CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant literature and studies of the

researcher that indicates the importance of the present study. Also, to
understand the research for better comprehension of the study which
includes theoretical framework, conceptual framework, and the definition of
terms.

Review of Related Literature 

The researchers had referred on the different related studies and

literature relative to the topic under study.

Charcoal

Charcoal, which is primarily carbon combined with some mineral ash,

is what is left over after you urn any animal or vegetable matter with a
restricted supply of air, as is the case inside a wood pile. Over a million
years ago, when man first discovered how to regulate fire, it was
undoubtedly noticed that charcoal burns more efficiently than wood. Around
30,000 BC, cavemen employed charcoal as a pigment for their drawings on
the cave walls, which was the first-time carbon was used for something
other than heating.\ (Joe Schwarcz, 2017).

Then, somewhere about 4000 BC, a significant discovery was made

when a piece of ore accidentally fell into a charcoal fire and started to
exude metal. When charcoal is used to heat naturally occurring copper,
zinc, and tin oxide ores (Joe Schwarcz, 2017).
 There are various possible health advantages of activated charcoal.
The legitimacy of some of these advantages, nevertheless, should be
viewed with caution because they are based on research that is many
decades old. Activated charcoal should not be self-administered as a
poison or overdose therapy, either. The best course of action is to seek
emergency medical help right away if you suspect poisoning or an
overdose (Petre,2021).

Activated carbon contains carbonaceous material derived from

charcoal. Activated carbon is produced by pyrolysis of organic materials of
plant origin. These materials include coal, coconut shells and wood,
sugarcane bagasse, soybean hulls and nutshell (Dias et al., 2007;
Paraskeva et al., 2008).

Activated carbon is typically produced using coal. However, because

this material is non-renewable, producers are seeking for alternate carbon
sources, like carbonaceous agricultural by products, to make activated
carbon. Because they have a low ash level and a high carbon content,
activated carbon made from coconut shells is a valuable resource. The
majority of the time, coconut processing facilities that create coconut oils
and coconut flakes also produce waste materials like coconut shells. They
are expensive to dispose of and could harm the environment. The plant
buys the leftover shells from coconut plants and uses them to manufacture
activated carbon, which not only uses a plentiful and renewable resource
but also lowers the cost of raw materials (Hernandez,2018).
Ink

Ink is the material used to record the word of history. It is also used
for drawing, marking, and copying. But no matter how they are used, all
inks consist of a colorant (the substance that provides the ink with color)
and a vehicle (the liquid or paste that carries and binds the ink to a
surface.) The colorant in ink are dyes or pigments. Dyes are absorbed by
the medium being printed, such as, paper, and more permanent than
pigments, which dry on top of the medium (Beyer, encyclopedia 229).

The oldest of all inks are the Egyptian writing inks. Mummies dating
as far back as 2500 B.C were found wrapped in linen marked with an ink
made of iron oxide. Early hieroglyphics (picture symbols) were written with
ink made of soot, water, and vegetable gums.By the A.D 100’s, the Roman
were making a variety of inks, using soot and sepia. Sepia is a black fluid
thrown off by cuttlefish when they are frightened. Sepia ink dries dark
brown (Beyer, encyclopedia 229).

Medieval monks invented a kind of ink much like our present blue-
black ink. They used crushed galls a lumpy growth found on the trunks of
some tress.) mixed with iron salts such as copperas or green vitol.). the
development of Johann Gutenberg’s prss in the 1400’s brought need
printing ink. At first printers used water-based writing inks. But these flowed
too freely and would not stay on the type. Very quickly the printers learned
that inks mixed with boiled linseed oil work much better. This type of inks
became the standard printer’s ink and since so for over 400 years (Beyer,
encyclopedia 229)
 By chemically activating coconut shell with KOH as the active
ingredient, high-surface-area activated carbons were created. By adjusting
the KOH-to-shell ratio, activation temperature, and pre-heat temperatures,
the effect of activation parameters on the end products was investigated.
By measuring the nitrogen adsorption isotherms at 77 K, the samples were
identified. By using BET, the Langmuir equation, and the t-plot technique,
the surface area and pore volume of the carbons were calculated. The
product with an excellent yield, a large surface area, and granular form
benefited from pre-treatment at 600°C. BET measurements revealed pore
volumes and surface areas as high as 1.21 cm3/g and 2451 m2/g,
respectively. In comparison to conventional activated carbon, the activated
carbons showed a substantially better ability to adsorb phenol, 4-
chlorophenol, and 4-nitrophenol from aqueous solution
(ZhonghuaHuM.PSrinivasan,1999).

Review Related Studies

Nearly 75 black and 25 colored inks consisting of 100% vegetable oil-

based vehicles were formulated. The physical properties of these inks met
or exceeded the industry standards for lithographic and letterpress
newsprint applications. In addition, elimination of petroleum-based resin
and reduced pigment usage, due to the light vehicle color, provided a
competitively priced alternative to petroleumbased inks(S. Z. Erhan, M. O.
Bagby &  H. W. Cunningham ,1992).
 The study of Leonardo (1999) is a study of alternatinve screen
printing ink. Concerns over the authenticity of recently launched "water-
based" screen-printing inks led to investigation into the viability of creating
actual water-based inks that use vegetable sources for both pigment and
thickener. According to the literature, this is not only conceivable but also
might be a practical industrial procedure. To complement this work, the
author describes the establishment of a "ink garden" capable of supplying
quantities of plant material for further research. The author's research
focuses primarily on the development of a range of "process," or
"trichromatic," screen-printing colors from plants for which the author has
coined the term, "Phytochromography." Sustainability, workplace health,
and environmental issues are also discussed.
 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual paradigm as shown in Figure 2 served as a guide for the

researchers in conceptualizing and formulating the study. The study aimed to develop

and introduced alternative product which is coconut shell as black-ink.

 The input contains all needed materials, tools and equipment, and specification

and standards in the study that was utilized in the production of coconut shell to

activated charcoal. This includes the process of gathering concepts and ideas from the

theoretical paradigm and that are supported by the reference used specifically in the

related studies and literature.

Throughput consists of the process involved in the development of the product. It

includes selection and preparation of materials, proportioning of the sample, properties

of raw materials and the proposed coconut shell, hypothesis testing, cost analysis and

evaluation and interpretation of data. In order to produce good quality product, the

researchers will conduct an experiment and laboratory test to determine the strength

and quality of the final product.

Output block shows the result of the study, which is the finished coconut shell

and activated charcoal , recommendations and conclusions may be made possible for

the improvement of the output.

The feedback loop will provide a way for the researchers to apply corrections if

difference in the expected output will be encountered.

 INPUT THROUGHPUT OUTPUT

1.Raw Materials 1. Selection and

preparation of
a. Coconut Shell Materials
b. water
c. oil 2. Design Proportion

2. Tools and Equipment

3. Properties
Black Ink made out of
Coconut Shell
4. Hypothesis testing

5. Cost Analysis

6. Evaluation
And interpretation
of data

FEEDBACK

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of the study

 Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of this study, the following

terms are defined in the context of this research.

Activated Charcoal. Also called activated charcoal, is a form

of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among
many other uses.

Ash. The solid residue left when combustible material is thoroughly

burned or is oxidized by chemical means.

Carbon. A nonmetallic chemical element with atomic number 6 that

readily forms compounds with many other elements and is a constituent
of organic compounds in all known living tissues

Carbonaceous. Relating to, containing, or composed of carbon

Coconut shell. The strongest part covered in coconut fruit. Coconut

shell is located in between the coconut flesh and coconut husk. This shell is
naturally created to protect the inner part of coconut.

Ink. A gel, sol, or solution that contains at least one colourant, such

as a dye or pigment, and is used to color a surface to produce
an image, text, or design.

Non-renewable. A non-renewable resource (also called a finite

resource) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural
means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption

Organic. Of, relating to, yielding, or involving the use of food

produced with the use of feed or fertilizer of plant or animal origin without
employment of chemically formulated fertilizers, growth stimulants,
antibiotics, or pesticides

Pigments. A substance that imparts black or white or a color to other

materials.

Pyrolysis. Process is the thermal decomposition of materials at

elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves a change of
chemical composition.