A beam of electrons with energy of 3 eV are incident on a potential barrier 20 eV
in height and having a width of 1 Å. Find the transmission probability of electrons.

Solution: Given: Energy of electron: E  3.0eV

Barrier height: V0  20eV

Barrier width: L  1A0  0.100nm

E  E  2 k2 L
Transmission probability: T  16 1  e
V0  V0 

Where, k2  2mV02  E  
2  9.110 31 20  3.01.6 10 19
 1.054 10 34
2  9.1 1031  17  1.6  1019

1.054  1034
22.25 10 25

1.054 10 34

 21.11109 m 1
Thus, transmission probability:

T  16
3  3 

1   exp  2  21.1110  0.110
20  20 
9 9

3.0  20  3 
 16   exp  4.22
20  20 
3  17 
 16     1.47 10  2
20  20 

 2.99 102

49
 Harmonic Oscillator:
Potential Function of harmonic oscillator:
1 ………(126)
V ( x)  m x
2 2

The time independent Schrodinger equation of harmonic oscillator is:

 d  ( x) 1
2 2

  m x  ( x)  E ( x) where, Ψ(x) wave function

2 2
2
2m dx 2
E  energy of electron

1  2 d 2 2 2
2

   2
 m  x  ( x)  E ( x)
2m  dx 

1    d 
2 2

    mx 2
 ( x)  E ( x) ……….(127)
2m  i  dx 2 

Solution by ladder operator (algebraic) method:

Ladder operator is defined as:
1  d  …………(128i)
a    imx  (raising operator)
2m  i dx 
1  d 
a    imx 
2m  i dx  …………..(128ii) (lowering operator)

1  d  1  d 
Thus: a a    imx    imx 
2m  i dx  2m  i dx 

1  d   d 
 a a    imx   imx  …………(129)
2m  i dx  i dx 

Lets operate equation (129) to the function f(x):

1  d   d 
a  a  f x     imx   imx  f  x 
2m  i dx  i dx 
1  d   df 
 a  a  f x     imx   imxf 
2m  i dx  i dx 

50
   d   df   d 
   imxf  
1 i dx  i dx  i dx
 a  a  f x    
2m    df  

 imx    imx imxf 
 i dx  
 2 d2 f  dx df 
    m  f  x 
  1   
2
 a a f x  dx dx dx
2m   df  
 mx dx   m  x f
2 2 2

   
 2d f 2
df 
   mf  mx 
 a  a  f x  
1  dx
2
dx 
2m   df  
 mx dx   m  x f
2 2 2

   
1  2d f 2 2 2 
2

 a  a  f x     2
 mf  m  x f 
2m  dx 
1   d  2 2 2
2

 a  a  f x       m  m  x  f
2m  i dx  
1   d  2 2 2
2
1
 a a     m  x    ……….(130)
2m  i dx   2

1   d  2 2 2
2
1 ………..(131)
    m  x   a  a   
2m  i dx   2

1   d  2 2 2
2
1
Similarly, a a     m  x    ………..(132)
2m  i dx   2

1   d  2 2 2
2
1
    m  x   a  a    …………(133)
2m  i dx   2

From equation (131) and (133):

1 1
a  a     a  a   
2 2

 a a  a a   ………..(134)

51
Using equation (131) in (129) and (133) in (129), Schrodinger equation can be written as:
 1  ……….(135)
a  a   2   ( x)  E ( x)

 1 
 a a    ( x)  E ( x) …………(136)
2 
 

Also from equation (135) and (136):

1 ..………(137)
a a  E  
2

1 ………….(138)
a  a   E  
2

 1   1 
Now, a  a   2   a   a  a  a   2 a  

 1 1 1 
 a  a  a        
 2 2 2 
 1 
 a  a  a      
 2 
 1 
 a  a  a      a 
 2 
 a E  a
 1 
 a  a     a   E   a  ……….(139)
 2 

 1 
Similarly, a  a   2   a   E   a  ………..(140)

Thus, if  satisfies the Schrodinger equation with energy E, then a+ or a- satisfies Schrodinger
equation with energy E+ħ or E-ħ.

• Thus, a is a wonderful machine for grinding out new solutions, with higher and lower
energies if one can find out a solution to get started.

• Therefore a is called ‘ladder operators’ because they allows to climb up and down in
energy.

a+ raising operator

a- lowering operator

52
• With the operation of a-, there must occur a “lowest rung” (i.e. 0) such that

a  0  0
1  d 
   imx  0  0
2m  i dx 
1   d 0 
   imx 0   0
2m  i dx 
 d 0
  imx 0  0
i dx
 d 0
  imx 0
i dx
d 0 m
  x 0
dx 
d 0 m …………(141)
  xdx
0 

Integrating both sides:

d 0 m
 0

 
xdx

m 2
 ln  0   x  constant
2
m 2

  0 x   A0 e
x
2 …………(142) (Ground state wave function)

Using 0 in equation (136):

 1 
a  a   2   0  E0 0
1
 a  a  0   0  E0 0
2
1
  0  E0 0
2
1
 E 0   ………….(143) (Ground state energy)
2

53
Applying raising operator the excited states are:
m 2

 n x   An a   e  1
x
n 2
with E n   n   ………..(144)
 2
m 2
 m
 1 x   A1a e
x 2
2 1  d   x
Thus,  A1   imx e 2
2m  i dx 
m 2 m 2
A1   d  2 x  x 
 e  imxe 2 
2m  i dx 

m 2 m 2
A1   m  x  x 
   2x  e 2
 imxe 2 
2m  i 2 

m 2 m 2
A   x  x 
 1  imxe 2  imxe 2 
2m  

m 2
A  x
 1 2imxe 2
2m
m 2

 

  1 x   iA1 2m xe
x
2
………..(145)

The Ladder of stationary states for simple harmonic oscillator:

a
E  3 a
3

E  2 a
2

E   a
E 
E   a
E  2 a
2

a

E0 0

54