Gas Power Cycles

MECH0005 – Thermodynamics
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 Introduction 1/2
Power generation Aero, marine and land transport

Internal combustion (IC) / Gas Turbine (GT) Engines

Pollutant reduction
Efficiency improvements
Energy saving/process improvements
 Introduction 2/2
• Gas power cycles:
– Deal with systems that produce power in which the working fluid
remains a gas throughout the cycle
• ( in other words, there is no change in phase).

• Spark Ignition (gasoline) engines, Compression ignition

(diesel) engines and conventional gas turbine engines
(generally refer to as Internal Combustion engines or IC
Engines) are some examples of engines that operate on
gas cycles.
 Air Standard Cycles 1/2
• Internal combustion engines
– Combustion of fuel is non-cyclic process
– Working fluid, air-fuel mixture undergoes permanent chemical
change due to combustion
– Products are thrown out of the engine & Fresh charge is taken
in.
– Hence, the working fluid doesn’t undergo a thermodynamic
cycle.
• In order to analyse this complex gas power cycles, air
standard cycles are conceived.
 Air Standard Cycles 1/2
• In air standard cycle
– a certain mass of air operates in a complete thermodynamic
cycle
– where the heat is added and rejected using external reservoirs,
and all the processes in the cycle are reversible.

• Summary of assumptions made during such analysis:

– The working fluid, air behaves like an ideal gas (and specific
heats are assumed to be constant)
– Combustion process is replaced by heat addition and exhaust
process by heat rejection
– All the processes are reversible.
 Internal Combustion Engines
• There are two types of reciprocating
engines:
– Spark Ignition
• Otto cycle
– Compression Ignition
• Diesel cycle
 I C Engines Overview
• Air and fuel mixture flows through inlet
valve and exhaust leaves through
exhaust valve
• Converts reciprocating motion to rotary
motion using piston and crank shaft
• TDC: Top Dead Center
– Position of the piston where it forms the
smallest volume
• BDC: Bottom Dead Center
– Position of the piston where it forms the
largest volume
• Stroke: Distance between TDC and
BDC
• Bore: Diameter of the piston (internal
diameter of the cylinder)
 I C Engines Overview
• Clearance volume
– minimum volume formed
• Compression ratio
– ratio of maximum volume to minimum
volume
– VBDC/VTDC
• Engine displacement = (# of cylinders) x
(stroke length) x (bore area)
– (usually given in cc or liters)
• MEP: mean effective pressure
– A const. theoretical pressure that if acts
on piston produces work same as that
during an actual cycle
– Wnet = MEP x Piston area x Stroke
= MEP x displacement volume
 4-Stroke Engine
FUEL
A
I Intake Ignition Exhaust
R valve valve
opens opens
Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

• Cycle consists of four distinct strokes

(processes
– Intake
– Compression stroke
– Power stroke
– Exhaust
 OTTO Cycle
Qin Qout
AIR

Isentropic Const. Isentropic

Compression volume heat Expansion Const. volume
addition heat rejection

• Assumptions for Air standard cycle, as Air-Standard Otto cycle

describe before:
– Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working
fluid Process 1→ 2 Isentropic Compression
– Combustion process replaced by constant Process 2 → 3 Const. volume heat addition
volume heat addition with piston at TDC Process 3 → 4 Isentropic expansion
– Intake and exhaust not considered, cycle
completed with constant volume heat Process 4 → 1 Constant volume heat removal
removal with piston at BDC
– All processes considered internally
reversible
 OTTO Cycle

Indicator diagram of the actual cycle

OTTO, P-v and T-S Diagram
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Qin
Wout
Qin

Wout
Win
Qout
Qout
Win

v2 v1 TDC BDC
TDC BDC
 Compression Ratio
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

From previous definition

V1 V4
Compression ratio rv = =
V2 V3
v1 v4
since fixed mass rv = =
v2 v3
 1→2 Isentropic Compression
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Applying First law

U2-U1 = Q - Win
Q = 0 (since, reversible adiabatic compression)
Win = U2-U1
v2 1 P2 v2 P1v1 P2 T2 v1
= R= =  = .
v1 rv T2 T1 P1 T1 v2
2→3 Constant Vol. Heat Addition
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Applying First law

U3-U2 = +Qin - W
W = 0 (since, it is a constant volume process)
Qin = U3-U2

P2 P3 P3 T3
v= =  =
RT2 RT3 P2 T2
 3→4 Isentropic Expansion
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Applying First law

U4-U3 = Q - Wout
v4
Q = 0 (rev. adiabatic expansion) = rv
Wout = U4-U3 v3
P4 v4 P3v3 P4 T4 v3
=  = .
T2 T3 P3 T3 v4
4→1 Constant Vol. Heat Removal
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Applying First law

U1-U4 = - Qout + W
W = 0 (no piston work)
Qout = U4-U1

P4 P1 P4 T4
v= =  =
RT2 RT1 P1 T1
 Otto Cycle Thermal Efficiency
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

The thermal efficiency is given by

Wnet Wout − Win (U 3 − U 4 ) − (U 2 − U1 )
 cycle = = =
Qin Qin (U 3 − U 2 )
 otto =
(U 3 − U 2 ) − (U 4 − U1 )
= 1−
(U 4 − U1 )
(U 3 − U 2 ) (U 3 − U 2 )
 Otto Cycle Thermal Efficiency
The specific heats are assumed to be constant.
From the previous derivation (handout 9) ,
 −1
T2  v1 
1→ 2 =   = rv −1
T1  v2 
 −1  −1
T4  v3  1
3→4 =   =  
T3  v4   rv 

Here =1.4 at ambient temperature

 Otto Cycle Thermal Efficiency
U =m Cv T , for constant specific heats

(U 4 − U1 ) m Cv (T4 − T1 )
 otto = 1 − = 1−
(U 3 − U 2 ) m Cv (T3 − T2 )
 T4 
T1  − 1
 otto = 1−
(T4 − T1 )
= 1−  T1 
(T3 − T2 )  T3 
T2  − 1
 T2 
T2 T3 T4 T3 T1 1
but rv = = = = otto = 1 − = 1 −  −1
T1 T4 T1 T2 T2 rv
 Thermal Efficiency vs. rv
•For higher efficiency, higher
compression ratios are required, as 100
shown below. 1.4
80 1.667
•However, increase in pressure ratios, 1.3
would increase the air-fuel 60
temperature above the temperature at


40
which the mixture can auto-ignite.
•This would result in ‘engine-knock’, 20

reducing the performance of the 0

engine. 0 5 10 15 20 25
Compression ratio, rv
•In order to avoid such situations,
additives are generally added which
increases the auto-ignition
temperature.
A
4-Stroke CI Engine
Intake Fuel Injector Exhaust
I
valve valve
R
opens opens

Air Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

• Cycle consists of four distinct strokes

(processes) as in the case of SI engines, except
that the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector
– Intake
– Compression stroke
– Power stroke
– Exhaust
A
Combustion in 4-S CI Engine
Intake Fuel Injector Exhaust
I
valve valve
R
opens opens

Air Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

• Here the fuel is injected when the piston

approaches TDC, ie when the air is at
maximum temperature due to compression.
– The combustion process starts now
• The fuel is injected after the piston starts
moving down The volume increases, on the
other hand, the fuel evaporates to fill the
volume. Thus keeping the pressure inside
roughly the same.
• Hence the combustion can be considered
to occur at constant pressure.
 Diesel Cycle
Qin Qout
AIR

Isentropic Const. Isentropic

Compression pressure Expansion Const. volume
heat addition heat rejection

• Assumptions for Air standard cycle, as Air-Standard Otto cycle

describe before:
– Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working
fluid Process 1→ 2 Isentropic Compression
– Combustion process replaced by constant Process 2 → 3 Const. pressure heat addition
pressure heat addition Process 3 → 4 Isentropic expansion
– Intake and exhaust not considered, cycle
completed with constant volume heat Process 4 → 1 Constant volume heat removal
removal with piston at BDC
– All processes considered internally
reversible
Diesel, P-v and T-S diagram
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

(1) → (2) (2) → (3) (3) → (4) (4) → (1)

Qin Qin
Woutn

Wout

Win Win
Qout
Qout

v2 v1
TDC BDC
 Three Volume Ratios
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

From previous definition V1

Compression ratio rv = V3
V2 Cut-off ratio rc =
V4 V2
Expansion ratio re =
V3
 Thermal efficiency
Qin Qout

AIR AIR AIR

TDC AIR

BDC

Exercise: Derive the thermal efficiency of diesel engine.

(Submit before the end of next week)
Note: Use first law and the definitions of thermal efficiency of an engine and
the relationship between volume ratios and their relation to temperature ratios during
Isentropic processes. (Similar to the procedure followed in OTTO cycle)

The efficiency should be:


1 1  rc − 1 
 diesel = 1−  
 rv  rc − 1 
 −1 
 OTTO and Diesel comparison
For given rc higher thermal efficiency is obtained via higher compression
ratio rv and for a given rv higher thermal efficiency is achieved by lowering
the cut-off ratio rc


1 1  rc − 1 
 diesel = 1−  
 rv  rc − 1 
 −1 

However a smaller rc yields less net work per cycle, so to achieve the
same power at lower rc values higher engine speeds are required.
 OTTO and Diesel comparison

1 1  rc − 1  1
 diesel = 1−    otto = 1 −
 rv  rc − 1 
 −1 
rv
 −1


1  rc − 1 
  1
  rc − 1 
For rv >1 value,

Therefore, the efficiency of the diesel cycle is less than that of the otto
cycle for the same compression ration. However, the advantages of Diesel
over petrol engines is that we can operate at higher compression ratios
without auto ignition and fuel is less expensive.
 Gas Turbine Power plants
• Gas turbine power plants are lighter and
compact when compared to power plants
running on vapour cycles. The power to
weight ratios are generally high for high
throughout Gas turbine power plants and
hence are favoured for the aviation and
also for power generation.
Typical Gas Turbine Power Cycle
• A simple GT power plant
is shown in Figure.
– Air is first compressed
– The compressed air enters
the combustion chamber
where fuel is injected and
burned, essentially at
constant pressure
– The combustion products
expand in turbine to the
ambient pressure and
thrown out to the
surroundings.
 Air Standard Brayton Cycle
• Brayton cycle is the air
standard for GT power
plant.
– Air is first compressed
reversibly and adiabatically
– Heat is added to it
reversibly at constant
pressure
– Air expands reversibly,
adiabatically in the turbine
– The heat is removed from
the system reversibly at
constant pressure to bring
it to original state
 Air Standard Brayton Cycle
• Brayton cycle therefore
consists of two isobars
and two reversible
adiabatics (isentropics)
– Air is first compressed
reversibly and adiabatically
– Heat is added to it
reversibly at constant
pressure
– Air expands reversibly,
adiabatically in the turbine
– The heat is removed from
the system reversibly at
constant pressure to bring
it to original state
 P-v & T-S diagram of Ideal
Brayton Cycle
• 1→2 Isentropic compression
• 2→3 Constant pressure heat addition
• 3→4 Isentropic expansion
• 4→1 Constant pressure heat removal

Qin

Qout
 Thermal Efficiency
• The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle is

QC
 = 1−
QH
m C p (T4 − T1 )
 = 1−
m C p (T3 − T2 )

(T4 − T1 )
 = 1−
(T3 − T2 )
 Thermal Efficiency
• Since processes 1-2 & 3-4 are isentropic between the same
pressures :-
 −1
T2  P2   T3  −1
=   = = rp 
T1  P1  T4
P2 P3
Where rv is the pressure ratio =
P1 P4
 −1  −1
T3 = T r
4 p
 and T2 = T r 1 p


 −1
T3 − T2 = (T4 − T1 )r p

1
Hence, substituting in the efficiency expression  = 1−  −1
rp 
This is the efficiency for ideal Joule/Brayton
Cycle.
 Work Ratio
• It may easily be shown from the expression,
m C p (T3 − T4 ) − m C p (T2 − T1 )
Work ratio =
m C p (T3 − T4 )
• & a similar approach to that above, that :-
T1  −1
Work ratio = 1 − rp 
T3
• What we deduce from the above equations above improvements that
we might make?
•  is increased by :-
– increasing T3
– decreasing T4 or
– increasing the pressure ratio
• We also know that a high work ratio is desirable in order to minimize
the effect of irreversibilities in real gas turbines. This depends on the
temperature limits and the pressure ratio for constant gamma.
 Work Ratio
• Consider the T-S diagram for the ideal
cycle & the dotted cycles. T3 is usually fixed
by metallurgical limits on turbine blading &
T1 is the natural sink temperature for an
ideal cooler.
• The two dotted cycles show the limits of
operation. Consider left hand dotted cycle.
• Here the pressure ratio is large & the cycle
efficiency approaches the Carnot Efficiency
ie T2 has been raised.
• Unfortunately the net work output is
approaching zero.
• The other dotted cycle has a reduced T2 &
again net work output is approaching zero.
• It can be shown that for an ideal cycle with
fixed T1 and T3, the value of T2 for
maximum work output is
T2 = T1T3
Irreversibilities and Isentropic
Efficiencies
• We shall only consider the effect of irreversibilities upon
compression and expansion processes. Irreversibilities
in heaters and coolers who up as pressure drops and
are not considered here.

• The two T-S diagrams, show the effect on compression

and expansion processes in general from state 1 to state
2. These are analogous to the similar diagrams for the
Rankine cycle except that they are processes of a
perfect gas. Then for the steady flow compression
process:-
Irreversibilities and Isentropic
Efficiencies

• For the steady flow compression process:

ideal work m (h2 − h1 ) m C p (T2 − T1 ) (T2 − T1 )
 isen = = = =
actual work m (h2 − h1 ) m C p (T2 − T1 ) (T2 − T1 )
• For the steady flow expansion process:
actual work m (h1 − h2 ) m C p (T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
 isen = = = =
ideal work m (h1 − h2 ) m C p (T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
• Note that Celsius temperatures may also be used in these expressions.