8 Kwon - Made - in - Korea

13
Korean Pop Music and Korean

Identities
A Political-Cultural History of Korean Pop
Music and Its Use of Traditional Korean
Musical Elements
Hyunseok Kwon
As with other Asian pop music, it is not difficult to grasp the impact of Westernization on the
musical structure of Korean pop music. However, when we extend the category of Korean pop
music to include music created or re-arranged for purposes beyond capitalist logic, we can easily
observe movements within the Korean popular music scene that oppose Westernization. Namely,
musicians generate new works for the public by using traditional Korean musical elements.
Consequently, Korean pop music uses a mix of Western (or non-Korean) elements and traditional
Korean elements. This fact naturally turns our attention to the artists’ motivation, thereby raising
a central research question. How is Korean pop music specifically associated with Korean
identities? This chapter aims to understand the relationship between Korean pop music and
Korean identity by studying the political-cultural history of Korean pop music that uses elements
of traditional music.
The 1930s–1960s: Sinminyo and its Thread of Life

The historical origin of traditionally influenced popular music can be traced back to the 1930s,
a period during the latter part of Japan’s occupation of Korea (1910–1945). As Korea moved
Copyright © 2016. Taylor and Francis. All rights reserved.
into the 1930s, Japanese political control became stricter; Japan’s imperialistic political power
even appeared within its education system through said system’s music culture. This culture
was maintained in elementary schools in Korea through the Japanese shōka—Japanese-style
Western music for children. This type of music was mainly taught so that it could act as a
medium for transmitting Japanese imperialism to Korea, as the Japanese music education policy
came directly from Japanese authorities. In other words, Korean-language music was not allowed,
and thus, Korean traditional music and Korean composers’ pieces could not help but become
culturally irrelevant (Song 2007, 647).
In this situation of outlawing Korean music, it is not surprising that patriotic popular music
culture developed outside of the education system. This culture developed as follows: first, it
was formed nationwide, particularly amongst young leading intellectuals in literature and arts,
starting from the 1920s to 1945 (which is the year of liberation). Second, it adopted two sub-
Made in Korea : Studies in Popular Music, edited by Hyunjoon Shin, and Seung-Ah Lee, Taylor and Francis, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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158 • Hyunseok Kwon
genres of Korean pop music that were established by these patriotic sentiments: trot and sinminyo
(new folk songs). Third, these two genres recreated the identity of the (Korean) people by
arousing nationalistic sentiments, mainly through their lyrics. Fourth, patriotic popular music
culture sustained itself amongst the people.
Given this context, what happened in the 1930s musically? Trot emerged in the 1920s
under the great effects of a colonizing Japan; it was created with respect to certain Japanese
styles. Partly against the emergence of this genre, another pop genre—with the addition of
traditional Korean musical elements—appeared in the 1930s named sinminyo. Unlike exist-
ing folk songs formed in oral tradition, “new folk songs” were created by composers, whose
skill allowed them to make songs using a mix of Western and traditional elements; mean-
while, musicians made their own rearrangement of existing folk songs. Interestingly, the legacy
of “new folk songs” has left much room for discussion. A majority opinion finds it to be a
backward step in folk music (as for postcolonial musical hybridity, see Yi So-yŏng 2007). However,
if we consider that the political-cultural context of that time period called for the exclusion of
traditional Korean music, we may need to excuse the musical inadequacies of “new folk songs”
and attach significance to the fact that the genre contains traditional musical elements.
To some extent, many pieces of “new folk songs” contributed, along with trot, to the
reproduction of the identity of the Korean people; such sentiment was created mainly through
the quality of these songs’ lyrics. The themes of “new folk songs” can be, at their simplest,
divided into categories of sorrowful or romantic. Yet, as in trot, the purpose of their lyrics
was to provide their audience with ways to either forget reality or to feel consolation. At the
same time—as exhibited in the song “Pommaji” (Greeting Spring 1934) and the poems written
in that period—the terms “winter” and “spring” were used very symbolically; “winter” indicates
occupation while “spring” means liberation (Kim Chi-p’yŏng 2000, 91). Unlike trot, the melodies
of new folk songs, however, use pentatonic scales and often include a compound rhythm such
as 9/8 or 12/8 (Maliangkay 2002, 1478), which are traits that are easily found in Korean traditional
music. In this sense, even if the term minyo appears earlier in Japan, we can say the genre of
“new folk songs” is “the first native popular music” of Korea (Finchum-sung 2002, 11).
However, over the span of two decades after 1945, there was little space for “new folk songs”
to continue prospering. American pop culture diffused through several channels and came to
Korea. Its appearance in Korea impacted the country, and American-style popular music prevailed
in Korea. During these decades, it is difficult to say that a Korean popular music culture existed
with the purpose of informing the identity of the Korean people. In that kind of environment,
“new folk songs” could only be found as a commercial pop genre sung by certain professional
singers, despite the support of the media.1
The 1970s–1980s: Kugak Kayo and Ch’ŏngnyŏn Munhwa

The 1970s witnessed again that young intellectuals utilize tradition in new works, if those works
are created in consideration of the people. These young intellectuals’ musical attempts were
closely associated with the political-cultural condition of the 1970s, and partly that of the 1980s.
Politically, the authoritarian Park Chung Hee regime (1961–1979) served as a stimulus to the
formation of the two cultures in different camps (that sometimes overlapped). The first is
ch’ŏngnyŏn munhwa (youth culture), or a Western-style “youth culture.” The authoritarian
regime led young intellectuals to hold a skeptical view of the older generation. Thus, in some
ways it required them to produce a “youth culture” that would differentiate them from this
Pop Music and Identities • 159
older generation. The 1960s American-style popular music culture especially stimulated this
emergence of a Korean “youth culture.” Young people needed a new musical medium as an
outlet for their expression, which was the identity of youth that could not be found in the
previous culture of the older generation.
As a consequence, these young intellectuals produced their own culture by creating an identity
through Western pop culture in a way that starkly distinguished them from the older generation.
In addition to pop culture, this younger generation used a musical outlet called p’ok’ŭsong (folk
song), a style of singing with acoustic guitar. This genre played such a pivotal role in developing
youth culture that it has a wide range of repertories, including some pieces with traditional
elements. These works are divided into two: songs created based on folk music’s elements; and
songs for which existing folk songs were rearranged. As for the former, an example is Kim Min-
ki’s “Kohyang kanŭn kil” (Road to Hometown 1993) based on a pentatonic scale. In addition
to this song, we can also take Yang Pyŏng-chip’s “T’abongne” (A Blessed Woman 1974), based
on a folk song of the same title from the eastern Kangwŏn Province; Yi Yŏn-sil’s “Kohyang
kkum” (Dream of Hometown 1982), which is said to derive from a song of the Independence
Army; and Sŏ Yu-sŏk’s “Chinju nanggun” (Chinju Hubby 1972), a narrative folk song from
Chinju city, as examples.
A question arises as to how these songs emerged within youth culture. These intellectuals’
youth culture developed along with them as they created this new identity, but it did so based
upon influences from Western popular culture, namely, through the genre of p’ok’ŭsong.
Accordingly, youth culture offered some musicians the opportunity to re-consider what the
identity of the youth should look like under the authoritarian regime. Such a creative cycle
strengthened the identity of these people who aspired for a grassroots democracy, and thereby
left them to develop tangible expressions as to what such an identity entailed; as a result, they
came to make music pieces, using folk music’s elements of cultural roots, in order to sing to
self-accompaniments on the acoustic guitar.
Minjung Munhwa (The People’s Culture)

In the meantime, minjung munhwa (the people’s culture) emerged as a protest-culture against
Park Chung Hee’s regime amongst college students in a different camp (and also included
intellectuals and laborers). Park’s regime was followed by that of Chun Doo Hwan (1980–1988),
which he established in December 1979 through a military coup. During the regime of Chun,
the people’s culture was especially strengthened when people participated in the democratic
movement, which led to the June 29th proclamation for democratic reform in 1987. Culturally,
the people’s culture unfolded as an alternative to Western-style “youth culture” and Western-
style pop culture from the 1970s to the 1980s, seeking Korean values instead.
The people’s culture arose primarily amongst college students, college clubs, and student
associations in the 1970s. It spread all over the country in three subcultural movements based
on university campuses. The main representative was the madang kŭk theatrical movement.
Madang kŭk refers to a genre of (outdoor) dramas based on traditional folk arts such as t’al
ch’um (masked dances), p’ungmul (music of traditional local percussion bands), minyo (folk
songs), and p’ansori (epic storytelling through song). It appeared as a new way of protest-
culture, and later developed as an alternative movement for the popularization of traditional
folk arts.
Within this alternative theatrical movement, new attempts to use tradition were made. That
outcome is clear in the music accompanying the drama Hanne ŭi sŭngch’ŏn (The Life of Hanne
1976), including “Sarangga” (Love Song) composed by Kim Yŏng-tong. This is a slow popular
song that uses traditional elements such as the kutkŏri rhythmic cycle (12/8), the taegŭm (traverse
bamboo flute), and the changgo (hourglass-shaped drum). This song’s style grew to become
what is called kugak kayo in the 1980s. Kugak refers to Korean traditional music, and kayo
refers to popular song. Hence, the genre means a contemporary genre of pop that uses a mix
of Western and traditional Korean elements. Kugak kayo occupies a significant role in the
contemporary history of popular music using traditional elements, especially because of its status
as the first sub-genre. Kim Yŏng-tong’s songs within the theatrical movement helped kugak
kayo develop alongside the songs of the “youth culture.” From the mid-1980s, the ensemble
Sŭlgidung began building the foundation of the genre of kugak kayo through their performances
and recordings (see Howard 2006, 185–187).
Figure 13.1 Kim Young-tong chakkokchip [Kim Young Dong Works Collection] (SRB, SRB-0079, 1982).
The 1990s to the Present: The Music Culture of Citizens and Various
Experiments
During the final period of the military regime of Chun Doo Hwan, popular music (that used
traditional elements) entered a new political phase. The period began with the June 29
proclamation for democratization in 1987, marking a turning point for the Korean people.
In 1987, a new political culture unfolded throughout the nation for two purposes: the first was
to realize democratization; the second purpose was to promote the popularization of traditional
folk arts. The ultimate aim of these two objectives was to reclaim a new and more relevant
identity as a Korean citizen, and to also establish a new culture for these developing citizens by
incorporating folk traditions into that process. Yet, when the historical proclamation was made
in 1987, the Korean people had the opportunity to achieve the ultimate goal: to redefine their
citizenry and their nationalism. Accordingly, the people’s music culture started to be substituted
by the music culture of the citizens who sought out that goal.
Within this collective culture for citizens, prominent cultural producers motivated the identity
of the citizens that underpinned it. Here, we can reach a fuller understanding of the identity of
the citizens, by comparison with that of the people. While both identities share similar values,
the identity of the citizens has newly-found individuality alongside its populist sentiments.
Relevant producers shared these sentiments in their cultural environment, in which—while
populist feeling was inherited—freedom of expression was extended. With this new identity,
they were able to produce various sub-genres of popular music using traditional elements, which
formed a striking contrast to the mainstream of so-called K-pop music culture.
To be more specific, the period from the 1990s to the early years of the new century witnessed
two changes. First, the motive for music ranged between new individuality and the collective
people’s identity. Second, while there were experienced musicians who worked mainly on
commercial music, there were also rising young kugak musicians who attempted to fuse traditional
and non-traditional elements. Following from these changes, sub-genres of traditionally-
influenced popular music were formed, in which rising young kugak musicians were supported
by the media (Hyŏn 2011, 1073–1075), arts management companies, and governments.2
Amongst the many groups and musicians whose works became popular from the 1990s
onward, I will look at six cases in detail. These groups not only attempted to create new styles,
but they also put in much effort to arouse people’s interest in kugak. They realized this goal
through the use of their own creative or re-arranged styles. These styles can be divided into
vocal and instrumental music, according to whether the artist’s main style of expression is voice
or instruments. Furthermore, instrumental music can be divided into four categories (according
to the instrumental focus): percussion music; string music; orchestral style; and music with an
emphasis on instrumental timbres. Using these categories, I will analyze musicians or ensembles
under their respective categories in chronological order.
Kim Yong-u
Kim Yong-u (b. 1969) is a well-known singer of updated folk songs. He has contributed greatly
to the diffusion of folk song into the public music scene, by way of numerous concerts and
multiple albums (1996, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2011). His music keeps a balance
between thematically incorporating populist sentiments and maintaining his stylistic preferences
as a singer. To appeal to the public, Kim rearranges folk songs and sings in a folk song style,
and uses an accompaniment of Western instruments and the changgo drum. However, Kim
does not create new music based on folk songs. In his album, Ani noji nŭn mot’arira (You
Can’t Stop Having Fun 2009), “Ch’angbu t’aryŏng,” a well-known folk song from the central
Kyŏnggi Province, and the first track, “Arirang yŏn’gok” (Arirang Suite), reflect his fundamental
ideas in how to approach music. Arirang refers to the numerous folk songs that include the
word arirang (which is ubiquitous in Korea). Kim selected five arirang from three regions:
central, eastern, and southwestern Korea. He sings these songs with a rearrangement, and is
accompanied by piano, double bass, drum, the changgo drum, the haegŭm fiddle, and backing
vocalists.3
Kim Su-ch’ŏl
Kim Su-ch’ŏl (b. 1957) is an electric guitarist and rock musician who was popular for about
two decades, starting from the beginning of the 1980s. Having composed traditionally-influenced
music for international sports events, such as the 1986 Asian Games in Seoul and the 1988
Seoul Olympics, Kim is one of the most important contemporary Korean composers in popular
music who use traditional elements (see Chang 2010; Howard 2006, 177–179; as for Kim’s
“Guitar sanjo” Eun-Young Jung 2010, 98–101). His musical works can be divided into vocal
and instrumental categories, and his most representative work is “Guitar sanjo” (2002). Sanjo
is a prominent folk-art genre for solo melodic instruments, including the kayagum zither and
the taegŭm flute, and accompanied by the changgo drum; its structure is based on constantly
developing movement. Thus, “Guitar sanjo” is a version of sanjo for electric guitar.4
“Guitar sanjo” was pioneered by Kim Su-ch’ŏl. This genre reflects two concepts: the first
concept is the co-existing identities of a rock musician and “Korean” pop musician. In Kim’s
music, we find both elements of sanjo and rock moments in his “Guitar sanjo.” This is mostly
because melody develops gradually to a climax, following a rhythmic cycle akin to that of
conventional sanjo. However, while at the climax, the music is played in the manner of rock,
with fast strumming techniques for the electric guitar. The second concept of this genre is his
consideration of generating mass appeal. Guitar sanjo differs from traditional sanjo, especially
in terms of length. Kim deliberately shortened sanjo from pieces that usually take between ten
minutes to an hour into pieces lasting only two to four minutes.
Sagye
The kayagŭm ensemble Sagye (Four Seasons) consists of graduates from Seoul National
University. They play modernized versions of the traditional twelve-stringed kayagŭm zither,
with instruments that have an expanded number of strings (some with as large a string
count as 17, 21, 22, and 25). These new versions of the zither add lower tones to a twenty-
two-string version, along with the traditional instrument. Their work focuses heavily on
uniqueness and individuality, in that their style has supposedly been unprecedented. Their
repertoire consists mainly of rearrangements of well-known European classic or Western popular
music—for instance, Vivaldi’s “Four Seasons” or Astor Piazolla’s “Oblivion.” Sagye performs
their repertoire wearing stylish and fashionable dress rather than traditional Korean costumes.
When making a debut, they were promoted as popular stars by a label (Howard 2002, 972).
Sagye has gained much popularity, and their repertoire has come to form a name for itself
called kugak fusion.5
Figure 13.2 Guitar sanjo by Kim Su-ch’ŏl (LSP, LSP 8809049245234, 2002).
Kongmyŏng
The percussion group, Kongmyŏng (Echo), is composed of four graduates from Ch’ugye
University for the Arts. Because this group uses a variety of percussion instruments rather
than just the four percussion instruments used by bands of the past—kkwaenggwari and ching
gongs, changgo and puk drums, respectively—they have been able to produce new pieces in col-
laboration with indie bands, while also expanding their stage act to incorporate dance, music,
and drama. This group has contributed to the formation of fusion batteries of percussion, along
with the first contemporary percussion quartet, SamulNori, and many second-generation
samullori groups.
Wŏn Il
Wŏn Il (b. 1967) is currently a professor of composition at the Korean National University of
Arts. From 2012 onward, he has been a director of the National Orchestra of Korea, which
resides in the National Theatre. He has composed many pieces that utilize a variety of traditional
rhythms, and often works in orchestral arrangements for his groups—the now-disbanded P’uri
and his main ensemble Baramgot—as well as for films: Kkonnip (A Petal 1996), Asura (1997),
Arŭmdaun sijŏl (Spring in My Hometown 1998) and Yi Chaesu ŭi nan (The Insurgence 1999).
His most representative piece is “Sin paennorae” (New Fishing Songs 1996), an orchestral
piece that was composed based on a fishing song from the central Kyŏnggi Province. This piece
shows his extended musical creativity as well as his surviving populist sentiments. Thus, this
piece has been well received, not only because it adopted a melody familiar to citizens, but
because it also used percussion in impressive ways (Howard 2006, 187). Overall, this piece—
set within the rhythmic cycle kutkŏri (12/8)—includes an evolution of a cadenza based on the
samullori piece “Samdo sŏl changgo” (which was originally for four changgo drums) before
the last refrain is played. Through “Sin paennorae”, he has contributed to the subsequent
establishment of orchestral repertoires becoming a subgenre of popular music using traditional
elements. The subgenre has since been used by Yang Pang-ŏn, a composer and second-generation
Korean resident of Japan, and Yi Chi-su, a promising young composer who has actively produced
pieces of music for Korean film, drama, and musical.
Jambinai
Within the genre of popular music using traditional elements, Jambinai is one of the younger
groups that have been attracting attention. The ensemble consists of three graduates from the
Korean National University of Arts. It includes one performer on one Western (rock) instrument
and three traditional instruments—electric guitar, the p’iri oboe, the t’aepyŏngso shawm, and
the saenghwang mouth organ, respectively; one performer on one traditional string instrument—
the haegŭm fiddle; and one performer on traditional string and percussion instruments—the
kŏmun’go zither and the chŏngju hand-held metal bell. Jambinai was organized and established
in 2010, and—through the Indie Kugak Festival, which is a project supported by the Ministry
of Culture—they have obtained important exposure and opportunities to introduce their music
to the public. Since then, Jambinai has extended the scope of their musical activities to Europe
and Australia. They have received a favorable response internationally: they have been selected
for showcase in WOMEX 2013 in Cardiff, UK, and the International Day Stage by SXSW 2014
in Texas, U.S.A.
The musical style Jambinai has created for themselves reminds their audience of a post-rock
sound. Post-rock uses rock instrumentation without vocals, and it features a unique sound
quality made through an electric guitar using unconventional rhythms. With their experimental
spirit, Jambinai has produced creative works with an air of post-rock that do not use functional
chords. By doing so, they have extended the range of kugak rock, a sub-genre using a combination
of rock and traditional elements, in a pioneering fashion. For instance, in the first track “Time
of Extinction” from their first regular album, Différance (2012), they generate a unique sound
effect on the electric guitar through the use of the haegŭm fiddle, which shows the potential of
using traditional instruments for post-rock fusion. Additionally, Jambinai has occasionally
expressed populist solidarity: for example, they performed a creative elegy for the Sewol victims
in the 2014 Seoul Jazz Festival.6
Figure 13.3 Différance by Jambinai (GMC/Sony Music, S90411C, 2012).

Conclusion
This chapter has so far explored the political-cultural historical context of Korean pop music
utilizing the traditional elements, to elucidate the association between Korean pop music and
Korean identities. The construction of a recreated Korean identity was developed amongst young
intellectuals in response to their political-cultural conditions. Between 1920 and 1945, the identity
of these people was formed in opposition to Japanese authority; in between the 1970s and the
1980s, the identity of the people was formed against the authoritarian regime; and from around
1987, the identity of citizens was formed in support of the democratic system. Based on these
identities, young intellectuals have produced sub-genres of “Korean” pop music as an alternative
to the Western-style popular music cultures existing within Korea. In the 1930s, sinminyo, “new
folk songs” appeared as a genre that was distinct—in terms of musical components—from trot.
From the mid-1970s, kugak kayo, a contemporary song genre, was conceived and established,
mainly as an alternative to Western-style “youth culture.” From 1987 around to the present, a
variety of sub-genres or general musical experimentation has appeared, making an obvious
contrast to the style of today’s popular music consumed within the Korean Wave. Popular music
using traditional elements is currently located outside the mainstream of Korean pop music.
However, this type of music is noteworthy, in that it may provide an “ontological value of
existence” (relating to globalization, after Kim Ki-jung 2002, 247) for Koreans in a globalized
world. Thus, many musicians have actively worked on “Korean” pop music, often with the
support of the media and government, and it is this search for a Korean identity that has driven
these artists in their work.
Notes
1 We can take the case of the private radio station DBS (Donga Broadcasting Station) as an example. DBS played
an active role in promoting music related to Korean tradition through a campaign that was called “Nillili” along
with the government-run KBS (Korean Broadcasting System). In order to arrange existing folksongs in a new
way, the campaign was run mainly through a radio program, “Nillilido hhllilido,” for 18 months from October
1965. The program led to arrangements of approximately 1,000 songs.
2 In recent years, opportunities have in particular been made available through a plan, the Chŏnt’ong yesul
hwalsŏnghwa pang’an—pijyŏn 2010 (Activation Plan for Traditional Arts—Vision 2010). This program was
administered by the Ministry of Culture between 2006 and 2010. For details about the historical context of Korean
contemporary music’s cultural background relating to the enforcement of the Activation plan, see Kwon Hyun
Seok’s thesis (2014).
3 For more information about Kim Yong-u, see Keith Howard’s book (2006: 71–79).
4 There are sanjo pieces for rock guitar by Sin Chung-hyŏn (1994), Kim To-kyun (2002), and Kim Yŏng-chin
(2004). Hesselink’s article (2011) is the first contribution to discuss the attempts of Sin Chung-hyŏn.
5 Kugak fusion literally refers to fusion music using traditional elements. Although for their purposes scholars
define the term differently (see Finchum-Sung 2002: 81; Sutton 2009: 28–29; Hee-Sun Kim, 2012; Howard 2010:
195; Howard 1999: 151; Kwon 2014: 18–25), it is generally accepted that in the 1990s the term was used for easy
listening creative or re-arranged pieces using a simple mix of Western and traditional elements.
6 The Sewol victims refer to those of Korea’s Sewol ferry disaster. In April, 2014, the Sewol ferry sank on a rou-
tine voyage from Incheon city, west of Seoul, to Jeju Island south of the Korean Peninsula, killing nearly 300
passengers.
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8 Kwon - Made - in - Korea

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13

Korean Pop Music and Korean

The 1930s–1960s: Sinminyo and its Thread of Life

singers, despite the support of the media.1

The 1970s–1980s: Kugak Kayo and Ch’ŏngnyŏn Munhwa

Minjung Munhwa (The People’s Culture)

Figure 13.3 Différance by Jambinai (GMC/Sony Music, S90411C, 2012).

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