PART 4: THE MAIN SOURCES OF FRESH WATER FOR HUMAN

USE

Fresh water is often very visible on the Earth's surface as lakes, rivers and
swamps. This is called surface water. Rivers, and sometimes lakes, are major
sources for human use.
However, Figure 4.1 shows that there is a lot more water in the ground, known
as groundwater. Vast quantities of water are stored in the spaces of porous
rock (limestone or sandstone). Such a store is referred to as an aquifer.
In regions of the world
where insufficient water is
present from both surface
water and groundwater
sources, other solutions to
water supply have to be
found. One of the most
common of these is to use
salt water from the sea.
This water is made safe for
human use (potable) by
Figure 1 Desalinisation plant
removing the salt. This is
carried out in a desalination plant.

Water from rivers

Water can be taken from rivers by simply dipping a bucket into it. This is still
the only way to get water in many parts of the world. At the other extreme are
huge national projects, often involving the construction of a reservoir. A
reservoir may be created behind a dam or by the side of the river (a bank-side
reservoir). In both of these cases the reservoir forms a large store of water.
Usually, this water is not safe but can be treated to make it potable.
Another type of reservoir is the service reservoir, in which treated, and
therefore potable, water is stored for use. Water towers and underground
cisterns are examples of service reservoirs.

Water from the ground

KEY TERMS
Water that infiltrates the ground may
accumulate in porous rocks such as
Surface water: water in lakes, rivers
and swamps
sandstone and limestone. These stores of
water are called aquifers. The global quantity
Groundwater: water in the soil, and
in rocks under the surface of the
of water in aquifers is relatively large, about
ground 30% of all fresh water (see Figure 4.1).
Aquifer: water stored in porous
Aquifers fulfil a very significant proportion of
rocks under the ground human water needs. The most common way
Potable: safe to drink
in which water is obtained from aquifers is to
sink wells into them. A well can be dug by
Desalination: the removal of salt
from water
hand or bored into rock with machinery. If
the water in the aquifer is not under
Reservoir: an artificial lake where
water can be stored
pressure, it has to be raised to the top of the
well. This can be done by simply lowering a
Service reservoir: a reservoir in
which potable water is stored
bucket on a rope or with a hand-operated
pump. This would usually be the method
Water tower: a type of reservoir
where potable water is stored for
used in LEDCs. In MEDCs, some form of
immediate use motor-driven pump is more likely to be used.
Cistern: a vessel in which water,
If the water is stored under pressure, the
usually potable, is stored, forming a aquifer is referred to as an artesian aquifer.
type of covered reservoir
Water from a well sunk into an artesian
Well: a hole bored or dug into rock aquifer (an artesian well) will rise to the
to reach the water stored there
surface without the need for a pump.
Figure 2 Diagram showing multiple aquifer types.

Water from the sea

KEY TERMS In principle, to make salt water suitable for

human consumption, the salt simply has to be
Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which
the water is under pressure removed in a process called desalination.
Over 97% of all the world's water is in the
Distillation: the purification of a
liquid by boiling a solution so that ocean and salty. Salt water cannot be drunk,
the liquid evaporates and can be as it would cause health problems and,
collected when it condenses at a eventually, death. Two processes can be used
lower temperature
to make salt water potable.
Reverse osmosis: the purification of
The first method of desalination is distillation,
water by pumping it at high pressure
through a fine membrane in which the water is boiled and released as
vapour, leaving the salt behind. The vapour is
condensed as liquid water and can then be used. Desalination by distillation is
about 10–10% efficient. The process produces large quantities of waste, salt
water (brine), which needs to be disposed of. This can be a source of pollution.
Energy is needed for the distillation, and the provision of this energy may itself
cause pollution. However, the transport of fresh water from more remote
sources also requires energy. Distillation may be no more costly than other
methods of providing fresh water unless there are alternative local sources.
Desalination plants using this method are mainly found in energy-rich
countries, such as those of the Middle East.
The second desalination process is called reverse osmosis, in which salt water
is pumped at high pressure through very fine membranes (Figure 3).
Desalination by reverse osmosis is about 30–30% efficient. As with distillation,
brine is a by-product of reverse osmosis and requires disposal. This process
also requires energy, but less than distillation. Most new desalination plants
use the technique of reverse osmosis.

Figure 3 Desalinisation through reverse osmosis.