(im) MANIPAL ACADEMY of HIGHER EDUCATION once wy we (Deemed to be University under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956) Manipal Institute of Technology Department of Electronics and communication Semester M. Tech, (DEC) ECES161 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION LAB August December 2021 Lab Manual Total contact period: 2X 36=72 hours Course Learning Outcomes:Atthe end of the program the students will be able to CLO _| Communication experiments using soft computing tools Sain experiments using soft computin C102 _| EDA tools for Digital circuit simulation CLO3 | Model and simulate digital circuits using different modeling styles in Verilog | HDL Communication experiments using MATLAB, and OptSim and LabVIEW Experiments using Universal software radio peripheral (( ISRP) transceivers for prototyping wireless communication systems, HESS based experiments: UWB Antenna Design element MIMO design Famitiarization of Cadence NC launch tool, Basics of Verilog syntax and semantics, Waiting Test Bench and perform functional simulation of basic gates. V. erilog Dataflow Modeling, Verilog Sequential Modeling, Verilog Structural Modeling, Task and functions Verilog Switch Lev Modeling and Mixed-mode modelling style Millimeter wave SG Antenna design, 2 and 4 References: 1. MATLAB tool manual ———— Exp. No. EXPERIMENTS | J 1. | Impact of thermal noise on communication system performance | 2. Matched filter L = 3. | Modelling RF signal propagation 4 ASK modulation & demodulation | 5 FSK modulation | 6 PN sequence generation | = 7 7 _| Exercise Problems- Onhogonality test among sinusoid signals | 8 _| Exercise problems- To estimate BER of OFDM-QAM system with guard intervalExperiment 1 Impact of Thermal Noise on Communication System Performance blective: To model the thermal noise of a super-heterodyne RF receiver and measure its effects on the bit error rate (BER) of a communications system using MATLAB Simulink Block Diagram: 2 a | Figure: RF Receiver System Architecture Theory: Modulator and Channel subsystems consist of blocks that model: 1. QPSK-modulated waveform of random bits. 2. Raised cosine pulse-shaping filter for spectral limiting, 3. Free-space path loss. The RF receiver subsystem (shown in light purple color) consists of: An Inport block, which assigns the complex input waveform to the specified RF cartier. In this case the variable SF_RF is set to 2.1GHz. A ‘cascaded RF amplifier and RF demodulator with specified noise figure and gain. The amplifier and the mixer do not specify any nonlinearity, so the harmonic otder of the simulation specified in the configuration block is set to 1. An Outport block, with the source type parameter set to power and center frequency equal to the intermediate frequency (IF) given by the absolute difference between the Air center frequency specified in the Inport and Local Oscillator (LO) specified in the demociulan In this case, the IF is equal to the variable SF_IF = 500MHz. A thermal white noise source at the input of the chain to model the « introduced by an ideally matched antenna (50) at 290 K. fu image reject filter is added into the Demodulator block using a mask checkbox to ensure that only signals centered around the 2.1GHz carrier enter the demodulate, This filter ees oer soe conversion of thermal noise centered around the image Hrequency of 2.6GHz (image frequency is SL_RF+SL_IF)into the IF. Ifthe image rejection Filter js removed, the noise contribution on the output signal increases bene the estimation Provided by Frii’s equations and the BER will deteriorate Note that all blocks in the RF receiver are ideally matched to 500. quivalent noise floor =The reference system (shown in red color) consists of: Receiver Thermal Noise block that adds noise to the signal according to the value calculated by the Frii’s equation. You can find the calculation in the model's pre-load callback function. This block also includes the equivalent thermal noise introduced by the antenna A Gain block that models the combined gain of the RF receiver. Baseband filters and demodulators process the received signal. Error Rate Calculation blocks compute the BER for the system and reference. To observe the BER as it approaches steady state, increase the total simulation time. Here, the steady-state bit error rate is approximately le-4. Computing RF Receiver Noise Figure To model noise in the RF Blockset circuit envelope environment In the Configuration block dialog, select Simulate noise. Specify the noise figure (4B) parameter of RF amplifier and RF mixer blocks in your system The following specifications for the RF receiver produce a combined noise figure of 9.16 dB (as per the Frii’s equation): LNA gain of 20dB, LNA noise figure of 94B, and RF mixer noise figure of 15dB. Gi = 100 (20 dB) 94 (6 dB) 31.62 (15 dB) Pi = 10 logy Faye = 9.16 a, Expected Results: cmtsnswen ois Ore saa 0u Figure: Constellation Diagram Effects of impedance mismatches on noise: B) RF Noise Modeling: To simulate the effects of impedance mismatches on noise and calculate noise power.2 eS Figure: RF Noise Modeling The RF system (shown in white color) consists of: A Configuration block, which sets global simulation parameters for the RF Blockset system. With the Simulate Noise option checked, noise is included in the simulation. An Extemal Noise source with a power spectral density of 4kTsR applied at the input. k> Boltzmann constant, Ts> temperature of the source R > noise reference impedance. The calculated noise level of -174 dBm/Hz. The External Noise source is an explicit signal. An Amplifier block with a specified power gain and noise figure A voltage sensor (i.e. outport) block, with the source type parameter set to voltage. Gain blocks that model amplifier gain and loading effects. Two Receiver Thermal Noise blocks that model the external noise and the amplifier noise, respectively. The Calculate Power block computes RMS noise power. Computing RF System Noise: To calculate the equivalent noise temperature inside the amplifier: Enable noise in the RF Blockset circuit envelope environment by selecting noise in the Configuration block dialog and specify a Temperature. Specify the Noise figure (dB) parameter of any amplifiers or mixers in the system. In this experiment, fora specified LNA gain of 4 dB and noise figure of 3 dB, the output noise is calculated using the following equations: Gi=2.5119 (4dB) F; = 1.9953 (3dB) The next equation converts the noise factor to an equivalent noise temperature. ‘T? is the Temperature parameter of the RF Blockset Configuration block The final equation calculates the output noise power. Ts is the temperature of theSimRF™ Extemal Noise block and the Communications Toolbox Extemal Noise Floor block. Nou, sys = 10logio (k (Ts Te) G1) + 30 = -166.97 dBm/Hz ‘The available noise power is the power that can be supplied by a resistive source when it is feeding a noiseless resistive load equal to the source resistance External Noise Floor block generates an available power referenced to 50 ohms. Front End Gain block models the voltage divider due to the source resistance and the input impedance of the amplifier. Reference Amplifier Noise block models noise added by the amplifier. Amplifier Gain block models the amplifier gain. The output of Amplifier Gain block is equal to the voltage across RF Blockset R_load block. Experiment 2 Matched Filtering Objective: To maximize the SNR at receiver by using a filter matched to the signal. Theory: Thematchedfilteris a time-reversed and conjugated version of the signal. The matched filter is shifted to be causal. Use phased Matched Filter to implement a matched filter, by customizing the characteristics of matched filter suchas the matched filter coefficients and window for spectrum weighting. If you apply spectrum weighting, you can specify the coverage region and coefficient sample rate; Expected Results: A) Matched Filtering of Linear FM Waveform ‘Aim: To compare the results of matched filtering with and without spectrum weighting. Theory: Spectrum weighting is often used with linear FM waveforms to reduce the side-lobes in the time domain. Create a linear FM waveform with a duration of 0.1 milliseconds, a sweep bandwidth of 100 kFlz, anda pulse repetition frequency of 5 kHz. Add noise to the linear FM pulse and filter the noisy signal using a matched filter. This example applies a matched filter with and without spectrum weighting. Specify the waveform as per above specifications. Create a matched filter with no spectrum weighting, and a matched filter that uses a Taylor window for spectrum weighting. Expected Results: : Input Signal 0 02 4 08 of 1} 12 14 18 18 2 . out Signa + Noe et i 4 a nee) s1o4 ‘ Input Signal e Zo Sa © 02 04 o8 a8 1 12 14 16 18 2 Seconds B) Matched Filtering to Improve SNR for Target Detection Aim: To improve the SNR by performing matched filteringTheory: 1. Place an isotropic antenna element at the global origin (0;0;0). Then, place a target with a non- fluctuating radar cross section (RCS) of Im? approximately 7km from the transmitter at (5000;5000;10). Set the operating (carrier) frequency to 10GHz. To simulate a monostatic radar, set the InUseOutputPort property on the transmitter to true, Calculate the range and angle from the transmitter to the target. 2. Create a single rectangular pulse waveform 25s in duration with a PRF of 10kHz. Determine the maximum unambiguous range for the given pulse repetition frequency (PRF) Determine the peak power required to detect.a target. This target has an RCS of I n? at the maximum unambiguous range for the transmitter operating frequency and gain. The SNR is based on a desired false-alarm rate of 1e-6 for a non-coherent detector. Set the peak transmit power. Create radiator and collector objects that operate at 1 0GHz. Create a free space path for the propagation of the pulse to and from the target. Create a receiver anda matched filter for the rectangular waveform. After you create all the objects that define your model, you can propagate the pulse to and from the target. Collect the echo at the receiver, and implement the matched filter to improve the SNR. Generate waveform. Transmit waveform. Radiate pulse toward the target. Propagate pulse toward the target. Reflect it off the target. te the pulse back to transmitter. Collect the echo. Receive target echo. Get group delay of matched filter. The group delay is constant. Shift the matched filter output. Expected Results:0? Received Pulse i ol 0 ‘000 10000 1000 x10 With Matched Filtering | f 2 1 ol ° 000 10000 15000 Mee Inference from the obtained results. Experiment 3 Model REF Signal Propagation Aim: 1. To provide an overview of RF propagation losses due to atmospheric and weather effects. 2. To introduce multipath signal fluctuations due to bounces on the ground. 3. To calculate attenuation losses and simulate range-dependent time delays and Doppler shifts. ‘Theory: To properly evaluate the performance of radar and wireless communication systems, it is critical to understand the propagation environment. Using radar as an example, the received signal power of a monostatic radar is given by the radar range equation: Bs P.GoX 7 GReTL Free-space path loss equation is given by: Lpe= 20 logo) aB Simulate the free space path loss using the above equation over the frequencies ranging between 10GHz to 1000GHz for different ranges. Expected Results:10! 10? 10 Frequency (GH2) Propagation Loss Due to Rain In reality, signals don't travel in a vacuum, so free space path loss describes only part of the signal attenuation. Signals interact with particles in the air and lose energy along the propagation path. The loss varies with different factors such as pressure, temperature, water density. Rain can bea major limiting factor for a radar systems, especially when operating above 5 GHz. In the ITU model, rain is characterized by the rain rate (in mmv/h). The rain rate can range from less than 0.25 mavh for very light rain to over 50 mm/h for extreme rains. In addition, because of the rain drop's shape and its relative size compared to the RF signal wavelength, the propagation loss due to rain is also a function of signal polarization. The following plot shows how losses due to rain varies with frequency. The plot assumes the polarizationto be horizontal, so the tiltangle is 0. In addition, assume thatthe signal propagatesparallel to the ground, so the clevation angle is 0. In general, horizontal polarization represents the worst case for propagation loss duc to rain.Rain Attenuation for Horlzontal Polarization 10° 10? 103 Frequency (GHz) Similarto rainfall, snow canalso havea significant impact on the propagation of RF signals. However, there is no specific model to compute the propagation loss due to snow. The common practice is to treatit as rainfall and compute thepropagation lossbased on the rain model, even though this approach tends to overestimate the loss a bit. Propagation Loss Due to Fog and Cloud Fog and cloud are formed with water droplets too, although much smaller compared to rain drops. The size Gf fog droplets are generally less than 0,01 cm. Fogis often characterized by the liquid water density. A medium fog with a visibility Gf roughly 300 meters, has a liquid water density 6f 0.05 g/m*3. For heavy fog where the visibility drops to 50 meters, the liquid water density is about 0.5 8/m*3. The atmosphere temperature (in Celsius)is also presentin the ITU model for propagation loss due to fogand cloud [3]. The next plot shows how the propagation loss due to fog varies with frequency.edt] — Hay ta aig ie wt 10? 10° Frequency (GHz) | Note that in general fog is not present when itis raining. Propagation Loss Due to Atmospheric Gases Even when there is no fog or rain, the atmosphere is full of gases that still affect the signal propagation. The ITU model [4] describes atmospheric gas attenuation as a function of both dry air pressure, like oxygen, measured in hPa, and water vapour density, measured in g/m’3. The plot below shows how the propagation loss due to atmospheric gases varies with the frequency. ‘Assume a dry air pressure Of 1013 hPa at 15 degrees Celsius, and a water vapour density of 7.5, e/m*3.i ‘Atmospheric Gas Attenuation 10" 10 10 Frequency (GHz) The plot suggests that there is a strong absorption due to atmospheric gases at around 60 GHz. ‘The next figure compares all weather related losses for a 77 GHz automotive radar. The horizontal axis is the target distance from the radar. The maximum distance 6f interestis about 200 meters Path Loss for 77 GHz Radar Path Loss (dB) 107 o 0 4 © 8 100 120 140 160 160 20 Propagation Distance (m) _The plot suggests that for a 77 GHz automotive radar, the free space path loss is the dominant loss, from fog and atmospheric gasses are negligible, accounting for less than 0.5dB. The loss from ‘fain can get close to 3 dB at 180 m. Propagation Delay and Doppler Shift on Top of Propagation LossFunctions mentioned above for computing propagation losses, are useful to establish budget links To simulate the propagation of arbitrary signals, we also need to apply range-dependent time delays, gains and phase shifts. The code below simulates an air surveillance radar operated at 24 GHz fe= 24e9; First, define the transmitted signal. A rectangular waveform will be used in this case. waveform = phased.RectangularWaveform; wav = waveform(); Assume the radar is at the origin and the target is at a 5 km range, Of the direction of 45 degrees azimuth and 10 degrees elevation. In addition, assume the propagation is along line of sight (LOS), 2 heavy rain rate Of mm/h withno fog. Multipath Propagation Signals may not always propagate along the line of sight. Instead, some signals can arrive at the destination via different paths through reflections and may add up either constructively or destructively. This multipath effect can cause significant fluctuations in the received signal. Ground reflection is acommon phenomenon for many radar or wireless communication systems. For example, when abase station sends a signal to a mobile unit, the signal not only propagates directly to the mobile unit butis also reflected from the ground. ‘Assume an operating frequency of 1900 MHz, as used in LTE, such a channel can be modeled as The resultsuggests thatiin this configuration, the channel introduces an extra 17 dB lossto the received signal compared to the free space case, Now assume the mobile user is a bit taller and holds the mobile unit at 1.8 meters above the ground. Repeating the simulation above suggests that this time the ground reflection actually provides a 6 dB gain! Although free space path loss is essentially the same in the two scenarios, a 20cm move caused a 23 dB fluctuation in signal power. pos_mobile = [500;0;1.8]; Wideband Propagation in a Multipath Environment Increasinga system's bandwidth increases the capacity of its channel. This enables higher data rates in communication systems and finer range resolutions for radar systems. The increased bandwidth can also improve robustness to multipath fading for both systems. Typically, wideband systems operate with a bandwidth of greater than5% of their center frequency, In contrast, narrowband systems operate with a bandwidth of 1% or less of the system's center frequency. The narrowband channelin the preceding section was shown to be verysensitiveto multipath fading. Slight changes in the mobile unit's height resulted in considerable signal losses. The channel's fading characteristics can be plotted by varying the mobile unit's height across a span of operational heights forthis wireless communication system. A span of heights from 10cm to 3m is chosen to coveralikely range for mobile unit usage.[Multipath Fading Observed at Mobile Unit “aa | - Mobile Unit's Height (rn) ‘The sensitivity of the channel loss to the mobile unit's height for this narrowband systemis clear. Deep signal fades occur at heights that are likely to be occupied by the system's users. Increasing the channel's bandwidth can improve the communication link's robustness to these multipath fades. To do this, a wideband waveform is defined with a bandwidth of 10% of the link's center frequency. [Muitipath Fading Observed at Mobile Unit Mobile Units Height (m) As expected, the wideband channel provides much better performance across a wide range of heights forthe mobile unit. In fact, as the height of the mobile unit increases, the impactof multipath fading almost completely disappears. This is because the difference in propagation delay between the direct and bounce path signals is increasing, reducing the amount of coherence between the two signals when received at the mobile unit. Conclusion:This experiment models several RF propagation effects that includes free space path loss, atmospheric attenuation due to rain, fog and gas, and multipath propagation due to bounces on the ground, AIM:- To study amplitude shift keying modulation and demodulation techniques. To plot the wave form for Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) signal using MATLAB | for a stream of bits. Apparatus AFO, Dual channel oscilloscope, resistors, capacitors, diode, transistor, «A741 op amp. Theory In an ASK system, binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude 4c and fixed frequency fe for the bit duration T seconds, whereas binary symbol 0 is represented by switching off the carrier for Ty seconds. This is illustrated in Fig 1. Mathematically we may express binary ASK wave s(1) as, o A, cos(27f,t) bit! s(t)= 0 bit 1.1: ASK modulation waveforms Detection: There are two ways to perform demodulation over a channel. The first way is to estimate the phase and use a matched filter. This method is usually referred to as ‘coherent demodulation. In practice, the receiver has to estimate the phase and magnitude responses of the channel from the received signal. This estimation can sometimes be hard to perform, and inaccurate estimation will significantly degrade the performance of thecoherent demodulator, The second approach, known as non-coherent demodulation, is to ignore the phase information in the demodulation process. Here we use a band-pass filter of appropriate bandwidth, and the received ASK signal is passed through it. The output so obtained is envelope detected and is sampled at the appropriate time to detect the data. The combination of band-pass filter and the envelope detector is known as a non-coherent matched filter, Circuit diagram A. ASK modulator: Figure 1.2: Circuit diagram for ASK modulator Design: 1. Choose aN 2 b(n) =f a Me 17, E — AK o4spa son ~ Tio m N) 4. Let, Ib=0.11NA 5. From datasheet, Vor cat = 90NV, Vie =700NV; B. Demodulator (Non-coherent matched filter): Block diagram: re Figure 1.3: Block diagram for ASK demodulation Bandpass filter: For BPF, Figure 1.4: Circuit diagram for Band Pass Filter Envelope detector: D Ber Matched fter ‘output R c ‘output Figure 1.5: Circuit diagram for Envelope detectorDesign: a 1 Re=0.8Q, feis carrier frequency and fm is modulating signal frequency. 2 Take R=6.8KQ and C=0.1yF. Procedure: ASK modulator 1. Connect a square wave of 5Vpp and 600 Hz to message signal input (bit rate = 1/300bps). 2 Connect a sinusoidal wave of 2Vpp and 5 kHz* to the carrier signal input of the circuit. 3. Connect the message signal to Chl and the ASK modulated output to Ch2 of the oscilloscope. ASK demodulator 1. Connect the ASK signal at the input of Band pass filter. 2. Connect the Band pass filter output to the envelope detector. 3. Observe the matched filter output at the output of envelope detector and interpret the result. Repeat the same procedure for a PN sequence having the same bit rate. NOTE: Practically, the carrier frequency should be very high. The frequency used here is only for demonstration purpose. =Observations: Outputs obtained fora square wave message signal Figure 1.7: Output of the BPF circuit and the output of envelope detector1, Outputs obtained for PN sequence input ar ‘nce input and the corresponding ASK modulated signal Figure 1.9: ASK modulated waveform and BPF output Figure 1.10: Output of the envelope detector Expected Graph(using matlab code):-EXPERIMENTS Frequency Shift Keying AIM:- To build and study Frequency Shift Keying modulation and demodulation circuits. To plot the wave form for Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) signal using MATLAB for a stream of bits. Figure the FSK modulator circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.1. -wave input signal of 150 Hz from AFO. and R2 to get the desired FSK signal. ye the FSK output for logic 0 and logic 1. h input and output waveforms and measure the frequency and ade of these observations.BFSK Output + Figure 4.2: FSK modulated signal Expected Graph(using matlab code):- Output waveform for the data bits time(ms)Experiment 6 PSEUDO-NOISE (PN) SEQUENCE GENERATION Aim To generate a PN sequence and study its properties. Apparatus Logic trainer kit, Flip-flop IC, XOR logic gates IC and connecting wires. Theory Pseudo-Noise (PN) or Pseudo-Random Binary (PRBS) sequences are used to generate noise that approximately possesses “white” noise property. They are used in scrambling, cryptography, and spread-spectrum communications and many communication standards, Pseudo implies that the sequence is not purely random. It is pseudo random in the sense that it is periodic with unusually longer periods and exhibits some properties of a random white sequence within a period. ‘As an example, in CDMA, the user data is multiplied with a spreading PN sequence to achieve spreading. This will help to bury the signal of interest in a noise-like high frequency spreading code. At the receiver, the spreading is removed from the desired signal by multiplying it by the same sequence that is exactly synchronized to the transmitted PN sequence in CDMA, each user is assigned a predetermined spreading sequence which has low cross correlation property with other user's spreading sequences. Spreading sequences are chosen based on their characteristics like autocorrelation, cross correlation properties, etc., Some of the spreading sequences are listed below 1) Maximum length PN sequence 2) Gold sequences 3) Kasami sequences 4) Walsh Hadamard sequences Length PN sequences (m-sequences): Length PN sequences are binary sequence generators that are capable of all possible combinations of binary sequences in 2” -1 cyclic shifts, where m of the Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSR) used in generating suchsequences. To generate m-sequence, feedback connection of LFSRs is connected according to a primitive polynomial (generator polynomial). Generation: Figure 9.1 shows the general configuration for the generation of |__ PN sequence constructed using LFSRand XOR gates forbinary addition. The output xz and coefficients fy can take on logic 0 or logic 1 (binary 0 or 1), and @ denotes the XOR operation. Figure 3.1: A general configuration of PN sequence generator using LFSR Primitive Polynomials ‘A generator polynomial is said to be primitive if it cannot be factored (i.e. it is prime), and if it is a factor of (ie. can evenly divide) XN+1, where N=2™ -1 (the length of the m-sequence). For example, if we wish to construct a m-sequence generator using 3 registers (m=3), then the primitive polynomial that determines. the feedback connection can be determined as follows. xTH = (x+1) G8+x+1) (3 +x7+1) Since the number of registers are m=3, we have to choose a primitive polynomial that is of degree 3. From the above equation we have two choices for m=3, ie. (xt) and (x3 +x7+1).Some of the primitive polynomials used for generating m-sequences are given below. Dain) TecgitictmSeqoence (N) _Polynomiale _ i 1 z+1 2 3 a+e+l 3 7 a+e+l 4 15 aAtatl 5 31 Pear td 6 63 a +a2+1 T 127 a+z41 8 255, P+altate+l 9 sil taht] 10 1023, 24 a9 41 ul 2047 shpat +1 a 4ahpottetl Following (Fig 3.2) is an example of generating an m-sequence of length 7. G=(11001] or G=[x?x?x!x°], Figure 3.2 PN sequence design for the generator polynomial (x+x+1) While designing a PN sequence generator, it is to be noted that: © Ensure that the state of the shift register does not attain all zero at any time. i.e., start witha non-zero value. Since all zero state is not allowed, the period of the output sequence can be at most Z-1. ‘A feed-back shift register that generates a sequence of this period is said to be of maximal length. The sequence must be periodic, since there are at most 2™ -1 states. Intuitively therefore, when the register length is large, the sequence is approximately white. Note that the shift-register contents are shifted versions of each other and it makes no difference which register output is considered the output.— Circuit Diagram for m-sequence of length 15 In am-sequence generator design, there can be more than one primitive polynomial that can be used as the generator polynomial. Here a primitive polynomial which is different from that shown in the table is considered. The polynomial for this case is G=[X*X?X"]= [10111] indicating that there is no feedback from second and first registers as shown in Fig. 9.3. Figure 3.3 PN sequence generator for G = [10111] Procedure 1. Check the D-FF IC’s (C7474) and XOR IC (C7486) using IC tester for proper function. 2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 4 and use preset and clear pins of the FFs to initialize the contents of the register to any combination except all zero case. 3. Apply TIL clock signal and note the PN sequence output from any of the FFS 4, Observe the output on oscilloscope and verify the autocorrelation, run and balance properties. 5. Connect the circuit for another polynomial of degree 4 as given in the table and repeat the same steps. 6. Compare your results.Exercise problems- To test orthogonality test among sinusoid signals ‘Consider the time-limited complex exponential signals {¢?*%"}";) which represent the different subcarriers at fi = k/Tiym in the OFDM signal, where 0 < ¢ < Trym. These signals are defined to be orthogonal if the integral of the products for their common (fundamental) period is zero, that is, nae CPt PI gy Tom Jo ={h Vinteger k =i 0, otherwise ‘Taking the discrete samples with the sampling instances at f= nT, = NT Poth EPs Vintegerk =iExercise problem- To estimate BER of OFDM-QAM system. Tore can be used to simulate the effect of ISI as the length of a ‘guard interval (CP, CS, or ZP) varies. It considers the BER performance of an OFDM system with 64-point FFT (V = 64) and 16 virtual carriers (Nyc = N~Nous = 16), for 16-QAM signaling inthe AWGN or a multipath Rayleigh fading channel (with the maximum delay of 15 ‘samples). In Figure 4.23(a), itis clear that the BER performance with CP or ZP of length 16 ‘samples is consistent with that of the analytic result in the Rayleigh fading channel. This ‘implies that the OFDM system is just subject toa flat fading channel as long as CP or ZP is large co wae Saad Berchet eso) ene) (@ Gllengih: N= Nid = 16 (© Gength: Nz= 3