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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

T. G. Sitharam
C. R. Parthasarathy
Sreevalsa Kolathayar   Editors

Ground
Improvement
Techniques
Select Proceedings of 7th ICRAGEE 2020
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Volume 118

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Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
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T. G. Sitharam · C. R. Parthasarathy ·
Sreevalsa Kolathayar
Editors

Ground Improvement
Techniques
Select Proceedings of 7th ICRAGEE 2020
Editors
T. G. Sitharam C. R. Parthasarathy
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati Sarathy Geotechnical Engineering
Guwahati, Assam, India Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Sreevalsa Kolathayar
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Mangalore, Karnataka, India

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-9987-3 ISBN 978-981-15-9988-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9988-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Preface

Ground improvement techniques are becoming more popular and relevant in recent
times because of the scarcity of land which necessitates construction on weak soil.
This book volume contains the latest research papers on ground improvement
techniques for reduction of seismic hazard, slope stability, retaining walls, and
laboratory and field testing, selected from the proceedings of 7th International
Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil
Dynamics, 2021.
We thank all the staff of Springer for their full support and cooperation at all the
stages of the publication of this book. We do hope that this book will be beneficial to
students, researchers, and professionals working in the field of earthquake hazards.
The comments and suggestions from the readers and users of this book are most
welcome.

Guwahati, India T. G. Sitharam

Bengaluru, India C. R. Parthasarathy
Mangalore, India Sreevalsa Kolathayar

v
Acknowledgements

We (editors) want to thank all the authors who have contributed to the book. We
could bring this book out due to all the authors’ timely contribution and cooperation.
We thank and acknowledge the service of the following reviewers for their valuable
time and efforts.
Ajay Chourasia, CSIR-CBRI
Amarnath Hegde, Indian Institute of Technology Patna
Amit Verma, IIT (BHU)
Anil Cherian, Strainstall
Anitha Kumari S. D., Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Arvind Kumar Jha, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Patna
Asha Nair, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Babloo Chaudhary, NITK Surathkal
Bal Rastogi, Indian Society of Earthquake Science
Chittaranjan Birabar Nayak, Vidya Pratishthan’s Kamalnayan Bajaj Institute of
Engineering & Technology
Dauji Saha, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre; Homi Bhabha National Institute
Deepankar Choudhury, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Dhanaji Chavan, IISc
Dinesh, S. V., Siddaganga Institute of Technology Thumkur
Gopal Santana Phani Madabhushi, University of Cambridge
Jagdish Sahoo, IIT Kanpur
Kalyan Kumar G., NIT Warangal
Karthik Reddy Konala S. K., IIT Hyderabad
Ketan Bajaj, Risk Management Solutions
Manas Kumar Bhoi, PDPU
Md Mizanur Rahman, University of South Australia
Padmanabhan G, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research
Pradeep Kumar Singh Chauhan, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
Premalatha Krishnamurthy, Anna University
Prishati Raychowdhury, IIT Kanpur
Purnanand Savoikar, Goa Engineering College

vii
viii Acknowledgements

Rajib Saha, NIT Agartala

Rajib Sarkar, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
Ramkrishnan R., Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Rangaswamy K., NIT Calicut
Ravi K., IIT Guwahati
Renjitha Varghese, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala, India
Sanjay Verma, Indian Geotechnical Society, Jabalpur Chapter
Sarat Kumar Das, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad
Shreyasvi C., National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Snehal Kaushik, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology,
Guwahati
Supriya Mohanty, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi
Surya Muthukumar, Amrita School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham
Vinay Srivastava, Retd. IIT ISM Dhanbad
Vipin K. S., Swiss Re
Visuvasam Joseph Antony, Vellore Institute of Technology
Contents

Application of Steel Fiber in Soil Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Bharat Singh Chauhan, Bablu Kirar, and Bhagyachand Prajapati
Investigations on Mechanical Properties of Bio-Stabilized Soil . . . . . . . . . 13
V. Divya and M. N. Asha
Strength Behavior of Sand Reinforced with Treated Sisal Fibers . . . . . . . 23
C. Jairaj and M. T. Prathap Kumar
Unconfined Compressive Strength of MICP-Treated Black Cotton
Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
R. B. Wath and S. S. Pusadkar
Potential of Reuse Options of Rice Husk Ash in Various Applications . . . 41
Nazeema Basheer, Jaskiran Sobti, and Nazra Khanam
Effect of Sulphate Contamination on Lime-Stabilized Black
Cotton Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Shivanshi, Arvind Kumar Jha, Ankush Kumar Jain, and M. Parwez Akhtar
Influence of Geofoam Infill Trenches in Attenuation of Ground
Vibrations Induced During Dynamic Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Saptarshi Kundu and B. V. S. Viswanadham
A Short Review on Improvement in Soil and Cement Properties
by Addition of Bagasse Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Furkhanda Khalid Khan, Sadia Kantroo, and Jaskiran Sobti
Enhanced Geotechnical Properties of High Plastic Clay Stabilized
with Industrial Waste–Step for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Khushbu Gandhi and Shruti Shukla
Strength Behaviour of Marine Clay Stabilized with Marble Dust
and Quarry Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
B. Manjuladevi and H. S. Chore

ix
x Contents

Effect of Influencing Parameters on the Failure Mechanism

of Sand Compaction Column Treated Cohesionless Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
N. Aarthi
Accelerating the Consolidation of Soft Clay Soil Using Pervious
Concrete Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
U. Umanath, A. R. Nandhagopal, and K. Muthukkumaran
Bearing Capacity Analysis of Bagasse Ash Reinforced
with Polypropylene Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Rohin Kaushik, Rajiv Kumar, Ranjodh Singh, and Tarun Sharma
Settlement Analysis of Locally Available Soft Soil Reinforced
with Prefabricated Vertical Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Ajoy Saha, Rai Bahadur Reang, and Sujit Kumar Pal
Preliminary Design of Prefabricated Vertical Drains-Embedded
Soft Soils in the Field: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Rai Bahadur Reang, Sujit Kumar Pal, and Sanjay Paul
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile
with Stabilized Lime-Soil Pile-Cap Encapsulated by Geogrid
and Geotextile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Malay Kumar Deb, Partha Ghosh, Debjit Bhowmik, Lipika Halder,
and Sankar Chakraborti
Effect of Reinforcement Form on Bearing Capacity of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . 179
B. Venkatesh and T. Thyagaraj
Deformation of Stone Column Subjected to Earthquake Loading
by Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Maniam Rajan Priyadharshini and Premalatha Krishnamurthy
Ground Improvement Technique By Psuedo-Binghamian Grout
for Fly Ash and Black Cotton Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Nirali B. Hasilkar, Lalit S. Thakur, and Atul Panchal
Ground Improvement for Liquefaction Mitigation of Sand
Deposits in Southern Dubai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
B. Soundara and S. Bhuvaneshwari
Shake Table Studies to Assess the Effect of Reinforced Backfill
Parameters on Dynamic Response of MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Tirtha Sathi Bandyopadhyay, Pradipta Chakrabortty, and Amarnath Hegde
Efficacy of Consolidation Grouting in Improving Dynamic
Characteristics of a Nuclear Facility Foundation Strata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
G. Padmanabhan, R. Mano, Sudipta Chattopadhyay, L. Davy Herbert,
V. Manoharn, and BPC Rao
Contents xi

Liquefaction Mitigation of Silty Sands Using Xanthan Biopolymer . . . . . 247

S. Smitha, K. Rangaswamy, and P. Balaswamy Naik
Ground Improvement with Vibro Compaction Method to Mitigate
the Liquefaction Potential, Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Houman Soleimani Fard, Tammo Köhler, and Adhila Haris
A Study on Stability of Pond Ash Embankments Improved
by Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Gaurav Sharma, Koushik Pandit, and Pradeep Kumar
Effect of Chemical Admixtures on Swelling Behavior of Expansive
Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Prashant Sudani and Nishi A. Patel
Laboratory Liquid Limit Determination Comparison of Expansive
Clays by Casagrande and Cone Penetration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Rohini Chhatrapati Kale and K. Ravi
Laboratory Swell Pressure Determination of Expansive Clays . . . . . . . . . 309
Kapil Bhanwariwal and K. Ravi
Lateral Load Carrying Mechanism of Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Pile in Sandy Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Koushik Sukla Das, Plaban Deb, and Sujit Kumar Pal
Centrifuge Modelling of Marginal Soil Slopes Under Rainfall
with Hybrid Geosynthetic Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Dipankana Bhattacherjee and B. V. S. Viswanadham
Study of Geosynthetic Reinforced Retaining Wall under Various
Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Ratnesh Ojha, Ananya Srivastava, and Vinay Bhushan Chauhan
Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Compaction Induced Stresses
on the Performance of MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Akhil B. Alex and Renjitha Mary Varghese
Evaluation of Moisture Susceptibility of Pyro-Oil Modified
Bitumen by Surface Free Energy Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Shubham D. Suryawanshi, Hemantkumar P. Hadole, and M. S. Ranadive
Investigating the Potential of Xanthan Gum for Aeolian Erosion
Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Anant Aishwarya Dubey, Navdeep Kaur Dhami, Abhijit Mukherjee,
K. Ravi, and Rituraj Devrani
Feasibility of Geopolymer Grout for Granular Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Hiral Modha and Hasan Rangwala
About the Editors

Prof. T. G. Sitharam is a KSIIDC Chair Professor in the area of Energy and

Mechanical Sciences and Senior Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru (IISc). He was the founder Chairman of the
Center for Infrastructure, Sustainable Transport and Urban Planning (CiSTUP) at
IISc, and is presently the Chairman of the AICTE South Western Zonal Committee,
Regional office at Bengaluru and Vice President of the Indian Society for
Earthquake Technology (ISET). Prof Sitharam is the founder President of the
International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research (IACRR). He has been a
Visiting Professor at Yamaguchi University, Japan; University of Waterloo,
Canada; University of Dolhousie, Halifax, Canada; and ISM Dhanbad, Jharkhand,
and was a Research Scientist at the Center for Earth Sciences and Engineering,
University of Texas at Austin, Texas, USA until 1994.

Dr. C. R. Parthasarathy holds B.E. and M.E. degrees in Civil/Geotechnical

Engineering from Bangalore University and Ph.D. (Geotechnical) from Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. He has been involved in numerous large
scale site investigation/engineering studies at various levels for multi-storeyed
complexes, industrial buildings, embankments, bridges, water-retaining structures,
subways, pavements, offshore platforms, pipelines, mobile drilling units, etc. in
India, South East Asia and Middle East, Africa and USA. Dr. Parthasarathy is the
founder-director of Sarathy Geotech & Engineering Services Pvt Ltd., a company
which provide both offshore and on-land integrated geotechnical engineering
services in India and abroad. As a technical partner of Pile Dynamics USA, he is
instrumental in promoting quality testing of deep foundations in India and
authorised trainer for high strain dynamic pile testing. He is the life fellow of
Indian Geotechnical Society and member of several other professional bodies like
DFI, ISRM, Indian concrete Institute, Institution of Engineers, etc. He is currently
Elected National Executive Member of Indian Geotechnical Society (IGS) and
Chairman, Indian Geotechnical Society-Bengaluru Chapter.

xiii
xiv About the Editors

Dr. Sreevalsa Kolathayar pursued M.Tech. from IIT Kanpur, Ph.D. from Indian
Institute of Science (IISc) and served as International Research Staff at UPC
BarcelonaTech Spain. He is presently Assistant Professor in the Department of
Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka. Dr. Kolathayar has
authored three books and over 65 research papers. His broad research areas are
geotechnical earthquake engineering, geosynthetics & geonaturals, and water
geotechnics. He is currently the Secretary of the Indian chapter of International
Association for Coastal Reservoir Research (IACRR), and Executive Committee
Member of Indian Society of Earthquake Technology. In 2017, The New Indian
Express honored Dr. Kolathayar with 40 under 40 - South India’s Most Inspiring
Young Teachers Award. He is the recipient of ISET DK Paul Research Award from
Indian Society of Earthquake Technology, IIT Roorkee. He received “IEI Young
Engineers Award” by The Institution of Engineers (India), in recognition of his
contributions in the field of Civil Engineering.
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using
Bamboo as Flexible Pile with Stabilized
Lime-Soil Pile-Cap Encapsulated
by Geogrid and Geotextile

Malay Kumar Deb, Partha Ghosh, Debjit Bhowmik, Lipika Halder,

and Sankar Chakraborti

Abstract The recent construction of the Agartala flyover encountered soft clay at its
two approaches, where two embankments are to be gradually aligned to the existing
road level. The type of clay layers exhibits poor strength and high settlement. The
embankment superstructure was designed to be constructed as a vertical Reinforced
Earth (RE) wall for a maximum height of around 6.0 m using facing panel walls made
up of RC precast panels attached by high adherence (HA) reinforcing steel plates
filled up with suitable sand. This structured embankment imposes high pressure on
the foundation soil. There was an absence of a suitable, locally available agency
with established ground improvement technologies. Also, the available construction
time was very less. An innovative combination of four techniques is well-thought-
out for by introducing sand-lime vertical drain/column, bamboo as a flexible pile,
geogrid, and geotextile encased lime-soil mix as a flexible pile-cap supported by
concrete block wall at both sides of the ground improvement channel. The design
methodology, which is proposed and applied, has been verified by the load test
results on the field models. The results are further analyzed and compared with the
design, and accordingly, suitable modifications were applied wherever applicable.
The experimental results from the load tests confirmed the efficacy of this proposed
new design technique.

M. K. Deb (B)
Civil Engineering Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
e-mail: mkdebindia@gmail.com
P. Ghosh
Construction Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
e-mail: parthaghosh.const@jadavpuruniversity.in
D. Bhowmik
Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam, India
e-mail: debjitbhowmik@gmail.com
L. Halder
Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Jirania, Tripura, India
e-mail: erlhalder@yahoo.co.in
S. Chakraborti
Civil Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 165
T. G. Sitharam et al. (eds.), Ground Improvement Techniques, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 118, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9988-0_16
166 M. K. Deb et al.

Keywords Soft soil · Bamboo-pile ·

Geogrid-geotextile-encapsulated-lime-soil-pile-cap

1 Introduction

Recently, in the year 2017, the construction of the Agartala flyover in Tripura, India,
encountered with the soft soil at its two approaches at Melarmath (A3) and Sishubihar
(A2) sites where two flyover embankments are required to be constructed, and grad-
ually aligned to the existing road level. The vertical Reinforced Earth Wall (RE Wall)
is the structure that was designed to resist pressure in between the walls filled up with
suitable sand. The structure of the RE wall was considered using facing panel walls
made up of reinforced concrete (RC) precast panels attached with high adherence
(HA) reinforcing steel plates to sustain the soil pressures in between the walls. Such
vertical embankment imposes high pressure on the foundation soil. Furthermore, the
problem was identified at the last phase of the construction because the same was
not explored during the preparation of the detailed project report (DPR) and was a
major constraint toward the achievement of timely completion.
The geotechnical investigation reveals that the site is mostly comprised of soft to
very soft clayey silt or silty clay followed or preceded by medium to dense silty fine
sand with variable thickness in varieties of positions. This type of clay layer exhibits
poor shear strength and high settlement. However, the design demand is the drainage
of water from the subsoil so that the primary consolidation takes place within an
acceptable time limit during and after construction. Also, an immediate increase in
bearing capacity is required. Hence, such geotechnical subsoil conditions may not
be addressed with just one technique of nonconventional methods as available in
practice.
Furthermore, one of the main requirements of the vertical RE walls as a structure
is a foundation bed that must be strong and, at the same time, flexible in nature.
Accordingly, a combination of four techniques has been considered to go for the
executions on a selective basis. The four techniques are considered as sand-lime
vertical drain/column (smooth in operation with local skill), bamboo as flexible pile
(locally available), geogrid, and geotextile encapsulated lime-soil mix as flexible pile-
cap supported with the concrete block wall at both sides of the ground improvement
channel.
The vertical sand drain needs a reasonable time along with preloading at steps to
increase the bearing capacity as well as to reduce the chances of post-construction
settlement failure. Here in this application, the vertical sand-lime drain is considered.
The addition of 20% quicklime with sand might cause an improvement in reducing
post-construction settlement to permissible at an earlier time, and will also contribute
to enhancing the bearing capacity of the soil considerably. The bamboo is having
high tensile strength as well as considerable compressive strength considered to act
as a flexible pile. The biodegradibility of the bamboo below the groundwater table
is a low concern within a short time of 4–5 years, as generally found in vernac-
ular practice. Microbes generally attack bamboo but with a low concern, especially
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 167

when in a submerged condition within the saturated subsoil. The possibility of a

major termite attack to bamboo at saturated conditions and at depth below 2.0 m
(as proposed in this case) from the ground level is out of such risk. The biodegrada-
tion of bamboo may happen slowly, but by that time; the subsoil is expected to be
consolidated and improved. In a different study, it is found that the 60 cycles freezing
and thawing tests on bamboo at extreme worst conditions at Ph 12.5 resulted in an
insignificant reduction in tensile strength [1]. Also, during lime-soil stabilization,
many microbial organisms may be defused due to the chemical reactions and their
immediate effects on them. The potentiality of using bamboo as a micro-pile was
investigated by different researchers [2–4]. A polymer geogrid and bamboo grids
were used with clayey sand and weathered clay as backfill the results of which indi-
cated that the bamboo grids have higher pull-out resistance per unit area than the
polymer geogrids [5]. The flexible but hard layer of stabilized lime-soil encapsulated
by geogrids and geotextile bounded by the concrete wall at both sides is considered
as a flexible pile-cap. Such a pile-cap will provide ample flexibility for the distribu-
tion of pressure and displacement within its mass. In turn, the same technique may
increase the natural stability of the top layer as free movements are allowed in all
directions. In between the bamboo piles, the soft clay may be prevented to create
any arching effects on the pile as the geotextile and geogrid will remain as a barrier.
The reason for which inner pressure might be developed in between adjacent piles
which will probably result in an escalation of consolidation and an increase in shear
characteristics of the clay soil. The inner pressure will cause clay particles to come
closer, and thus, the expulsion of water will start, and at the same time, reorientation
of soil molecules may result in increased cohesion of the soil.
The present paper reports on the innovation of a new combination of four geotech-
nics. The successive first application in the real field has been applied to the Agartala
flyover. A design approach is proposed for the same and validated by the field-level
model experiments. The present paper limits the discussion on the Sishubihar Site
of the Agartala Flyover.

2 Materials and Methods

Primarily, the objective of the present work is to provide an immediate, proper, and
economical solution to the problem of the present site (Sishubihar). The immediate
improvement of the bearing capacity of the soft soil to meet the pressure demand from
the vertical RE wall embankment is the demand. The poor subsoil consists of soft to
very soft clay layers in different sub-layers varied in length of the embankment and
depth of the subsoil within the influence zone, which needs to be addressed, designed,
and validated during the whole work. The total length of the embankment approach
is divided into Section-I (length-53.94 m, maximum height-2.387 m from existing
road level), Section-II (length-53.94 m, maximum height-4.666 m from existing road
level), and Section-III (length-28.5 m, maximum height-5.796 m from existing road
level).
168 M. K. Deb et al.

2.1 Proposals

The highest amongst the three sections, Section-III, is considered for the combi-
nation of four geotechnics. Construction of vertical sand-lime (80 sand:20 lime)
drain/column of diameter 400 mm at a spacing of 1.5 m c/c for a depth of 8.1 m
or above starting from 1.0 m below founding level. The bamboo pile of appropriate
length (3.0 m), diameter (mean dia. 65 mm), and selected species above two years of
age are used at an appropriate spacing as designed. Over this bamboo pile nonwoven
geotextile (single layer) and geogrid (specified) of two layers are designed to be
installed. After that, a base-course metal aggregate size larger than 40–63 mm or
higher decided to be placed and compacted for a thickness of 250 mm. Overburnt
Jhama brick aggregate (locally available) is used. Over this compacted metal surface,
specified lime mixed with specified borrow-pit soil in a proportion of (8–10):(92–90)
(Lime:Soil) with proper compaction by appropriate compacting arrangements as suit-
able is proposed. Over the stabilized lime-soil layer, geogrid (specified) of two layers
need to be placed, and again, 250 mm thickness of the base-course metal is placed
over the geogrid and compacted. Geogrid and nonwoven geotextiles are proposed to
be inserted within the concrete (M20-grade) wall at both sides of the embankment
channel at the top and bottom to cater to the effect of bond length. Thus, a flexible
pile-cap arrangement is achieved. Below the RE wall, as it demands flexibility at
the foundation, interface metaling may be replaced by reversing the geotextile at the
top and geogrid at the bottom. Over the geotextile, lime-sand (10:90) stabilization
shall be done. RE wall shall be placed over this prepared surface. Section-I (height-
2.387 m from existing ground level), and Section-II (height-4.67 m from existing
ground level) are designed and proposed with the combinations of three techniques,
as mentioned above, except vertical sand-lime column. The layers of geogrid also
decided to be reduced to a single layer in these sections as the pressure is consider-
ably lesser than Section III. 55 mm to 75 mm diameter and 5 m length of bamboo
are considered in these Sections based on the design demand.

2.2 Design Assumptions

The above proposals were framed based on the assumption that the load-carrying
capacity of soft soil may be increased as the limit state of collapse by considering
a system of the flexible pile (bamboo) with a flexible pile-cap (Lime-soil stabilized
cap encapsulated by geogrid and geotextile affixed by two concrete walls at both
sides of the flyover embankment). The permissible settlement as the limit state of
serviceability may be achieved with the sand-lime vertical drain. Also, the durability
of bamboo might be sufficient to allow for the accomplishments of the consolidation
of subsoil.
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 169

2.3 Soil Investigation

The inadequate soil investigation, as available with the client before taking up the
project, demanded a detailed soil investigation along the length and depth below
the embankment. Different boreholes (11 nos.) of different depths are envisaged
to explore the soil characteristics by conducting standard penetration tests (SPT),
collecting, and laboratory testing of disturbed, undisturbed, and remolded soil.
Borrow pit soil, and lime is specified, and related laboratory tests are conducted.
The tests are comprised of normal moisture content (ω), specific gravity (S g ), Atter-
berg’s limit (ωl , ωp ), sieve and hydrometer analysis for gradation, bulk density
(ρ), unit weight (γ ), triaxial tests (unconsolidated-undrained), UCS (unconfined
compressive strength) tests, consolidation tests, direct shear tests, standard Proctor
compaction tests, and other relevant tests at the laboratory meeting up the site-specific
requirements and following relevant IS and ASTM codes. The direct shear tests are
conducted on backfill-borrow-pit-soil after standard proctor tests to evaluate the shear
parameters. The different samples of the lime-soil (borrow pit) mix and lime-sand
mix are prepared at the laboratory on which several proctor tests are conducted
to decide optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD).
Different triaxial tests are conducted at OMC and MDD from which soil parameters
like cohesion, frictional angle, ultimate stress, and elastic modulus are determined.
The test results, thus, obtained are utilized to design the foundation system with a
new approach. It is decided to use 8–10% lime with the borrow pit soil and sand
differently for lime-soil stabilization, whereas 20% lime is used with sand for the
sand-lime vertical drain. The consolidation tests are done on undisturbed samples,
and the results are interpreted to decide the suitable soil settlement parameters for
its effective use in the design of the foundation system.

2.4 Materials

The proposed design comprised of four foreign materials (Lime, Bamboo, Geogrid,
and Geotextile) that are proposed to be used to the natural subsoil with the
combination of techniques as proposed and designed.
Lime
The specification of unslaked quicklime as confirmed from the following test results
of the lime (Table 1), as tested and reported from the Indian Institute of Technology
Guwahati. Accordingly, the same is used in construction.
Bamboo
The compressive and tensile strength properties of bamboo are considered based on
the feedback of reliable research results and following some properties as given in
Part 6, Sect. 3B of National Building Code of India [6] and appropriately used in
170 M. K. Deb et al.

Table 1 Lime properties to

Sl. No. Particulars Test results
be used in lime-soil
stabilization 01 Calcium, % 55.90
02 Magnesium, % 1.0 (Trace)
03 Oxygen, % 38.90
04 Carbon, % 4.2
05 Moisture Content, % 1.2
It may be inferred from the table that the combined calcium oxide
content is approximately 94.8%

the Design with due cautions. Considering the local availability of species, Jai, Bari,
Bom, and Makal bamboo (local name) of age, more than two years are considered
for the design and construction. The diameter of bamboo are suitably and practically
kept in the range of 55–95 mm and appropriately used in the design, considering the
standard mean of the lots as used.
Geogrid
Laid geogrid made of stretched, monolithic polypropylene (PP) flat bars with welded
junctions carrying appropriate properties are considered for the Design (Table 2).

Table 2 Specification of the geogrid

Specification Unit Values
Geogrid made of stretched, Aperture size (md/cmd) mm 32 × 32
monolithic polypropylene flat Maximum tensile strength kN/m ≥ 30/ ≥ 30
bars with welded Junctions. (md/cmd)
(Type-1)
Elongation at nominal % ≤ 7/ ≤ 7
strength (md/cmd)
Tensile strength at 0.5% kN/m 3.0/3.0
elongation (md/cmd)
Tensile strength at 5% N/m 24/24
elongation (md/cmd)
Flexural stiffness Mg-cm 400,000
Aperture stability mm- N/deg 1400
Reduction factor of 1
dynamic loading
Inertness to liquids, acids, % >90
and alkalis
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 171

Geotextile
Nonwoven geotextiles (Type-2) made of polypropylene fibers having puncture
strength higher than 2000 N, elongation greater than or equal to 50% in all direc-
tions, inertness to alkali, and with good drainage capability are used below geogrid
to enable adequate drainage at the bottom level of lime-soil stabilized pile-cap.

3 Design of Ground Improvement System

The maximum height of each section is considered to calculate the pressure and
accordingly generalized for the whole section for the Design. Since Section-III is
of maximum height among all three sections, maximum pressure will be exerted in
this section. The load and pressure calculations are considered at critical points of
the subsoil, giving due attention to the position of the RE wall embankment, and the
concrete block wall at both sides of the channel in which geogrids and geotextiles are
inserted during casting of the wall. The distribution of the embankment load within
the subsoil is considered as a strip-load.

3.1 Loads and Pressure Calculations

The load data from the RE wall embankment superstructure are considered as
supplied from the respective agency and cross-checked based on which the pres-
sure distribution is calculated. The critical nodal points are identified for pressure
calculation (Fig. 1), and a sample calculation is shown in Table 3. The pressure bulb
for each section is drawn, mentioning pressure at critical points along with the design
soil profile (Fig. 2).
Critical features of the Design
The design of the ground improvement system is displayed in Fig. 3. The various
codes of Indian Standards (IS) as well as British Standard (BS) along with the support
of research literature are followed wherever found reliable, and appropriate. The
design is carried out in such a way that, in the worst case, the primary consolidation
will be accomplished during the construction stages. The underlying assumptions
of the design are to address the limit state of collapse and serviceability. The flex-
ible bamboo pile with or without vertical lime-sand drain is assumed to meet both
requirements of the limit state of collapse and serviceability together by achieving
early strength of the subsoil and accelerated primary consolidation settlement as
well within acceptable time limit. The high tensile and compressive strength, along
with flexibility, is the reason that the bamboo is considered as a flexible pile. The
flexible pile-cap of 1.0 m thickness designed with stabilized lime-soil encapsulated
by geogrid and geotextile affixed with vertical concrete walls at both sides of the
172 M. K. Deb et al.

b
B q

B = 2b
Z
θ θ

P
(a) (b) (c)
Δσz = Vertical stress at point P, B = Width of the strip load, Z = Vertical distance of point P from the load surface, x = Horizontal distance of point P from
the centre of the strip, b = B/2

Fig. 1 Critical Pressure Points under the embankment within subsoil: a Case-1: Point ‘P’ below
the center of the strip at a depth z, b Case-2: Point ‘P’ below depth z in between center and corner
of the strip or below the corner, c Case-3: Point ‘P’ below depth z but outside the boundary of the
strip

Table 3 Pressure calculation from RE Wall embankment load to the foundation (Section-III)
Pressure calculation (Section III) Symbol value Unit
 
Unit weight of soil at ground γ 2 = 1.74t m3 P1 = 2.41t m2
 3 
Unit weight of soil within RE walls γ 1 = 2t m P2 = 14.36t m2
Height from EGL to top of RE wall H = 5.796 m –
Height from founding level to top of H1 = 7.181 m –
RE wall
 
Height of pavement fills H2 = 0.6 m P3 = 1.2t m2 P4 = 2.63t m2
Traffic surcharge H3 = 1.385 m –

Height from founding level to EGL P = 15.7853 t m2 –
 2
Net pressure on the foundation base Say 15.8 t m –

ground improvement channel will provide sufficient bearing capacity to enable the
possible load transfer to the bamboo pile allowing free deformation in all around the
ground improvement channel. In the design of the bamboo pile, the reduction factor
(α) is taken as 0.35, 0.40, and 0.32 against the ‘N’ values (penetration resistance) of
3, 3, and 2, and the ‘c’ (cohesion) of 3.67 t/m2 , 3.18 t/m2 , and 1.5 t/m2 for Sections
III, II and I, respectively. The work of Garg 1988 (book no. ISBN 81–88,237-55–8,
pp. 64, Fig. 4.14) regarding skin friction with bamboo strips with soil is also assessed
to the support of the assumptions. Furthermore, the improvement of the soil cohe-
sion is considered with a multiplying factor of 2.25 (1.5 × 1.5) to the base cohesion
for the calculation of pile capacity because of confinement effects of bamboo piling
and lime-soil vertical drain for Section III. The same factor is reduced to 1.5, where
vertical sand-lime columns are not introduced (Section-I and II). A load factor of
1.3 and a factor of safety (FOS) of 1.35 is considered to assess the pile capacity
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 173

Fig. 2 Pressures at critical points within pressure bulb

in different manners following the standard procedure of pile mechanics. The pile
group settlement is also calculated using the related soil parameters as evaluated
from the laboratory and field test data following the same principle. Although the
pile mechanics of bamboo–soil interactions are not fully known, and very few works
are there as such, the assumptions are made to attain a quantitative result over the
qualitative principle.

4 Model Experiment

Based on the design, the field models were prepared, applying the techniques of the
ground improvement in the respective design of Sections I, II, and III.
Load Tests
The load tests were performed periodically and differently after installation of the
bamboo pile to know the load-carrying capacity of the bamboo pile and sand-lime
174 M. K. Deb et al.

Fig. 3 Ground improvement design system

Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 175

column (vertical drain). The loading increment is maintained based on IS: 1888–
1982 with some realistic assumptions. In total, nine successful tests were performed.
The settlement is considered for 40 mm. The objective of the load tests is to validate
the designed capacity of the bamboo pile, comparing the pile capacity of a single
pile corresponding to a 40 mm settlement from the field experiment.
Test Results and Discussion
In Section III, three tests (PLT-S1B, PLT-S2B, and PLT-S3B) are performed on
bamboo pile out of which PLT-S3B was conducted against 25 mm settlement.
The test results are shown in Fig. 4a. Two tests (PLT-SSLC-1 and PLT-SSLC-2) are
also conducted on the sand-lime-column, the results of which are shown in Fig. 4b.
In Section-II, two tests are performed over the bamboo pile group. The result of this
is shown in Fig. 5a. In Section-I, two tests (PLT-S5B and PLT-S6B) are conducted
over the bamboo pile group, and the graphical results are shown in Fig. 5b.
Pile capacity and settlement
In Section III, the recovery of the settlement of the bamboo pile groups is 14.07%
with an ultimate pile capacity of 1.73 ton, 68.58% with an ultimate pile capacity
of 2.58 ton, and 7.68% with un ultimate pile capacity of 1.44 ton, respectively, for
PLT-S1B, PLT-S2B, and PLT-S3B. The highest settlement recovery obtained on the
test conducted after three months of the installation, and the lowest is observed on
the test that was conducted after fifteen days of the installation against a 25 mm
settlement. The mean diameter of the bamboo pile for the Section-III, was 65 mm
with a mean spacing of 300 mm c/c, although the numbers of the bamboo piles
in PLT-S1B and PLT-S2B was nine, whereas the same for PLT-S3B was 6. The pile
length was 3.0 m for the tests in Section III. Also, the load test results on the sand-lime
columns with the recovery of the settlement are observed as 5.25% with an ultimate

0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
0 0
PLT-SSLC-1
Settlement (mm)

-10 -10 PLT-SSLC-2

PLT-S1B
-20 PLT-S2B -20
PLT-S3B
-30 -30
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 Pressure (t/m2) -60 Pressure (t/m2)
(a) (b)

Fig. 4 a Pressure-Settlement graph from load tests on bamboo piles in Section-III at Ch. 7.00 m
(PLT-S1B, 9 bamboo piles), at Ch. 24.00 m (PLT-S3B, 6 bamboo piles), and Ch. 21.90 m (PLT-S2B,
9 bamboo piles) of mean diameter 65 mm, spacing @ 300 mm c/c, b Pressure-Settlement graph
from Load Tests on the sand-lime column in Section-III at Ch. 4.50 m (PLT-SSLC-1), and Ch.
23.00 m (PLT-SSLC-2) of diameter 400 mm
176 M. K. Deb et al.

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
0 0
-5 -5 PLT-S5B
PLT-S4B PLT-S6B
-10 -10
-15 -15
Settlement (mm)

-20 -20
-25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
-40 -40
-45 -45
-50 -50 Pressure (t/m2)
Pressure (t/m2)
(a) (b)

Fig. 5 a Pressure-Settlement graph from load tests on bamboo piles in Section-II at Ch. 80.50 m
(PLT-S4B, 9 bamboo piles) of mean diameter 75 mm, spacing @ 300 mm c/c., b Pressure-Settlement
graph from Load Tests on Bamboo piles in Section-I at Ch. 105.00 m (PLT-S5B, 16 bamboo piles),
and at Ch. 118.00 m (PLT-S6B, 16 bamboo piles) of mean diameter 55 mm, spacing @ 220 c/c

capacity of 2.58 ton, and 22.61% with an ultimate capacity of 2.54 ton, respectively,
for PLT-SSLC-1, and PLT-SSLC-2. In Section-II, the recovery of the settlement of
the bamboo-pile groups is 34.33%, with an ultimate pile capacity of 1.97 tons. Also,
for the bamboo pile, the mean diameter of the bamboo for Section-II was 75 mm
with a mean spacing of 300 mm c/c, and the numbers of the bamboo piles were 9
with a pile length of 5.0 m. In Section I, the recovery of the settlement of the bamboo
pile groups is 38.56%, with an ultimate pile capacity of 1.07 ton and 53.24% with
an ultimate pile capacity of 1.09 ton, respectively, for PLT-S5B, and PLT-S6B. The
highest settlement recovery was obtained on the test conducted after two months of
installation of bamboo pile compared to the other as one month, although the pile
capacity remains very close for both tests. The mean diameter of the bamboo for
Section-I was 55 mm with a mean spacing of 220 mm c/c, and the number of the
bamboo piles were16 with a pile length of 5.0 m. The settlement recovery is due
to the strength-gain of the subsoil in progress over time. Such interactions allow
bamboo to bend (due to flexibility) effectively interacting with the subsoil, probably
as a macro-bamboo pile-soil-composite due to which such a high amount of recovery
of the settlement was possible. The recovery of the settlement is directly related to
the recovery of the energy, and which is unique and advantageous for a bamboo pile
foundation system for effectively resisting any cyclic events like an earthquake. The
pile spacing was lesser in Section-I, although the diameter of bamboo was less than
the other sections.

5 Design Validation

The bamboo pile system, as designed, is compared with the experimented load test
results. The required pile capacity with the factor of safety 1.0 was calculated on
Ground Improvement of Soft Soil Using Bamboo as Flexible Pile … 177

3
2.79

2.5 2.374
2.020
1.96 1.94 1.920
2 1.82 1.760
1.35 1.35 1.35 1.430
1.5 1.284
1.105 1.080
0.988
1 0.85
0.654
0.468 0.480
0.5 0.36

0
FOS-attained Designed FOS Required pile Required Calculated Designed Attained pile
capacity (ton) factored unfactored pile allowable pile capacity (ton)
(1.3)pile capacity (ton) capacity (ton)
capacity (ton)
Section-III Section-II Section-I

Fig. 6 Designed and experimented load-carrying capacity of bamboo pile

the pressure exerted from the RE wall embankment, which was then multiplied by
the load factor of 1.30 to get ‘required factored pile capacity.’ The ‘calculated un-
factored pile capacity’ is determined using relevant soil strength parameters and
assumptions, which was then divided by a factor of safety (FOS) of 1.35 to get the
‘designed allowable pile capacity.’ The mean pile capacity from the load test against
a 40 mm settlement is considered as the basis of the comparison. The outcome of
the design and experiment results is given in Fig. 6. The test results, as analyzed in
comparison to the design considerations confirm that the designed capacity of the
bamboo pile is quite safe, which considerably validates the proposed design approach
of the ground improvement system. 90% consolidation settlement was calculated to
be within 24 days of the construction of the embankment in stages in Section-III.
Section-I and Section-II do not require the consideration of the sand drain as the low
pressure at critical points within the pressure bulb, and the corresponding settlement
is under permissible limits as calculated. Furthermore, the settlement as experimented
from the tests are found reasonably satisfactory to ensure the practical validity of the
design, and accordingly, construction is done.

6 Conclusion

The present report in this paper related to the Agartala flyover covers a new type
of ground improvement system by the combination of four techniques altogether to
improve soft soil to take embankment loads with vertical RE wall in safe mode. The
address of the problem by introducing bamboo pile and lime-soil stabilized flexible
pile-cap encapsulated by geogrid and geotextile affixed to a vertical concrete wall
at both sides of the ground improvement channel along with the lime-sand vertical
drain is found to be appropriate, optimum, green as well as cost-effective. During the
 178 M. K. Deb et al.

staged construction of the RE wall, the maximum settlement may be attained. The
lime-soil mix is used based on the laboratory test data of one month only. Practically
over the time, the strength of the top layer that is stabilized lime-soil of 1 m thickness
and lime-sand vertical drain will attain more strength than what is being calculated
and will be an additional boon to the design itself. Bamboo has been ideal in clay.
Bamboo is long, and so deep penetration is possible. The innovative techniques, as
detailed here in this paper, maybe readily used for such urban conditions where the
availability of bamboo is not a concern, but the availability of land is a major concern
in open traffic conditions. However, the detail and further in-depth study are required
to address the actual mechanism of the flexible bamboo pile and lime-soil stabilized
geogrid-geotextile encapsulated flexible pile-cap.

Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the Nagarjuna Construction Company

Limited (NCCL), Agartala, for entrusting the work on behalf of the Public Works Department,
Government of Tripura. The authors’ thanks are due to the Jadavpur University, Construction Engi-
neering Department, Kolkata, West Bengal, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati and National
Institute of Technology, Silchar, Assam to avail the related laboratory facilities of the concerned
department to conduct such amount of detail laboratory tests in less time. The appreciations are also
due to the field and laboratory testing services as delivered by the CE Testing Company Pvt. Ltd.,
and Civil Engineering Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata, West Bengal. Besides, the authors
also put their sincere thanks to the VKS Infratech Management Pvt. Ltd. and Reinforced Earth India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

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