1

GENERAL PHYSICS 2
SELF-LEARNING MATERIAL

Semester 2,Quarter 4
Week 9
SY 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

Websites:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z2b9hv4/revision/2
https://nustem.uk/activity/
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/
Books
Beiser, A. Fundamentals of Modern Physics. Fourth Edition
Halliday, D., Resnick, R. at al., Fundamentals of Physics Extended. 6th
Edition. Wiley. USA
Resnick, R. H. (n.d.). Physics, 5th Edition. USA.
Serway, R., Hewett,J. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern
Physics.6th Edition.USA
Simpson, D. (2019, September 11). General Physics I: Classical
Mechanics. Largo, MA
Recommended videos: I f internet connection is available, you can
watch the topics discussed and further explanations in videos by Michel
van Biezen on: http:www.ilectureonline.com/lectures/subject/PHYSICS
( by Michel van Biezen)
Or you may w atch through Y outube by keying a keyw ord and
Michael van Biezen Ex. “Vectors Michael van Biezen”

INSTRUCTIONS

Activity Sheets and Assessment pages (page 13) must be answered, filed
neatly and submitted after two weeks. Please fasten these
documents inside a white, long -size paper folder with a fastener on top
of the folder. On the outside top part of the folder is your name and
section in black permanent marker, PRINTED IN ALL CAPS , each letter
not taller than 1 inch.

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics
WEEK 9 DAY 1-4
(240 MINS)
Most Essential Learning Competencies ( MELCs)
1. Determine the conditions 4.
(superposition, path and phase
difference, polarization, amplitude) for
5.
interference to occur emphasizing the
properties of a laser as a
monochromatic and coherent light
source 6.
2. Relate the geometry of the two-slit
experiment set-up (slit separation and
screen-slit distance) and properties of
light ( wavelength) to the properties 7.
of the interference pattern (width,
location, and intensity)
8.
3. Relate the geometry of the diffraction
experiment set-up ( slit size, and
screen-to-slit distance) and properties
of light ( wavelength) to the proper-
9.
ties of the diffraction pattern ( width,
location and intensity of the fringes)
WEEK 7 DAY 1-2
(120 mins)
Objectives: After this lesson, learners should be able to:
1. Describe the interference of light
2. Determine the conditions for
interference of light
3. Describe the characteristics of a
LASER
4. Relate the geometry of the two-slit
Concepts:
 Light
Light is an electromagnetic
wave with electromagnetic fields
propagating through space carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy
 Huygen’s Principle
States that all points of a wave front of
light in a vacuum or transparent
medium may be regarded as new
sources of wavelets that expand in
every direction at a rate depending on
their velocities.
Proposed by the Dutch mathematician,
physicist, and astronomer, Christiaan
Huygens, in 1690, it is a powerful
method for studying various optical
phenomena. ( britannica.com)
2
State the postulates of Special
Relativity and their consequences
Apply the time dilation, length
contraction and relativistic velocity
addition to worded problems
Calculate kinetic energy, rest energy,
momentum and speed of objects
moving with speeds comparable to the
speed of light
Explain the photoelectric effect using
the idea of light quanta or photons
Explain qualitatively the properties of
atomic emission and absorption
spectra using the concept of energy
levels
Calculating radioisotope activity using
the concept of half-life
experiment and light properties to
interference patterns
5. Describe diffraction of light
6. Relate the geometry of the diffraction
experiment set-up and light
properties to diffraction patterns
 Interference of Light
The superposition of light as they
interfere with each other at the same
location. The interference may be
constructive or destructive
 LASER
An acronym for Light Amplification
by Stimulated Emission of Radiation,
also refers to a device that emits light
through a process of optical
amplification based on the stimulated
emission of electromagnetic radiation
 Diffraction of Light
The spreading of waves around
obstacles.
 3

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Interference of Light
Light is a wave. For it to be called a wave, it
must exhibit the behaviours and
characteristics of a wave. Christiaan
Huygens,a Dutch mathematician,
and physicist, in 1690, devised an approach
to the behaviour of waves of all kinds that is
particularly convenient to use and concerns
a wavefront. A wavefront is an imaginary
surface representing corresponding points
of a wave that vibrate in unison.
The observation of interference effects
definitively indicates the presence of
overlapping (superposition of)
waves. Thomas Young postulated
that light is a wave and is subject to
the superposition principle; his great
experimental achievement was to
demonstrate the constructive and
destructive interference of light.
To imagine this experiment:
Look at a light, such as a street lamp
or incandescent bulb, through the
narrow gap between two fingers held
close together. What type of pattern
do you see? How does it change when
you allow the fingers to move a little
farther apart?

Plane and spherical wavefronts

Huygen’s Principle emphasized these two Young’s double- slit experiment set-up
points:
a) Each point on a wave front acts as a
source of new disturbance and emits
its own set of spherical waves called
secondary wavelets. The secondary
wavelets travel in all directions with
the velocity of light so long as they
move in the same medium.
b) b) The envelope or the locus of these
wavelets in the forward direction gives
the position of new wave front at any
subsequent time.
The fact that Huygens’s principle worked
was not considered evidence enough to
prove that light is a wave. The acceptance
of the wave character of light came many
years later when, in 1801, the English Young’s experiment shows light
physicist and physician Thomas Young passing through one slit, So and then
(1773–1829) did his now-classic double slit two slits, S1 and S2 . The interference
experiment . of light waves creates a pattern of
alternating bright (B) and dark (D)
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
fringes which can be projected into a
The Young’s double slit experiment screen. In accord with Huygen’s
describes the behaviour of light as it passes principle, each slit acts as a source of
between two vertical slits. The existence of secondary wavelets
interference phenomena is perhaps our
most convincing evidence that light is a
wave-because interference cannot be
explained other than with waves.
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Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Conditions for Interference of Light

The following conditions must be met If the paths differ by a whole wave
for interference to occur: length, then the w aves arrive in
phase (crest to crest) at the screen,
1. The sources of the waves must be
coherent, which means they emit interfering constructively as
identical waves with a constant phase shown in Figure b.
difference.
2. The waves should be monochromatic -
they should be of a single wavelength.
3. The source must be small enough that
it can be considered a point source of
light.
4. The source and screen must be far
enough to produce wide fringes.
5. The sources must emit light in the
same state of polarization.
6. Amplitudes and intensities must be
nearly equal to produce sufficient
contrast between maxima (bright
fringe) and minima (dark fringe).

In present-day recreation of Young’s

double-slit experiment, a laser light is used
as a light source because it is coherent and
monochromatic. LASER- an acronym for
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation-a device that stimulates atoms
Generally, if the paths taken by the
or molecules to emit light at particular
two waves differ by any half-integral
wavelengths and amplifies that light,
number of wavelengths [(1/2)λ, (3/2)
typically producing a very narrow beam
λ, (5/2)λ, etc.], then destructive
of radiation which are always in-phase.
interference occurs. Similarly, if
To understand the double slit interfer-
the paths taken by the two waves
ence pattern, we consider how two waves
differ by any integral number of
travel from the slits to the screen, as illus-
wavelengths (λ, 2λ, 3λ, etc.), then
trated in the figure below.
constructive interference occurs.
Each slit is a different distance from a
given point on the screen. Thus different
The figure below shows how to
numbers of wavelengths fit into each path.
determine the path length difference
Waves start out from the slits in phase
(Δl) for waves traveling from two slits
(crest to crest), but they may end up out of
to a common point on a screen. If the
phase (crest to trough) at the screen if the
screen is a large distance away
paths differ in length by half a wavelength,
compared with the distance between
interfering destructively as shown in
the slits, then the angle θ between the
Figure a.
path and a line from the slits to the
screen (see figure below) is nearly
the same for each path. The difference
between the paths is shown in the
figure; simple trigonometry shows it
to be d sin θ, where d is the distance
between the slits.
Δl=d sinθ

Waves follow different paths from the slits

to a common point on a screen.
(a) Destructive interference occurs here,
because one path is a half wavelength
longer than the other.
 5

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Interference of light Diffraction

To obtain constructive interference for a When light passes through a narrow
double slit, the path length difference must aperture (opening), propagating in a
be an integral multiple of the wavelength, specific direction, it tends to spread
or out. Light passing through a single slit
forms a diffraction pattern somewhat
d sin θ = mλ ,
different from those formed by double
for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . slits.
To obtain destructive interference for a
double slit, the path length difference must
be a half-integral multiple of the
wavelength, or
d sin θ=(m+1/2)λ ,
for m=0,1,−1,2,−2,…
where :
λ is the wavelength of the light,
d is the distance between slits, and
(a) Monochromatic light passing
θ is the angle from the original direction of through a single slit has a central
the beam maximum and many smaller and
m-is the order of the interference dimmer maxima on either side.

The equations for double slit interference To obtain destructive interference for
imply that a series of bright and dark lines a single slit,
are formed . D sin θ = mλ ,
For vertical slits, the light spreads out for m =1,−1,2,−2,3, . . .
horizontally on either side of the incident where D is the slit width, λ is the
beam into a pattern called interference light’s wavelength, θ is the angle
fringes. relative to the original direction of the
For fixed λ and m, the smaller d is, the light, and m is the order of the
larger θ must be, since minimum.
sin θ=mλ/d The narrower we make the slit, the
greater the spreading is.
Sample Problem:
Suppose you pass light from a He-Ne
laser through two slits separated by 0.0100
mm and find that the third bright line on a
screen is formed at an angle of 10.95º
relative to the incident beam. What is the
wavelength of the light?
Solution:
The third bright line is due to third-order
constructive interference, which means
that m = 3. We are given d = 0.0100
mm and θ = 10.95º. The wavelength can Slit width=3 times the wavelength of
thus be found using the equation d sin θ incident light
= mλ for constructive interference.
Solving for the wavelength, λ
gives λ=d sin θ/m
Substituting known values yields
λ=(1.00 x10-5 m )(sin10.950)/3
λ=6.33 x10-7 m
λ=633 nm (nanometer)
To three digits, this is the wavelength of More diffracted. Slit width=1.5 times
light emitted by the common He-Ne laser. the wavelength of incident light

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics
WEEK 7 DAY 3-4
(120 mins)
Objectives: After this lesson, learners should be able to:
1. State the postulates of Special
Relativity and their consequences
2. Solve problems involving time dilation,
length contraction and relativistic
velocity for objects travelling at speeds
approaching the speed of light
3. Calculate kinetic energy, rest energy,
momentum and speed of objects
approaching the speed of light
4. Describe photoelectric effect using the
photon theory of light
Concepts:
 Relativity
Relativity is the study of how different
observers measure the same event in
space and time.
 Special Relativity
Special relativity deals with observers
who are moving at constant velocity.
 General Relativity
General relativity deals with observers
who are undergoing acceleration.
Postulates of Special Relativity
Albert Einstein who proposed the Theory of
Relativity advanced two postulates:
The Relativity Postulate: The law s of
physics are the same for observers in all
inertial reference frames.
The Speed of Light Postulate: The
speed of light in vacuum has the same
value, c, in all directions and in all inertial
reference frames.
Special Relativity implies that space and
time are not independent of one another
and must be considered as the same object,
which we shall denote as space-time. The
consequences of space/time mixing are:
 Time dilation
 Length contraction
 Speed of light in vacuum as the
ultimate speed
 Relativity of simultaneity
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5. Explain qualitatively properties of
atomic emission and absorption using
the concepts of energy levels
6. Calculate radioisotope activity using
the concept of half-life
 Photon Theory of Light
A photon is a particle of light defined
as a discrete bundle (or quantum) of
electromagnetic (or light) energy.
Photons travel at the vacuum speed of
light (more commonly just called the
speed of light) of c = 2.998 x 108 m/s.
 Half-life
Half-life is the interval of time
required for one-half of the atomic
nuclei of a radioactive sample to
 Relativity of Simultaneity
If observers who move relative to
each other measure the time interval
between two events, they generally
get different results. Why? Because
the spatial separation of events can
affect the time intervals measured by
the observers.
If two observers are in relative
motion, say, one observer of events
on Earth and one travelling in space
observing the same event, will not
agree as to whether two events are
simultaneous. One observer may find
them simultaneous in his frame of
reference and the other will find them
not in his own frame of reference. We
can not say that one observer is right
and the other wrong, because
simultaneity is not an absolute
concept but a relative one, depending
on the motion of the observer.
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Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Relativity of Time
The time interval between two events Illustration of the problem:
depends on how far apart they occur,
in both space and time, that is their
spatial and temporal separations are
entangled.
Proper time Δt0 is the time measured
by an observer at rest relative to the event
being observed.
Measurements of the same time interval in
any other inertial reference frames are
always greater or longer. This phenomenon
is called time dilation.
Time dilation (Δt) is the phenomenon of
time passing slower for an observer who is
moving relative to another observer.
Credits: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics

Solution:
A clock moving with the system being
measured observes the proper time, so the
time we are given is Δt0 = 1.52 μs. The
Earth-bound observer measures Δt as given
by the equation Δt = γΔt0 and so, since
v = 0.950c, Δt0 = 1.52 μs

Where
v-relative velocity of the object
c-speed of light in vacuum

γ– Lorentz factor

Sample problem:
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles
arriving on Earth from outer space. Some
collisions of these particles with nuclei in
the upper atmosphere result in short-lived
particles called muons. The half-life
(amount of time for half of a material to
decay) of a muon is 1.52 μs ( microsecond,
1μs = 1x10-6 s) when it is at rest relative to
the observer who measures the half-life.
This is the proper time Δt0 . Suppose a
cosmic ray colliding with a nucleus in the
Earth’s upper atmosphere produces a muon
that has a velocity v = 0.950c. The muon
then travels at constant velocity and lives
1.52 μs as measured in the muon’s frame of
reference. (You can imagine this as the
muon’s internal clock.) How long does the
muon live as measured by an Earth-bound
observer?
The Earth-bound observer measures
the half-life of the muon traveling at a
relativistic speed of 95% the speed of light in
vacuum to be longer ( Δt=4.87 μs) than its
half-life when it is at rest relative to an observer
(Δt0 =1.52 μs ).
One implication of the preceding example is
that for an astronaut moving at 95.0% of the
speed of light relative to the Earth, everything
he does takes 3.20 times longer when observed
from the Earth. Does the astronaut sense this?
Only if she looks outside her spaceship. All
methods of measuring time in her frame will be
affected by the same factor of 3.20. This
includes her wristwatch, heart rate, cell
metabolism rate, nerve impulse rate, and so on.
She will have no way of telling, since all of her
clocks will agree with one another.
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Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Relativity of Length
Length is also a relative quantity for (For ease of visualization, we often choose
to measure u in our reference frame, while
observers stationary with respect to the
someone moving at v relative to us
length measured and for observers moving
measures u′.)
relative to it.
Velocities cannot add to greater than
Let Lo be the length when observer and
the speed of light, provided that v is
object are in the same reference frame and
less than c and u′ does not exceed c.
L be the length observed by an observer
moving relative to the object whose length
is being measured. At relativistic speed v, Sample Problem:
the length observed, L, is given by
Suppose a spaceship heading directly
towards the Earth at half the speed of
light sends a signal to us on a laser-
produced beam of light. Given that the
light leaves the ship at speed c as
Since the Lorentz factor ,У, is always observed from the ship, calculate the
greater than unity, L is always less than Lo, speed at which it approaches the
this phenomenon is called length Earth.
contraction. Length contraction L is the
shortening of the measured length of an
object moving relative to the observer’s
frame.
Sample Problem:
A particle is traveling through the Earth’s
atmosphere at a speed of 0.750 c. To an
Earth-bound observer, the distance it Solution:
travels is 2.50 km. How far does the particle
travel in the particle’s frame of reference?
Solution:

The length, L, is shorter than the Lo for an

object travelling at 75% the speed of light,
c.
The Relativity of Velocities
Two observers in different inertial reference
frames , S and S’ would measure different
velocities for an object moving at speed v.

Where : v- is the relative velocity between two

observers
Velocities cannot add to greater than
u- is the velocity of an object relative to one the speed of light, provided that v is
observer,
less than c and u′ does not exceed c.
u′ is the velocity relative to the other observer
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Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

Momentum, Kinetic Energy and Rest

Energy of Objects Travelling at And energies are usually measured in
Speeds Approaching The Speed of electron-volts (eV) or multiples of it,
Light where
 Momentum 1eV=1.60 x10-19 J
For an object travelling at speeds close to 1 MeV= 1.602 x10-13 J
the speed of light, the momentum,p, is
and
given by
c2 =931.5 MeV/u
p=γmv
where: p-momentum of the object
Sample Problem:
γ-Lorentz factor
What is the total energy, E, of a 2.53
m-mass of the object MeV electron?
v– speed of the object Solution: The total energy, E of an
electron is equal to the sum of its rest
Relativistic momentum approaches an
energy and its kinetic energy.
infinite value as v approaches c.
E= mc2+ KE
The 2.53 MeV is the electron’s kinetic
 Rest Energy
energy. We need to find out its rest
An object’s mass, m, and energy energy, E0.
equivalent, E0, are related by
So, KE=2.53 MeV
2
E0=mc
E0=mc2
This implies that a particle of mass, m has
E0=(9.109 x10-31 kg) (2.998
energy, E0 , at rest. Furthermore, that mass
x108 m/s)2
can be destroyed to release energy. How?
E0=8.187 x10-14 J
Experimental fusion reactors can change
mass to energy. Nuclear reactors are proof Converting this to MeV:
of the relationship between energy and
(8.187 x10-14 J)( 1 MeV/1.602 x10-13 J)
matter.
E0=8.287 x10-14 J =0.511 MeV
Substituting this in our equation:
 Kinetic Energy
E= mc2+ KE
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass, m,
moving at speeds, v, close to or E= 0.511 MeV+2.53 MeV
approaching the speed of light in a E= 3.04 MeV
vacuum, c, is given by
The total energy of a 2.53 MeV
KE= mc2 (γ-1) electron.
where
m-mass of the object

γ– Lorentz factor
 Total Energy
The total energy of an object moving
at speed, v, approaching the speed of light
in vacuum c, is given by:

E= mc2+ KE; since KE=mc2 (γ-1)

E=γmc2
In relativistic physics, SI units are rarely
used, because they are too large to be
convenient. Masses are usually measured in
atomic mass units, u, where Fusion reactions release energy
1u=1.66 x10-27 kg

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics
Quantum Physics
Quantum Physics is a science dealing
with the behaviour of matter and light on
the atomic and subatomic scale. It attempts
to describe and account for the properties of
molecules and atoms and their
constituents—electrons, protons, neutrons,
and other more esoteric particles such as
quarks and gluons. Largely a study of the
microscopic world, where there are many
quantities found only in certain amounts or
integer multiples of those elementary
amounts and which are said to be
quantized. The elementary amount that is
associated with such quantity is called the
quantum of that quantity (quanta is the
plural).
In 1905, Einstein proposed that
electromagnetic radiation ( or simply light)
is quantized and exists in elementary
amounts (quantum of light) that we now
call photons.
According to Einstein’s proposal, the
quantum of a light wave of frequency ,f, has
an energy
E=hf
Where h is the Planck’s constant which has
a value of
h=6.63 x10-34 J.s=4.14 x10-15 eV.s
The least energy a light wave of frequency,
f, can have is hf -the energy of a single
photon. If the wave has more energy, its
total energy must be an integer multiple of
hf.
Einstein further proposed that when
light is absorbed or emitted by an object
(matter) the absorption or emission event
occurs at the atoms of the object. When
light of frequency f, is absorbed by an atom,
the energy, hf of one photon is transferred
from the light to the atom. In this
absorption event, the photon vanishes
and the atom is said to absorb it. When
light of frequency f is emitted by an atom,
an energy, hf is transferred from the atom
to the light. In this emission event, a
photon suddenly appears and the atom is
said to emit it. Thus, we can have photon
absorption ad photon emission by an atom
in an object.
For an object consisting of many atoms,
there can be many photon absorptions
(such as with sunglasses ) or photon
emissions ( such as with lamps). However,
each absorption or emission event still
involves the transfer of energy equal to hf.
10
Photoelectric Effect
For many years light had been
described using only wave
concepts, until Albert Einstein
proposed that light be described as
quanta of energy that behave as
particles. This wave-particle duality of
light seems a difficult idea to accept
at first until Einstein proposed the
photoelectric effect to support this
dual property of light.
When light is directed onto a metal
surface ( Potassium surface), it
causes the ejection of electrons from
that metal. It was observed that only
certain frequencies ( not intensity or
brightness) of light are able to
cause the ejection of electrons. This
phenomenon is called photoelectric
effect.
This phenomenon can not be
explained by the wave theory of light.
If light is viewed as a wave, we must
expect that no matter how low the
frequency of the incident light is, as
long as its intensity or brightness
increased, ( Energy of a wave as
dependent on Amplitude, remember?)
it will be able to eject an electron. But
in photoelectric effect, this is not the
case. There is a certain cut off
frequency, f0, for photoelectric effect
to occur. Below this cut off frequency,
photoelectric effect does not happen,
no matter how bright or intense the
light is.
This minimum energy required to
extract one electron from a metal is
called its work function, Ф. For
photoelectric effect to occur, the
energy, hf of the incident light must
be equal to the maximum KE of the
electron plus the work function,Ф.
hf=KEmax +Ф
( photoelectric equation)

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics
Atomic Spectra
When atoms are excited they emit
light of certain wavelengths which corre-
spond to different colors. The emitted light
can be observed as a series of colored lines
with dark spaces in between; this series of
colored lines is called a line or atomic
spectra. Each element produces a
unique set of spectral lines. Since no two
elements emit the same spectral lines,
elements can be identified by their line
spectrum.
 Atomic Emission Spectra
The electrons in an atom tend to be
arranged in such a way that the energy of
the atom is as low as possible.
The ground state of an atom is the
lowest energy state of the atom. When
these atoms are given energy, the electrons
absorb the energy and move to a higher
energy level. These energy levels of the
electrons in atoms are quantized, meaning
again that the electron must move from one
energy level to another in discrete steps
rather than continuously.
An excited state of an atom is a state
where its potential energy is higher than the
ground state. An atom in the excited state
is not stable. When it returns back to the
ground state, it releases the energy that it
had previously gained often in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (or sometimes,
heat).
Electric current and flames can be used to
excite atoms. During a flame test
experiment, metal chlorides are directly
placed into a flame. The intense heat will
promote the metal's electrons to an excited more radionuclides is called the activity of
state. Upon emission, this extra energy is
released in the form of visible light. If a
reference panel is provided, the flame color the discoverer of radioactivity.
can be used to identify a metal atom.
 Atomic Absorption Spectra
Within an atom, there are electrons at
various energy levels. During the
spectroscopy process, the absorption of
energy moves electrons to a more energetic
level. The radiant energy the electrons
absorb is directly related to the transition where:
that occurs during this process. The atoms
absorb light in an excited state.
Atomic absorption measures the
amount of light at a resonant wavelength,
which passes through a cloud of atoms and
is absorbed by them.
Once the excited electrons start to
relax again, they emit energy in the form of The decay rate, R and the remaining
photons.
11
Every element has its own unique electronic
structure. Therefore, the radiation absorbed
represents a unique property of each
individual element.
Both AA (atomic absorption) or AE (atomic
emission) spectrometer are used to analyze
the atoms within a sample.
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the process of
spontaneous disintegration of unstable
atomic nuclei into a more energetically
stable atomic nuclei.
An unstable nucleus will decompose
spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable
configuration but will do so only in a few
specific ways by emitting certain particles or
certain forms of electromagnetic energy.
The rate at which a radioactive
element decays is expressed in terms of
its half-life. Half-life (T1/2) is the time
required for one-half of any given quantity
of the isotope to decay. The half-life cf a
given isotope can be calculated by
T1/2 = ln 2/λ =τ ln2
where :
λ– decay constant (in inverse second)
(is a characteristic value of every
radionuclide)
λ=0.693/T1/2
τ– mean life=1/λ
The total decay rate of a sample of one or
that sample. The SI unit for activity is the
becquerel, name after Henri Becquerel,
1 becquerel=1Bq=1 decay per second
An older unit, the curie, is also commonly
used, where
1 curie=1Ci=3.7 x1010 Bq
The decay rate, R, at any time, t is given by
R=Roe-λt
Ro-decay rate at a time t=0
e=Euler’s number=2.71828
λ-decay constant
t- given time
sample, N of a radionuclide is related by
R=λN

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics
Radioactivity: Half-life
We can also calculate the amount of a
radioactive isotope remaining, N, after a
given number of half-lives, n, by
N= N0/2n
where: N-amount of remaining nuclide
No– original amount of nuclide
n-number of half-life elapsed
If the given time, t, is not a multiple of a
radionuclide’s half-life, the remaining
amount, N, can be calculated as
N=No e-λt
where:
No-original amount at t=0
e=Euler’s number=2.71828
λ-decay constant
t- given time
Sample Problem:
1. The half-life of fluorine-20 is 11.0 s. If λ=0.693/T1/2 to find λ and then find t .
a sample initially contains 5.00 g of
fluorine-20, how much remains after
44.0 s?
Solution
If we compare the time that has
passed to the isotope’s half-life, we
note that 44.0 s is exactly 4 half-lives, Thus, 0.92 = e
so using the previous expression,
n = 4. Substituting and solving
results in the equation:
N= N0/2n
N=5.00 g/24
N=0.313 g
Less than one-third of a gram of
fluorine-20 remains.
2. One of the most famous cases of
carbon-14 dating involves the Shroud
of Turin, a long piece of fabric
purported to be the burial shroud of
Jesus. This relic was first displayed
in Turin in 1354 and was denounced
as a fraud at that time by a French
bishop. Its remarkable negative
imprint of an apparently crucified body
resembles the then-accepted image of
Jesus, and so the shroud was never
disregarded completely and remained
controversial over the centuries.
Carbon-14 dating was not performed
on the shroud until 1988, when the
process had been refined to the point
where only a small amount of material
is needed. Samples were tested at
three independent
12
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laboratories, each being given four pieces of
cloth, with only one unidentified piece from
the shroud, to avoid prejudice. All three
laboratories found samples of the shroud
contain 92% of the 14C found in living
tissues, allowing the shroud to be dated.
Calculate the age of the Shroud of Turin
given that the amount of 14C found in it is
92% of that in living tissue.
Solution:
Knowing that 92% of the 14C remains mean
that : N/N0=0.92. Therefore, the equation
N=N0e−λt can be used to find λt.
We also know that the half-life of 14C is
5730 y, and so once λt is known, we can
use the equation
Here, we assume that the decrease in 14C is
solely due to nuclear decay.
(a) Using the equation
N = N0e−λt for N/N0
N/N0=e− λt
−λt
(b) Taking the natural logarithm of both
sides of the equation yields
ln 0.92 = −λt so that
−0.0834 = −λt
Rearranging to isolate t gives
t=0.0834/λ
Now, the equation λ=0.693/T1/2 can be
used to find λ for 14C.
(c) Solving for λ and substituting the known
half-life gives
λ=0.693/T1/2=0.693/5730 y
λ=0.0001209/y
(d) We enter this value into the previous
equation to find t:
t=0.0834/λ
t=0.0834/(0.0001209/y)=690 y
This dates the material in the shroud to
1988 – 690 = AD 1300. It is meaningful
that the date of the shroud is consistent
with the first record of its existence and
inconsistent with the period in which Jesus
lived.
 13

Week 9: Physical Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics

WEEK 9 DAY 4
(60 mins)

Assessment: Answer/ Solve the following problems. Show your solutions.

Name:________________________Section:_________Score:________

A. Physical Optics B. Relativity and Quantum Physics

1. Explain in not more than 5 1. If a meter stick is travelling in

sentences how Young’s double slit space at 0.90c, how long does it
experiment confirmed that light is appear to an Earth-bound
a wave. observer?

2. Differentiate between interference

and diffraction of light. Explain in 2.
not more than 4 sentences how a
destructive and constructive
interference of light happen.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
(AAs) and Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (AEs) have many
uses including in forensic science
and choice of colors for fireworks.
Explain in not more than six (6)
sentences how this is so.

3. Explain in not more than 5 3. If there is one relic/artefact you

sentences how the photoelectric want dated, what would it be?
effect supported Einstein’s idea of Why? Answer in not more than 5
the dual nature of light. sentences.