JASHORE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (JUST)

IPE- 2203: Engineering Materials II (3 credit hours)

Dr. Md Mahfuzur Rahman

Assistant Professor, Dept. of IPE
2nd Nov, 2020
Course Syllabus
Course Contents

 Classification of Engineering Materials: metal, polymer, glasses, ceramics and composites, their
different properties

 Atomic Bonding: Different types of atomic bonding

 Structure of Solids: structure of solids, type of solids, crystal structure, different crystal system,
packing of atoms, Solidification process, defects in crystal system, solid state defects, solid
solution, insulator, Semiconductor

 Mechanical properties and Failure: Elastic and plastic behaviour of materials in service: fracture,
ductile-brittle transition, fatigue, creep, oxidation and degradation, corrosion and corrosion
protection
Course Syllabus
Course Contents

 Phase diagram:

Unary phase diagram, Binary isomorphous system (Cu-Ni system), Binary eutectic
system (Cu-Ag system, Pb-Sn system)

Ternary phase diagram, determination of amount of phases and compositions,

development of microstructures, Gibbs phase rule.

The Fe-C equilibrium phase diagram, development of microstructures, isothermal

transformation diagram, continuous cooling transformation diagram, mechanical
behavior
Course Syllabus
Course Contents

 Heat treatment processes of steel: annealing, normalizing, quenching, hardening, tempering,

different types of quenching media. Case hardening, carburizing and nitriding, precipitation
hardening/age hardening

 Production and uses, Melting furnaces: Bessemer and open hearth steel; Plain carbon and
different types of alloy steel, effects of alloying elements

Pig Iron: production and uses; Cast Iron: types, production, uses and effects of impurities

 Powder Metallurgy, Bearing metals, light alloys common metals and their alloys, Identification of
metal
Assessment Method

Assignments: 03(must be hand written and

submitted online)

Class Tests: 03 (Online)

At least one of the assignments will be

considered as a Class test.
Structure of solids
 How do atoms arrange
themselves to form solids?
 How do atoms assemble into
solid structure?
 No order (e.g., monatomic gases)
 No regular spatial relationship between atoms

 Short-range order (e.g., glasses, noncrystalline

polymers)
 Nearest neighbors may have fixed orientations and separations

 Long-range order (crystals)

 Identical structural units repeating continuously in three
dimensions over hundreds of atomic spacing — periodicity

 The order is determined by the type of atomic

bonds
 Types of Solids

Crystalline material:
atoms self-organize in a periodic array

Single crystal:
atoms are in a repeating or periodic
array over the entire extent of the material

Polycrystalline material:
comprised of many small crystals or
grains

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 Types of Solids
Three disk specimens of aluminum oxide

transparent translucent opaque

many small,
single crystal— interconnected crystals, but
numerous and very
high degree of also of a large number of
small single crystals
perfection very small pores or void
spaces
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 Types of Solids
various stages in the solidification of a polycrystalline material

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 Energy and packing
• Dense, regular-packed

• Non dense, random packing

Dense, regular-packed structures tend to have lower energy

Crystalline Amorphous
solid solid

Crystalline Quartz Amorphus Glass

Question for discussion
Why do atoms assemble into ordered
structures (crystals)?

Energy of the crystal < Energy of the amorphous solid

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 Crystal structure

Considering atoms as hard spheres with well-

defined radii. In this hard-sphere model, the
shortest distance between two like atoms is the
approximate atomic diameter.

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 Crystal structure
We can also consider crystalline structure as a lattice
(3D array) of points at atom/sphere centers.
Lattice is used in the context of crystal structures;
in this sense lattice means a three-dimensional array
of points coinciding with atom positions (or sphere
centers).
 Unit Cell
• Convenient to subdivide the crystal structure into small repeat
entities called unit cells.
• A structural unit or building block that can describe the crystal
structure. Repetition of the unit cell generates the entire crystal.
Example:
2D honeycomb net can be represented by
translation of two adjacent atoms that form a unit
cell for this 2D crystalline structure

Example:
3D crystalline structure:

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 Unit cell
A unit cell is characterised
by its length of axes and the
angles between them.
Lattice

 Lattice - An array of atoms arranged in a 3-D grid like pattern.

 Unit cell - The smallest representative structural unit of lattice.

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 POLYMORPHISM & ALLOTROPY
 Some metals (non-metals) may have more than one crystal
structure, a phenomenon known as polymorphism.

 When found in elemental solids, the condition is often termed

allotropy.
Example: (in carbon)
graphite is the stable polymorph at ambient conditions,
whereas diamond is formed at extremely high pressures.
Example: (in iron)
pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature,
which changes to FCC crystal structure iron at 912 °C.

Crystal structure depends on both

 temperature and pressure.
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CRYSTAL STRUCTURES & GROUPS
• Since there are many different possible crystal
structures, it is sometimes convenient to divide them
into groups
 according to unit cell configurations and/or atomic
arrangements.

• Based on the unit cell geometry

• The unit cell geometry is completely

defined in terms of six parameters:
• three edge lengths a, b, c, and
• three interaxial angles α,β,γ

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 The Seven Crystal Systems
 7 basic crystal systems

System Axes Axial Angles

Cubic a=b=c a=b=g=90
Tetragonal a=b≠c a=b=g=90
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c a=b=g=90
Monoclinic a≠b≠c a=b=90, g≠90
Triclinic a≠b≠c a≠b≠g≠90
Hexagonal a1=a2=a3≠c a1=a2=a3=90, g≠90
Rhombohedral a=b=c a=b=g≠90 21
 Bravais lattices

Sometimes the smallest primitive unit cell does not

display the full symmetry of the lattice.

It was shown by A. Bravais in 1848 that all possible three

dimensional space lattice are of fourteen distinct types.

These fourteen lattice types (also known as Bravais

lattices ) are derived from seven crystal systems.

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14 Bravais lattices

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 Metallic Crystal Structures
• Metals are usually (poly)crystalline; although formation
of amorphous metals is possible by rapid cooling

• The atomic bonding in metals is non-directional

⇒no restriction on numbers or positions of
nearest-neighbor atoms
⇒large number of nearest neighbors and dense
atomic packing

• The most common types of unit cells are

 faced-centered cubic (FCC)
 body-centered cubic (BCC)
 hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
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 Properties of Unit Cell

r = atomic radius
a = lattice parameter

r
Coordination Number (CN)
Number of touching neighbours
a
Number of Atoms
per unit cell

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

The fraction of space in a unit cell occupied by atoms

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 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure (I)
• Cu, Al, Ag, Au have this crystal structure
• Atoms are located at each of the corners and on the
centers of all the faces of cubic unit cell

Two representations
of the FCC unit cell

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 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure (II)

• The coordination number, CN

= number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded
= number of touching atoms,
= 12
• Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 4.
In FCC unit cell we have:
6 face atoms shared by two cells: 6x1/2 = 3
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8x1/8 = 1
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Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure
• Atomic packing factor
The hard spheres touch one another
across a face diagonal
⇒ face-diagonal length 4R

[ four atoms per FCC unit cell]

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 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure
• Atom at each corner and at center of cubic unit cell
• Cr, α-Fe, Mo have this crystal structure

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 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure (II)

• The coordination number, CN

= number of closest neighbors = number of touching
atoms = 8
• Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 2.
Center atom (1) shared by no other cells: 1x1 = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8x1/8 = 1
• The hard spheres touch one another along cube diagonal
⇒the cube edge length, a= 4R√3
• Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.68
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 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
The hard spheres touch one another
along cube diagonal
⇒the cube edge length, a= 4R√3

Unit cell contains:

1 + 8 x 1/8
R = 2 atoms/unit cell
a

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 Close packed crystals

A plane
B plane

C plane

A plane

…ABCABCABC… packing …ABABAB… packing

[Face Centered Cubic (FCC)] [Hexagonal Close Packing (HCP)]
 Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
• HCP is one more common structure of metallic crystals
• Cd, Mg, Zn, Ti have this crystal structure
• Six atoms form regular hexagon, surrounding one atom in
center. Another plane is situated halfway up unit cell (c-axis),
with 3 additional atoms situated at interstices of hexagonal
(close-packed) planes

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 Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (II)
• The coordination number, CN = 12 (same as in FCC)
• Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 6.
– 3 mid-plane atoms shared by no other cells: 3 x 1 = 3
– 12 hexagonal corner atoms shared by 6 cells: 12 x 1/6 = 2
– 2 top/bottom plane center atoms shared by 2 cells: 2 x 1/2 = 1
• Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74 (same as in FCC)

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 COMPARISON OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Lattice Parameter Co-ordination Number of Atoms Atomic Packing

vs. Atomic Radius Number per Unit Cell Factor

BCC a = (4/3) r 8 2 0.68

FCC a = (22) r 12 4 0.74
a=2r
HCP 12 6 0.74
c  1.633 a

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 Single Crystals vs. Polycrystals

 Crystals are the building blocks of

engineering materials.
 Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
 Each “grain” is itself a single crystal.
 Crystals typically ranges from 1 nm to 2 cm
(from a few to 108 atomic layers).
low carbon steel polycrystal

 Some engineering applications

require single crystals:
 Gems
 Semi-conductor
 Turbine blade
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 Single Crystals vs. Polycrystals
 Properties of single crystal
vary with direction –
“anisotropic” material
 Example: BCC iron single
crystal
 Properties of polycrystal
may/may not vary with direction
 For randomly oriented grains,
properties are “isotropic”,
E  210 GPa

E (diagonal) = 272 GPa

 If grains are textured (using

rolling, etc.), anisotropy
E (edge) = 125 GPa resulted

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 Single Crystals vs. Polycrystals

• Polycrystals
An object composed of randomly
oriented crystals, formed by
rapid solidification.
-Properties may/may not
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented : isotropic.

-If grains are textured,

anisotropic.

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 Isotropy vs Anisotropy

Isotropy:
Substances in which measured (physical) properties
are independent of the direction of measurement are
isotropic.

Anisotropy:
The substance in which physical properties show
variation with changing the direction . Such substance
are called anisotropic.

A different chemical bonding in all directions is

also a condition for anisotropy.

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 Anisotropy
• Different directions in a crystal have different
packing. For instance, atoms along the edge of FCC
unit cell are more separated than along the face
diagonal. This causes anisotropy in the properties of
crystals, for instance, the deformation depends on
the direction in which a stress is applied.
• In some polycrystalline materials, grain orientations
are random, so bulk material properties are isotropic.
• Some polycrystalline materials have grains with
preferred orientations (texture), so properties are
dominated by those relevant to the texture
orientation and the material exhibits anisotropic
properties
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Isotropy vs Anisotropy

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 Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But
amorphous does not mean random, in many cases there is some
form of short-range order.

Schematic picture of amorphous

SiO2 structure
Amorphous structure from
simulations by E. H. Brandt

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Crystalline
 ordered, repetitive three-
dimensional, geometric
arrangement
 common in metallic, ceramic and
some polymeric materials

Non-crystalline
(or, Amorphous)
 random, non-repetitive
 common in glassy and some metallic
materials due to complex chemistry
and rapid cooling ordered and disordered form of silica

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Why ?

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