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Adhesives and Consolidants for Wax and Wax-like materials

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Lora Angelova
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168 marco antonio miranda razo
now substitute polyurethane foam for wood. Small quantities of paraf-
fin and other natural pigments such as cochineal, or in their absence,
industrial dyes for fats. Personally, I continue to use and recommend
more natural dyes. Craftspeople make their own tools for the most part
rather than using those available commercially. Knowledge of fabrics is
essential, as they are used as a support or as a finish that makes a
piece more realistic. Therefore, the elaboration of a wax sculpture
implies knowledge of tailoring, or the willingness to learn these skills
on a sewing machine or by hand. Brushes, tweezers, scissors, a coun-
tertop burner, and lamps to illuminate the work area are all comple-
mentary to the tools and accessories of a studio.
In my 34 years of experience working with wax, in a profession that is
often referred to as a “craft”, I have had to diversify the fields I work in
due to the extremely diverse history of figures produced in beeswax. I
have worked in religious spaces and on cabinets that display historic
scenes in museums, urns in convents and churches that display the re-
mains within reliquary bodies, and even traditional toys, such as wax
dolls, and pieces that are admired for their recovery of techniques such
as nativity scenes, and nude sculptures.
My experience in restoration, such as interventions and reattachment
of missing parts, work in convents, monasteries, and museums, as well
as on relics, reliquary bodies, Agnus Dei, and the creation of new pieces
for devotion and veneration containing human remains has been a de-
termining factor in my decision to propose partnerships between uni-
versities and other educational institutions to train wax specialists with
the participation of experienced specialists working with art and other
wax objects. However, academics have responded to me with reticence
and prejudice, disdaining to work with a master craftsperson as it may
force them to acknowledge their lack of technical experience in working
with wax, which has been replaced by mountains of information and
documentation with which they claim to know everything about the
field, including its practical handling. A clash of interests thus emerges
between theoretical and practical specialists. As craftspeople, we have
demonstrated our willingness to work alongside institutions that recog-
nize our contribution to help preserve their collections. My body of
work is upheld by the testimony of numerous museums and educational
institutions that I, a simple wax craftsman, have served.
169
Lora Angelova*
ADHESIVES AND CONSOLIDANTS FOR WAX
AND WAX-LIKE MATERIALS: A REVIEW
Waxes, both natural and synthetic, are encountered in a wide variety
of heritage collections – from the ethnographic and archaeological, to
the artistic and archival. People have exploited the unique properties of
this class of materials for both functional and creative purposes for thou-
sands of years, and continue to do so today. The type of wax (beeswax
– bleached or natural, paraffin, microcrystalline, carnauba, cadelilla,
montan, etc.), its processing and admixtures, the way it was applied or
sculpted, stored, and previously conserved will affect its current physical
and chemical states. Although nearly every wax object has a unique
composition and current state of preservation, there are several com-
mon conservation difficulties encountered with this general material
class. Waxes are hydrophobic and sensitive to many solvents, they are
malleable and susceptible to damage by heat and pressure, often display
white surface bloom, and can become hard and brittle with ageing. The
causes behind these last two phenomena are related and have been ex-
plored by others1,2,3,4,5,6. This paper will present a tabulated review of the
available literature on historic and contemporary methods for re-adher-
ing and consolidating broken and degraded wax, or wax-like objects.
A large portion of the collected studies and methods focus on pen-
dant wax seals and moulages, as these are commonly encountered wax
*
The National Archives, Kew, Lora.
1
Dümmler (2015).
2
Woods (1994).
3
Bartl et al. (2015).
4
Regert et al. (2001).
5
Cozzi (2003).
6
Reifarth (2003).
170 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 171

objects in heritage collections. The two classes of objects suffer from The results of this work, along with the methodology for artificially
different degradation problems. The large weight and dimension chal- ageing beeswax will be presented in a future publication.
lenges faced by moulage conservation are not encountered on pendant Information on the chemical composition of the adhesives was de-
wax seals. However, seals can be as much as six centuries older than rived from the cited papers, Jane L. Down’s Adhesive Compendium for
most moulages (produced starting the ca. 17th century), and so tend to be Conservation88, the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and
at a more advanced state of degradation. Non-pigmented wax seals Artistic Works Wiki website (http://www.conservation-wiki.com), and
commonly exhibit flaking and delamination due to the method of im- the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Conservation & Art Materials Ency-
pression which involved kneading of plastic wax and lead to the creation clopedia Online (http://cameo.mfa.org).
of a fine, layered microstructure. Consequently, some pendant seals re-
quire consolidation rather than adhesion of breaks. Application only or
Author Testing Material Year
The ideal properties of adhesives used in conservation treatments systematic study?
have been defined as (1) compatibility with the substrate, (2) chemical Besnainou Wax moulages and figurines. 1984 Application
and physical stability (i.e. minimal changes in pH, colour, strength and Consolidation of flaking non-pigmented pendant seals. Tests carried
flexibility), (3) removability/re-treatability, (4) allowing primarily for ad- Dümmler out contemporary wax samples, followed by historic flaky non-pig- 2013 Systematic
mented wax fragments. Consolidation under vacuum explored.
hesive failure rather than cohesive failure of the substrate, (5) being inex-
Bleached beeswax bars for tensile testing (12 x 3 x 0.3 cm); adhered
pensive, (6) minimally invasive, (7) easy to apply, and (8) non-tacky when Fischer & Eska with testing material and dried at RT for 8 weeks. Tests were carried 2011 Systematic
dry77. In addition, wax objects require adhesives that exhibit good wet- out in 10-fold sets. Adhesives tested for wax doll conservation.
ting of the hydrophobic surface, dry quickly so as to limit the need for Gibbons Various wax objects, heavy 3D wax fragments. 2017 Systematic*
prolonged pressure, and can match the gloss and colour of the original Glenn Wax flower petals on a wedding wreath from a Victorian dress. 2011 Application
object if used to fill small cracks or gaps.
Seeking adhesive for home-made modelling materials mimicking the
The four tables below summarise peer-reviewed, systematic studies artworks of Anne Marie Carl-Nielsen: potato flour 50%, beeswax 25%,
Gramtorp et al. 2015 Application
of adhesives and consolidants for wax or waxy materials, as well as non- unsalted butter 10% Burgundy pitch 6.7%, olive oil 3.3%, Venetian
peer-reviewed literature such as blogs and personal communications. turpentine 3.3%, and colour 1.7%.

The results are presented as discussed in the original text and the author Nonwoven tissue attached to bleached beeswax-coated wooden batons
to mimic the support structure and tension experienced by the mounting
has not made further comments. As a result, contradictory results and Hincelin & Roche
mechanism for J.M. Sicilla’s Eclipses; a paper artwork covered in many
2011 Systematic
opinions can be noted for several of the materials employed (e.g. PEG, layers of wax.
Evacon R). Overall, the adhesives most commonly cited as effective and 1988
Kaufmann Various wax objects and models, typically anatomical models. Application
reversible are Aquazol 500, Evasol, and isinglass. Lascaux 360HV (now 2017
replaced by 303HV) is also cited by several authors; however, this mate- Six types of wax moulage mock-ups based on recipes from the Dresden
rial is not water-soluble once set, limiting its safe reversibility. moulage workshop and analyses of moulages; Recipes contain japan
Lang wax, dammar resin, chalk, colophony pine resin, paraffin wax (soft and 2011 Systematic
It is important to note that the systematic testing of adhesives in the hard), carnauba wax, ester wax on montan basis (soft), and beeswax;
studies reviewed was constrained to contemporary, healthy wax sub- see paper for detailed compositions.
strates. Nonetheless, the selected adhesives were applied to, and pre- Adhesives for modern modelling materials (MMM) found in two Rodin
sumably performed satisfactorily, on historic samples as well. The Na- busts. Consolidants for MMMs flaking from the plaster surface and
Langlois et al. adhesives for MMM to MMM joins were tested. MMMs are composed 2016 Systematic*
tional Archives, UK, is currently conducting a systematic study of adhe- of paraffin/fatty material and chalk or zinc oleate, native sulfur, and
sives for wax seals on artificially aged brittle and flaky beeswax substrates. mineral filler.

7
Down (2015). 8
Down (2015).
 172 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 173

Application only or Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments

Author Testing Material Year
systematic study?
Shellac wax seal mock-ups made from Waterston’s Bank of England

EVA neutral pH
Lapkin et al. 2002 Systematic Second-best with N2 gas tests2; contains Acticide
Quality Letter wax sealing sticks adhered to vellum.

Gibbons
Poly (ethylene-vinyl LA1209 and CBM2 which may stabilise Bronopol an-
As is, undiluted
Murrell Conservation of wax models. 1971 Application acetate) co-polymer tifungal agent; may be prone to releasing formaldehyde
in alkaline conditions.
Prevost Conservation of wax seals. 2011 Application

Gramtorp
Small fragments of a wax-covered glass reliquary; the wax was flaking Good flexibility, pH neutral, slow drying, good bond; se-
Poly (ethylene-
Reifarth and delaminated. Tested both consolidants and adhesives, the latter 2003 Systematic* lected for the application.
vinyl acetate) with

Evacon R
for re-adhering the wax to the glass.
calcium carbonate; As is, undiluted
Rivas Conservation of pendant wax seals. 1987 Application no plasticisers; Contains Bronopol antifungal agent; discontinued in

Gibbons
aqueous dispersion 2014 due to ageing issues. Failed oddy tests and per-
de los Santos Conservation of pendant wax seals. 1987 Application formed worst with N2 testing.
Steinmann Adhesion of broken limbs on beeswax dolls. 2012 Application Refers to as a breakthrough ‘reversible adhesive that

Wild
Spaabæk Conservation of pendant wax seals. 2012 Application adheres to wax without damaging it’; selected for ap-
plication.
Viñas & Viñas Conservation of pendant wax seals. 1992 Application
Poly (vinyl Selected for application; performed best with Oddy and

Evasol
Wild ‘Bush wax’ in an Australian indigenous sculpture. 2011 Application acetate-ethylene) As is, undiluted N2 gas tests. May have a different preservative than oth-
co-polymer er EVAs3 (not Bronopol); can be mixed with WSP4 to less-

Gibbons
Wilker Pendant seal models of beeswax, shellac, red lead or vermilion. 2016 Systematic* en strength. Good for joins but requires support during
Repairing broken peels of a toned wax banana, 1 inch dimensions long drying; consolidation difficult due to hydrophobicity
Wolfe (Untitled by Robert Graham, 1967). Tested adhesives on blocks of 2012 Systematic* and lack of pores in wax; uses to isolate areas of loss
beeswax. with Japanese tissue + Evasol prior to filling.
Fourth most reliable shear strength; most reliable in the

& Roche
Woods Wax and shellac seals. 1994 Application

Hincelin
peel tests; films remain tacky and can be used like pres-
* These studies featured trials with several different adhesives/consolidants, but no extensive systematic testing, or if such sure sensitive adhesive.
studies were carried out, the full results were not presented.

Lascaux 360HV
Often mentioned but has been replaced by Lascaux

Kaufmann
Poly (butyl acrylate 303HV which contains 2-ethylhexyl acrylate/ethylac-
As is, undiluted
methylmethacrylate) rylate copolymer (Down, Adhesive Compendium for
Table 1. Synthetic polymers in aqueous media
Conservation, 2015).
Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments Satisfactory result, used size 00 entomological pins as

Glenn
splints, also secured using Lascaux 360HV.
Aquazol

50% in water
50

Caused parchment to distort and beaded up on wax. 1:1

and 498 HV 1:1 mix

Wilker

Lascaux 360 HV
mixture of 50% Aquazol 50 and 20% Aquazol 500 was
Unknown selected as best from this class of adhesives. Attempted to combine the non-tacky curing 498HV +

Lang
concentration See adjacent entries 1:1 permanently viscoplastic 360HV but advantages of mix-
ture were not detectable.
Good penetration under vacuum on test wax; 10%
Aquazol
200

solution tested on original fragments; most satisfactory

Dümmler

10, 20%
Poly (2-ethyl-2- result; slightly too glossy but can be reduced with damp
in ethanol

Lapkin
oxazoline) aqueous cotton swab; good added strength and penetration Selected for the application because of its strength,
dispersion, different depth. Selected for treatment. flexibility, transparency.
MW1 Poly (butyl acrylate
Wilker

Kaufmann
Lascaux 498HV

20% in water See Aquazol 50/200 above. methylmeth- Isolates edges with Lascaux, fills gaps between edges
acrylate) smaller with beeswax.
As is, undiluted
Water in the aqueous dispersion was detrimental for proportion of
Aquazol

Lapkin

Unknown
500

vellum. Ideal gloss match to shellac; strong to medium butyl acrylate than
concentration 360HV Performed well for Japan and paraffin waxes in tensile
bonding.
tests; not bending tests; cannot be swelled/softened in

Lang
20% in water/ Recommended for use on wax seals (personal commu- water after drying. Suggested for larger parts that need
Bartl

ethanol nication). joining.

 174 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 175

Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments

Promacto
Mowilith 20

A-1023
Dümmler

Lapkin
Low MW poly 20% in 95:5 Tested under vacuum consolidation on wax samples and As is, and 50 Water was detrimental for vellum, left a filmy residue;
Poly (vinyl acetate)
(vinyl acetate) ethanol:H2O original fragments but gloss was too high. wt% in water strong/medium bonding of shellac seal. Reversible.

Poly (vinyl

PVA Jade
40 wt% in 19:1 Suggested for soft waxes because of fast drying time;

Lang

Lapkin
alcohol-co-acetate) As is, and 50 Weak bonding and leaves matte residues. Water was

403
Poly (vinyl acetate) H2O:ethanol cannot be swelled/softened with water after drying. with soap, poly wt% in water detrimental for vellum.
Mowilith 30

MW 85000, highly Found that adhesion failure occurred at adhesion bond (acrylamide)
UV and light stable;

Fischer
& Eska
50% in 9:1 but at higher value than substrate itself, suggests for

Besnainou
MP5 30-40°C Suggested for joining light-weight parts. Also used to
ethanol:H2O use in some cases, classing it with isinglass as most Presumably poly

PVA
As is, undiluted attach WSP-bonded Japanese tissues as supports to
appropriate. (vinyl acetate)
join small parts.
Poly (vinyl acetate)
Mowilith

40 wt% in 19:1
Lang
MW 113000, no Drying is too slow, joints reopen during curing. Used to fill small cracks prior to finishing with beeswax
50

Kaufmann
H2O:ethanol

Vinamul
additives Not discussed, and to re-adhere broken parts with aid of acrylic dowels.
Poly (vinyl acetate)
presumably as is Generic poly(vinyl acetate) glue also mentioned by Mur-
Poly (vinyl acetate Simple to apply, joins have to be kept in position while
Mowilith

rell for the conservation of wax models.

Fischer
& Eska
SDM 5

n-butyl acrylate) As is, undiluted setting. Moderate surface wetting. Performed poorly rel-
Tg6 2°C ative to solvent adhesives; results inconsistent.

Vinavil 59
Less stable over time than Plextol B500 according to

Langlois
Poly (vinyl acetate) As is, undiluted authors; otherwise provided good MMM to MMM ad-
Aqueous dispersion
hesion.
Mowilith

of poly (vinyl acetate)

DMC2

Lang

As is, undiluted Yellows with age, bond too strong and out of production.
and maleic acid 1
Molecular weight. 2 A rapid oxidation protocol carried out by subjecting samples to nitrogen oxide gas (Gibbons, 2017) 3 Poly
di-n-butyl ester (ethylene vinylacetate) co-polymers. 4 Wheat starch paste. 5 Melting point. 6 Glass transition temperature. 7 Alkylphenol ethoxylate
10, 20% in 10% in ethanol tested on flaky seal fragments; vacuum
Dümmler

water and consolidation caused some fragments to detach. Pro- Table 2: Synthetic polymers in organic solvents
10% in 80:20 cess not successful and samples broke into pieces;
PEG 4000

High MW poly
(ethylene glycol) ethanol:H2O issues with ageing properties of material noted. Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments
MP 53-58°C Slightly heated to apply; poor/very poor surface wetting;
Fischer
& Eska

60% in water join must be supported until set. Similar to emulsion 2 poly(ethylene-vi-
nyl acetate), Laropal

BEVA 371 Original

adhesives - too weak.

Hincelin & Roche

K80 (cyclohexanone

Formula
Selected as providing best adhesion and tackiness resin), Cllolyn 21 Fairly low strength in peel and shear tests; third in most
As is, undiluted
and being water-based and dilutable. Can be filled with (phthalate ester of reliable shear strength.
Langlois

glass micro-beads or methylhydroxyethylcellulose hydroabietyl alco-

Plextol B500

Poly (ethylacrylate (Tylose MH300P, 5%). For MMM to MMM adhesion used hol), and paraffin in
methyl methacrylate) As is, undiluted 70/30 or 50/50 Plextol/Tylose. tulene/heptane
co-polymer Performed poorly relative to solvent adhesives and re- Selected for treatment. Easy to apply, good strength,

Butvar
15% in 1:1

Wolfe
B-98
Fischer
& Eska

sults inconsistent. Simple to apply by brush, joins have Poly(vinyl butyral) good gloss which could be dulled further using ethanol
ethanol: acetone
to be kept in position while the adhesive is setting. Mod- on a swab; dried quickly.
erate surface wetting.
Simple to apply by brush, good surface wetting. Strong-

Fischer & Eska

Degalan PQ
Poly (n-butyl est adhesion of all tested; 4/10 tests showed cohesive
Poly(iso-butyl meth- 40% or 60%

611
Primal E330S

acrylate n-butyl Not sufficiently tacky for bonding MMM but good for breaks in sample. Samples adhered with 60% concen-
acrylate) Tg 32°C in white spirits
Langlois

methacrylate 5, 10, and 20 consolidating flaking samples; not selected because tration failed at lower stress than reference; converse
methylmeth- wt% in water Plextol B500 performed well for both applications. Cur- true for samples adhered with 40% concentration.
acrylate) APEO7 rent name is CM330.
and ammonia free Polychloroprene Used to attach wax portraits to glass backing as it can
Evostik 528

rubber and be rolled away from the glass without putting undue

Murrell
Simple to apply, joins have to be supported while set- synthetic resins in a unspecified stress on wax in removal is needed. Should not be used
Fischer
& Eska
WS 24

Poly (n-butyl
Primal

As is, undiluted ting. Moderate surface wetting. Performed worse than mixture of petrole- to attach a heavy relief to glass because of its cold flow
methacrylate)
solvent adhesives, results inconsistent. um solvents which could cause wax to drop.
 176 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 177

Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments

Good penetration under vacuum as a consolidant on 10, 20% Better penetration under vacuum for 10% in ethanol; test-

Dümmler

Dümmler
wax samples but gloss too high. Also tested on original in ethanol and ed on original flaky seal fragments; caused some frag-
Laropal A-81

20% in ethanol
flaky wax fragments; gloss too high; remained as a thick 10% in 80:20 ments to detach. Consolidation not satisfactory, samples
Urea-aldehyde resin shell on the surface of fragment. ethanol:H2O broke into pieces; problematic ageing properties.
20% in isopropyl Poor gloss matching, not selected for treatment, no Consolidation carried out by painting 15% solution with

Wolfe

Refiarth
alcohol comments on adhesive strength. High MW poly(eth- 15, 60% a brush; not selected. Adhesion with 60% solution se-

PEG 6000
ylene glycol), in ethanol lected for treatment as required no heat to apply and
Poly(vinyl butyrate),
was reversible.

Hincelin &
Resulted in moderately thick, slightly stiff and brittle melting range
Mowital
B60HH

high acetalisation, 15 wt%

Roche
films that were fairly strong in shear strength compared 55-60°C
low residual PVA, in ethanol 60 wt% Initially used in water but bond too weak to allow testing;
to others tested; inconsistent results.

Lang
med/high viscosity in 1:1 ethanol/water mixture gave better wetting of the wax;
ethanol: H2O solvent caused issues with resin in samples. Disqualified.
Poly(methyl
Langlois
Paraloid

40 wt% Solvent caused problems, preferred to work with wa-

B44

methacrylate ethyl Slightly heated to apply, easy to apply, sample must be

Fischer
& Eska
in acetone ter-based adhesive. 60% in 9:1
acrylate) supported until set, poor/very poor surface wetting. Sim-
ethanol: water
ilar to emulsion adhesives - too weak.
Did not provide sufficient adherence; samples detached
Langlois

30 wt% in 1:1
with minimal pressure; found problems with organic

BL18 (long)
Pioloform
ethanol: acetone 5, 10, 20% Did not provide sufficient adherence – samples detached
solvent.
in ethanol with minimal pressure.
15, 50 wt%
Lap-

Organic solvent was unacceptable as it melted the wax.

kin

in acetone
5, 10, 20% Tested for MMM consolidation; performance not dis-

Pioloform BM18
40 wt% in 1:1 in ethanol cussed.
Lang

(medium)
Caused fractures due to acetone, not recommended.
acetone:water

Langlois
Poly(vinyl butyral) Tested for MMM to MMM adhesion. Did not provide
30 wt%
Forms thick, rigid, brittle film. The break is adhesive. sufficient adherence – samples detached with minimal
& Roche
Hincelin

50 wt% in ethanol
Discarded – very strong but showed large deviations in pressure.
in acetone
performance relative to others.
Paraloid B-72

Poly(ethyl meth-

Pioloform BN
18 (short)
acrylate methyl Simple to apply by brush, good surface wetting. Failures
Fischer
& Eska

40% in 1:1 5, 10, 20%

acrylate) 70/30 were adhesive, stress needed similar to that of refer- Does not provide sufficient adhesion.
acetone: ethanol in ethanol
co-polymer ence; data inconsistent.
newsletter

Demonstrated for pendant seal conservation at The Selected for treatment, displayed best shear and second
2010
ICON

& Roche
Hincelin
Plexisol
unknown Poly(n-butyl meth- 66 wt%

P550
National Archives by Alan Alstin. best peel strengths and was most consistent relative to
acrylate) in acetone
others tested.

15-20% in 1:1 Has used when stronger bond is required for heavy parts Acrylic co-polymer
mann
Kauf-

Hincelin & Roche

(type unknown) in

Solucryl 356
acetone: toluene (personal communication).
organic solvents 50 wt % Performed 2nd best to Plexisol in shear and 3rd in peel
(64% toluene, in toluene tests after Lascaux and Plexisol. Not selected.
Tested as consolidant; showed least amount of optical
Reifarth

2% in methyl 35% hexane, 1%

changes after artificial ageing; not selected (no dis-
ethyl ketone methanol)
cussion).
 178 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 179

Table 3. Collagens and polysaccharides Table 4. Waxes and resins

Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments

Kremer microcrystalline
3% Ethulose
Ethulose

Ethylhydroxyethyl- Excellent gloss matching; no comment on adhesive

Wolfe

Knetwachs 62600
400

400 in 5:1 Hydrogenated

cellulose effects, not selected for treatment.
ethanol:H2O microcrystalline

Reifarth
Required pressure to achieve adhesion, cooled too
wax with a Neat, heated
Gum is added to help with viscosity and penetration quickly; not selected.
5% in water predominantly iso-

Dümmler
as a consolidant; too hydrophobic to wet wax properly; paraffinic structure
with 0.5%
necessitated surfactant to improve wetting. Disqualified
tragacanth gum
from further testing.

Reifarth
microcrystalline wax 62620
Adhesive break in beeswax and Japan wax; 1:1 mix with Required pressure to achieve adhesion, cooled too
Neat, heated
wheat starch paste (20% in water) helps with wetting. quickly; not selected.

Kremer adhesive
Adhesive strength for paraffin and montan wax very low;
Lang
30 wt% in water Mixture of n- and
samples broke during clamping. Recommends for bees-
wax - good application and drying properties; reversible iso-paraffinic
hydrocarbons Paste, easy to apply, good surface wetting but poor per-

Fischer
& Eska
and excess sample can be removed after drying. 50%
formance relative to reference sample; however, better
in white spirit
Heated to dissolve, easy to apply by brush, joins must than beeswax used as an adhesive.
Fischer
& Eska

be supported until set; good surface wetting. Selected

Isinglass

Collagen from for treatment.

20% in water

Reifarth
sturgeon bladder Required pressure to achieve adhesion, cooled too
Selected for treatment; did not bead up on wax or distort Neat, heated
Wilker

Lascaux Klebewachs 443-95

quickly; not selected.
the parchment; strong bond.
Paste, easy to apply, good surface wetting. Provided

Fischer
& Eska
Microcrystalline 50% in mineral
Gibbons

Tested, no comment in results; suggests it may dena- lower bonding strength than reference; inconsistent
ture due to weak organic acids in waxes. wax with synthetic spirits
results.
polyterpene resin
Bonding of sharp fractures and flakes. Applied inside As is, with

Gramtorp
Prevost

Unknown fragment without going to edges, should not be visible heated spatula, Acceptable because chemical composition and MP dif-
concentration on the surface. sometimes with ferent from original beeswax so can be distinguished.
pigments
Steinmann

Selected for treatment based on Lang and Fischer &

Les techniques tradition-

nelles de restauration:
Eska studies.

une etude RAMP

Used to mend small breaks; for larger pieces need
Applied with re-attachment, heated pins are inserted into parts as
Does not specify
Jun Funori

Polysaccharide, Unknown Results not report as it was not selected for further heated tip, dowels. Mentions problems with cohesive breaks in
Wilker

brand
derived from algae concentration testing. 1 x 20 mm sample; suggests making slanted incisions in sample to
help with mechanical interlocking of join.
Rabbit skin glue

Fischer & Eska

Slightly heated while solving, easy to apply by brush,

Microcrystalline wax
Collagen from joins have to be kept in position while adhesive is set- Uniform and chemically stable; different composition and
20% in water
rabbit skin ting; good surface wetting, but performs less well than MP to original seals and can be delivered and removed
2:8 Cosmoloid 80H Melted in bain
isinglass. safely on this basis; have not encountered ageing issues.

Prevost
(MP 80°C):Paraffin marie, applied
Applied at a temperature where restoration wax is melted
(MP 52-54°C) for a to fill cracks
but not the original. No mixing or re-melting of the origi-
Besnainou
Hyde glue

final MP 60°C and infills

Collagen from nal wax is permitted. The mixture is tinted to match using
Unknown Suggested for lighter parts, along with generic ‘PVA’.
animal skin chemically stable mineral and synthetic dyes.
Used deep in cracks without affecting surface of seal.
Rabbit skin glue

Tinted with oil For fragments, silicone mould created in shape of orig-

Rivas, de los
Fischer & Eska
and isinglass

Slightly heated while solving, easy to apply by brush,

Santos
1:1 both 20% Does not specify colours, Applied inal seal; microcrystalline wax cast and the fragments
See above joins have to be kept in position while adhesive is set- brand with heated tip, traced and cut out. Original fragments placed in gaps
in water
ting; good surface wetting. Preferred isinglass alone. 1 x 20 mm and hot tip used to connect to restoration wax; a bevel is
left to ensure the restoration is obvious.
 180 lora angelova adhesives and consolidants for wax and wax-like... 181

Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments

Name Composition How used Ref Outcome/Comments
Isolates sides of break with natural wax and then re-
80% unbleached

Spaabæk
Resinous mixture constructs missing part with pigmented wax mixture.

Reifarth
1.5, 15, 30% and 20% paraffin Hot spatula
produced by bees Selected as consolidant for flaking wax. The added synthetic allows for differentiation from the
in ethanol wax
and used as a original by UV light.
sealant in the hive. 10% solution or The higher the beeswax concentration, the slower the
Typically composed Discussed as the only currently investigated consolidant
Propolis

Woods
up to 25% paste evaporation time needed. Argues against colour match-
of 50% plant resins, in Europe for white flaky seals. Warns of possible col- Unknown

Natural or bleached beeswax

in turpentine at ing; dilute solution is used to fill cracks. Paste is used for
30% waxes, 10%

Prevost
1.5-2% our changes (yellow/beige) and that more studies are 30-35°C larger areas of loss.
essential and in ethanol required before its use as a consolidant. Has been used
aromatic oils, 5% 4% in white

farth
at The National Archives UK, mentioned in ICON News

Rei-
Bleached Tested as consolidant; not selected.
pollens,and 5% 2010 article to have been demonstrated for seal repair. spirit
other substances9
Bleached Paste, easy to apply, good surface wetting. Results in-
30% and 50% in
consistent except for 50% bleached samples. All proved

Fischer & Eska

Highly refined
Polarit W46

Reifarth
Natural white spirits
paraffin wax with Required pressure to achieve adhesion, cooled too too weak.
Neat, heated
defined content of quickly; not selected.
50% each in
n- and iso-paraffins Good paste consistency, easy to apply, but too weak.
white spirits,
Results inconsistent.
Bleached beeswax combined 85:15
Tecero wachs

Paste, easy to apply, good surface wetting. Poor bonding,

Fischer &

and carnauba wax

30201

50% Used for infills with and without pigments; should be

Eska

Microcrystalline wax inconsistent results but performed better than Lascaux

Murrell
in white spirit Varying amounts softer than original so that it can be removed later. Hard-
443-95.
ness controlled by carnauba wax concentration.
Microcrystalline wax
Tecero wachs

with predominantly
Reifarth
30445

iso-paraffinic Required pressure to achieve adhesion, cooled too

Neat, heated
structure, extracted quickly; not selected.
from the heavy BIBLIOGRAPHY
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To re-adhere cracks or micro-crazing, turpentine is ap- Bartl, B., Kobera, L., Drábková, K., Ďurovič, M., & Brus, J. (2015), ‘Wax bloom’
Turpentine

Prevost

Pine resin distillate

As is, with a very plied to the edge of the cracks and allowed to diffuse in on beeswax cultural heritage objects: Exploring the causes of the phenomenon,
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Fischer
& Eska

50% each in experience needed to work with. Performed within de-

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de los Santos, M. C. (1987), Restauracion y prevencion de danos en la conserva-
Wax + dammar

1;1, presumed
Kaufmann

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‘beeswax/
adhesives: A final research update. “Studies in Conservation”, 33-54.
Down, J. L. (2015), Adhesive Compendium for Conservation, Canadian Conser-
Murrell

dammar mixture Impregnated into open-weave materials used as a sup-

used in relining port to join broken fragments from the inside. vation Institute, Ottawa.
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