2 Seismic Regions of the World

What is an earthquake? It is not a bunch of wiggles on a sheet of paper, at least not to the
person involved in it. To him it is the most terrifying of experiences, in which the earth
ceases to be the solid foundation that instinct, bred of generations of experience, has led him
to expect, so that he becomes unable to trust his own senses. It is an experience which may
leave him homeless, take away his loved ones, destroy his economy. It is a terror which has
led the Roman Catholic Church to include in its Litany: From the scourge of the earthquake,
O Lord, deliver us.
John H. Hodgson, 1965

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes do not occur in all geographical locations around the world. Rather, they take place
within certain limited areas. Fortunately, earthquakes have been recorded instrumentally since
the beginning of the twentieth century at a large number of seismographic stations distributed
throughout the world (see Box 2.1). Therefore, it is now possible to know where and when earth-
quakes have occurred in the past, how large they have been, and where in the world earthquakes
are likely to occur again. The description of the time, location, size, and frequency of the earth-
quakes that have occurred in a region is referred to as the description of the seismicity of the
region. Conventionally, this seismicity is portrayed in the form of seismicity maps. Seismicity maps
show the geographical location where earthquakes have occurred during a specified time inter-
val and describe the intensity of these earthquakes by means of circles or dots of different sizes.
A seismicity map may describe the geographic distribution of earthquakes around the world, a
country, or a specific region. Seismicity maps, the cooperative work of hundreds of seismologists
throughout many years, have contributed in a fundamental way to define the seismicity of the earth
and are nowadays an essential tool for the planners, geologists, engineers, and government officials
involved in earthquake mitigation activities. Seismicity maps have also played a major role in the
evolution of the plate tectonic theory described in Chapter 3.

Box 2.1 The Global Seismographic Network

The U.S. Geological Survey operates in cooperation with a consortium of more than
90 universities, an international network of seismographic stations named the Global
Seismographic Network (GSN). This network, designed to obtain high quality data in digital
form and be able to access these data by computer via the World Wide Web, monitors and
records earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and nuclear explosions throughout the world. The
network is composed of 128 stations located in more than 80 countries in all continents. The
map in Figure B2.1 shows the location of these stations.
The growth of the international network of seismographic stations has been somewhat
haphazard. It started in 1898 when the British Association for the Advancement of Science
recommended the deployment of a uniform network of stations distributed throughout the

29
30 Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering

ALE KBS
KEV LVZ
SFJD TIXI BILL
COLA KONO NRIL
BORG YAK
MA2
FFC ESK OBN ARU BRVK
ADK KDAK DPC KURK TLY HIA PET
BFO GRFO KIEV MAKZ ULN MDJ YSS
COR RSSD KIV AAK WMO
CCM HRV ERM
CMB CMLA PAB ANTO GNI BJT INON
WCI SSPA MAJO
PAS ANMO WVT ABKT NIL XAN
BBSR SSF
PFO TUC DWPF LSA
MIDW H2O HKT MACI RAYN ENH
SLBS UAE KMI TATO
KIP POHA TEIC WAKE
JG CHTO QIZ
SACV KOWA GUMO
JOHN
JTS SDV DBIC FURI KWAJ
BGCA DAV
XMAS PALK TARA
MBAR BTDF
KANT PAYG MSKU KMBO MSEY
OTAV PTGA FUNA
RCBR ASCN KAPI
SAML HNR
AFI NNA DGAR PMG
LPAZ BDFB SHEL LSZ COCO
ABPO MSVF
RAR TSUS MBWA CTAO
LVC WRAB
PTCN CPUP LBTB
RPN LCO BOSA
RAO
SUR NWAO
TRQA TRIS
PLCA SNZO
TAU
EFI

PMSA HOPE CASY

VNDA SBA
QSPA

FIGURE B2.1 Global Seismographic Network. (After National Earthquake Information Center, U.S.
Geological Survey.)

world. The instruments used were those designed by John Milne, a British seismologist who
had worked for many years in Japan, and were operated by observatories throughout the
British Empire. Soon after, many other national and regional groups of stations began to be
set up. However, the setup of these stations was without coordination and with no uniformity
in the type of instruments used. The resulting network was nearly chaotic. The records com-
ing from this network were often difficult and sometimes impossible to compare.
By 1964, the World Wide Standardized Seismographic Station Network (WWSSN) was
set up. This network was initiated as a result of a ban on the testing of nuclear weapons and
the need to discriminate between explosions and earthquakes at great distances as a means to
enforce this ban. A standard package of six seismographs controlled by precise chronometers
that could be calibrated by radio signals was distributed to 120 stations in six nations around
the globe. This network made possible a rapid assessment of the global characteristics of sig-
nificant earthquakes for the first time. It greatly improved the quality, coverage, and quantity
of the earthquake data recorded at seismographic stations.
The WWSSN has now been replaced by the state-of-the-art GSN. As noted earlier,
this upgrade significantly improves the earthquake reporting and research capabilities of
seismologists and earthquake specialists all over the world.

2.2 WORLD SEISMICITY

Figure 2.1 shows the distribution of earthquakes around the globe in the period between 1963 and
1988. It may be seen from this map that the world’s areas of high seismicity are

1. A zone that extends from the Aleutian Islands through Alaska; the Pacific side of Canada,
the United States, and Mexico; Central America; the Pacific side of Colombia, Ecuador,
and Peru all the way down to Chile
2. A zone that goes from the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia; through the Kuril Islands,
Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines; to New Guinea, Indonesia, and New Zealand
3. An east–west trans-Asiatic zone running from Burma through the Himalayan Mountains
and the Middle East to the Caucasus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea
Seismic Regions of the World 31

30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W

60°N 60°N

30°N 30°N

0° 0°

30°S 30°S

60°S 60°S

30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W

FIGURE 2.1 Seismicity of the earth between 1963 and 1988. (After National Earthquake Information
Center, U.S. Geological Survey.)

Anchorage

Madrid San Francisco

Tehran Tokyo
Atlantic Ocean

Bangkok Manila

Pacific Ocean Lima

Indian Ocean

FIGURE 2.2 Seismic belts of the world. (After Hansen, W.R. and Eckel, E.B. in A Summary Description of
the Alaska Earthquake—Its Settings and Effects, Professional Paper No. 541, U.S. Geological Survey, 1966.)

4. A zone that follows the submarine Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which extends along the full length
of the Atlantic Ocean and appearing above the surface in Iceland, the Azores Island, and
Tristan da Cunhan

The first two zones constitute what is known as the circum-Pacific seismic belt or the Ring of Fire
(see Figure 2.2). Approximately 80% of the world’s largest earthquakes take place in this belt. The third
one is called the Eurasian or Alpine–Himalayan Belt. Although it only accounts for ∼17% of the world’s
largest earthquakes, some of the most destructive earthquakes have occurred in that belt. Earthquakes
32 Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering

120°W 110°W 100°W 90°W 80°W 70°W

50°N 50°N

40°N 40°N

30°N 30°N

120°W 110°W 100°W 90°N 80°N 70°N

FIGURE 2.3 Location of damaging earthquakes in the United States between 1750 and 1996. (After National
Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.)

along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are obviously not destructive, but they are important because they suggest
a correlation between the occurrence of earthquakes there and the existence of the ridge.
It may also be seen from Figure 2.1 that many areas of the world are almost free from earth-
quakes. Notable examples are the eastern part of South America, the central and northern regions of
Canada, much of Siberia, West Africa, and large parts of Australia. Northern Europe is, for the most
part, not seismically active, although destructive earthquakes have occurred in Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, the North Sea region, and Scandinavia.

2.3 SEISMICITY OF UNITED STATES

The seismicity of the United States is depicted in Figure 2.3. As shown in this figure, earthquakes
have occurred virtually in all 50 states. The areas of high seismicity include

1. The states of California, Nevada, and Washington

2. The states of Utah, Idaho, and Montana
3. The northern part of New York State
4. The states of Missouri (New Madrid area) and South Carolina
5. Alaska, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii

California and Alaska are the states that have had the largest number of earthquakes. Florida
and North Dakota are the states with the smallest number. Historically, California is the state that
has suffered the most damaging earthquakes, although damaging shocks have also occurred in
Alaska; New Madrid, Missouri; and Charleston, South Carolina.

2.4 EARTHQUAKE STATISTICS

A few statistics can give the uninitiated a good perspective of the overall frequency of earthquake
occurrence, the frequency of large magnitude earthquakes, and where such large earthquakes occur.
For this purpose, some statistical data concerning the worldwide and the U.S. earthquakes are presented
in this section.
Seismic Regions of the World 33

2.4.1 WORLDWIDE EARTHQUAKES

Table 2.1 summarizes, based on the observations since 1900, the average frequency with which
earthquakes occur every year around the world. As it may be seen from this table, the earth is in a
constant state of seismic activity. As expected, large earthquakes are not as frequent as small ones,
but still great and major earthquakes occur with a frequency that is worrisome. Fortunately, great and
major earthquakes do not always take place in populated areas, so they are not always catastrophic.
The location, dates of occurrence, and magnitudes of the largest earthquakes that have occurred
in the world since 1900 are shown in Table 2.2. A comprehensive list of the most significant
earthquakes in the world throughout historical times is presented in Appendix A.

TABLE 2.1
Frequency of Occurrence of Worldwide Earthquakes Based
on Observations Since 1900
Category Magnitudea Number of Earthquakes/Year

Great 8 and higher 1

Major 7–7.9 18
Strong 6–6.9 120
Moderate 5–5.9 800
Light 4–4.9 6,200
Minor 3–3.9 49,000
Very minor 2–3 365,000
Barely perceptible 1–2 17,885,000
a
Magnitude, defined formally in Chapter 5, is a measure of an earthquake’s
strength. Earthquakes are considered small if they have a magnitude of <4,
moderate if they have a magnitude between 4 and 6, strong if they have a
magnitude between 6 and 7.5, and very strong if they have a magnitude >7.5.

Source: National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

TABLE 2.2
Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900
Number Location Date Magnitude

1 Chile May 22, 1960 9.5

2 Prince William Sound, Alaska March 28, 1964 9.2
3 Northern Sumatra, Indonesia December 26, 2004 9.1
4 Kamchatka, Russia November 4, 1952 9.0
5 Off Ecuador Coast January 31, 1906 8.8
6 Rat Islands, Alaska February 4, 1965 8.7
7 Northern Sumatra, Indonesia March 28, 2005 8.6
8 Andreanof Islands, Alaska March 9, 1957 8.6
9 Assam–Tibet August 15, 1950 8.6
10 Kuril Islands, Russia October 13, 1963 8.5
11 Banda Sea, Indonesia February 1, 1938 8.5
12 Kamchatka, Russia February 3, 1923 8.5

Source: National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

34 Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering

TABLE 2.3
Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes in the United States Based on
Observations Since 1900
Number of Earthquakes
Category Magnitude Western States Eastern States Alaska Hawaii

Great 8 and higher 1 0 7 0

Major 7–7.9 18 0 84 1
Strong 6–6.9 129 1 411 15
Moderate 5–5.9 611 41 1886 36
Light 4–4.9 3171 335 8362 315
Source: National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

TABLE 2.4
Largest Earthquakes in the United States
Number Magnitude Date (UTC) Location

1 9.2 March 28, 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska

2 9.0 January 26, 1700 Cascadia Subduction Zone
3 8.7 February 4, 1965 Rat Islands, Alaska
4 8.6 March 9, 1957 Andreanof Islands, Alaska
5 8.2 November 10, 1938 East of Shumagin Islands, Alaska
6 8.1 April 14, 1946 Unimak Islands, Alaska
7 8.1 December 16, 1811 New Madrid, Missouri
8 8.0 September 10, 1899 Yakuta Bay, Alaska
9 8.0 February 7, 1812 New Madrid, Missouri
10 7.9 November 3, 2002 Denali Fault, Alaska
11 7.9 November 30, 1987 Gulf of Alaska
12 7.9 May 7, 1986 Andreanof Islands, Alaska
13 7.9 September 4, 1899 Near Cape Yakataga, Alaska
14 7.9 April 3, 1868 Ka’u District, Island of Hawaii
15 7.9 January 9, 1857 Fort Tejon, California
16 7.9 November 17, 2003 Rat Islands, Alaska
17 7.8 June 10, 1996 Andreanof Islands, Alaska
18 7.8 April 18, 1906 San Francisco, California
19 7.8 February 24, 1892 Imperial Valley, California
20 7.8 January 23, 1812 New Madrid, Missouri

Source: National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

2.4.2 U.S. EARTHQUAKES

In the United States, the frequency of earthquake occurrence, based on the observations since 1900,
is shown in Table 2.3. The geographical region, dates of occurrence, and magnitudes of the largest
earthquakes in record are listed in Tables 2.4 and 2.5.

2.5 ON-LINE SEISMICITY INFORMATION

The National Earthquake Information Center of the U.S. Geological Survey maintains a Web site
with current and historical information about the occurrence of earthquakes and their location. This
information includes a near-real time list of the last 21 earthquakes anywhere in the world, useful
Seismic Regions of the World 35

TABLE 2.5
Largest Earthquakes in the Contiguous United States
Number Magnitude Date Location

1 9.0 January 26, 1700 Cascadia Subduction Zone

2 8.1 December 16, 1811 New Madrid, Missouri
3 8.0 February 7, 1812 New Madrid, Missouri
4 7.9 January 9, 1857 Fort Tejon, California
5 7.8 April 18, 1906 San Francisco, California
6 7.8 February 24, 1892 Imperial Valley, California
7 7.8 January 23, 1812 New Madrid, Missouri
8 7.6 March 26, 1872 Owens Valley, California
9 7.3 June 28, 1992 Landers, California
10 7.3 August 18, 1959 Hebgen Lake, Montana
11 7.3 June 21, 1952 Kern County, California
12 7.3 January 31, 1922 Eureka, California
13 7.3 September 1, 1886 Charleston, South Carolina
14 7.3 November 23, 1873 California–Oregon Coast
15 7.3 December 15, 1872 North Cascades, Washington

Source: National Earthquake Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey.

seismological and statistical data, and seismicity maps of the world, the United States, and several
other regions. For example, regional seismicity maps are available for Africa, Alaska, Australia and
Indonesia, Canada, Central America, Central Asia, Central Pacific Ocean, Europe, Indian Ocean,
Japan and Kuril Islands, Middle East, North Atlantic Ocean, North Pole, Pacific Rim, South Amer-
ica, South Atlantic Ocean, and South Pole. Interested readers may access this site at the address:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/

FURTHER READINGS
1. Bolt, B. A., Earthquakes, 5th Edition, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 2004, 378 p.
2. Hu, Y. X., Liu, S. C., and Dong, W., Earthquake Engineering, E & FN Spon, London, 1996, 410 p.
3. Lay, T. and Wallace, T. C., Modern Global Seismology, Academic Press, San Diego, 1995, 521 p.
4. Lomnitz, C., Global Tectonics and Earthquake Risk, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.,
New York, 1974, 320 p.
5. Richter, C. F., Elementary Seismology, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA, 1958, 768 p.