John O January 2022

Topic 2.7
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Changes in Ecosystems
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A Definition of Ecological
Succession:
The gradual replacement of one plant
community by another through natural
processes over time, from pioneer species
to a climax community

This means natural, gradual changes in the

types of species that live in an area.
Succession can be primary or secondary.
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Ecological Succession
A process of change in the communities
living together in one place, which:
– Takes place over time
– Is directional
– Is predictable
– Has as its end point a stable,
self-perpetuating community, known as
the climax community?????
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Types of Succession
Succession may be:
• PRIMARY succession – from a starting point
with no life
• SECONDARY succession - from a starting
point which has had its community structure
altered, usually by man, where there is some
sort of soil structure and where there are
organisms already
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Primary succession
• Begins in a place without any soil
– Sides of volcanoes
– Landslides
– Flooding
• Starts with the arrival of living things such as
lichens that do not need soil to survive.
• These first arrivals are called PIONEER
SPECIES.
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LICHENS
These are found on the
Cotopaxi lava fields,
which are in a primary
succession.

What is a lichen? What

makes them good
pioneer species? How
do lichens survive?
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What are Lichens?
A lichen (pronounced li'ken) is a dual organism
consisting of a fungus and a photosynthetic alga or
blue-green alga (cyanobaterium) which live in close,
mutualistic association. The photosynthetic partner
manufactures food for the whole lichen and the
fungus provides a stable, protective environment for
its alga. The fungus forms the main body of the
lichen, and in most cases, the alga lies sandwiched
between upper and lower fungal layers. Where a
lichen has a green algal partner, the green algal layer
can often be seen by scratching the upper surface of
the lichen. Lichens are often quoted as a classic
example of MUTUALISM - a beneficial partnership
between two organisms.
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Lichens
Many lichens have a remarkable tolerance to
drying out, during which state they can
survive extremes of heat and cold; this
means that they can tolerate being scorched
by the sun in summer months, yet also
survive ice and snow, and are therefore able
to grow higher up in the mountains than other
plants. This makes them good pioneer
species.
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Pioneer species
The characteristics of pioneer species:
– Opportunistic species
– Dispersed easily
– Reproduce quickly and with many offspring (r
strategy)
– Many reproductive cycles in a year
– Good competitors
– Small body size
Pioneer communities have low species
diversity.
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Primary succession
• Soil starts to form when lichens and the
forces of weather and erosion help break
down rocks into smaller pieces.
• When lichens die, they decompose, adding
small amounts of organic matter to the rock to
make soil.
• The habitat is modified.
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http://www.life.uiuc.edu
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Primary succession
• Simple plants like mosses and ferns can grow
in the new soil and out-compete the pioneer
species.
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Cotopaxi Year 12/13 IB Field trip
Studying primary succession
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Primary succession
• The simple plants die, adding more organic
material.
• The soil layer thickens, and grasses,
wildflowers, and other plants begin to take
over.
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The Pioneer and early species
v
The later and Climax species
Think how these newly appearing species
might differ from the pioneer species which
appeared first. Life cycles? Mobility?
Reproductive method and rate? Feeding
requirements?
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Primary Succession
• These plants die, and they add more
nutrients to the soil.
• Shrubs and trees can survive now.
• Each of the stages
is called a sere. Each
is a different
community of species.
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Primary Succession
• Insects, small birds, and mammals begin to
move in.
• What was once bare rock now supports a
variety of life.
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Secondary Succession
• Begins in a place that already has soil and
was once the home of living organisms.
• Occurs faster and has different pioneer
species than primary succession.
• Example: after forest fires.
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This might be a secondary
succession from cleared land
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How long
does it
take?
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This primary
succession might
take 100’s of
years

http://www.agen.ufl.edu
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Climax community
• A stable and self-perpetuating group of plants and
animals that is the end result of the succession
process.
• Does not always mean big trees, even in forests:
– Grasses in prairies, savanna, steppe
– Cacti in deserts
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Characterisitics of Climax
communities
The climax community:
– Stable
– Self perpetuating (re-generating)
– In equilibrium with its biotic and abiotic surroundings
– Contains high species diversity
– Low levels of competition and minimum niche overlap –
resource partitioning
– Large body size
– Few offspring – k strategy
– Long life cycles
– More soil
– High biomass
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Early v Late seres
Early (Pioneer) Late (Climax)
Harsh environment Favourable environment
Biomass increasing Biomass stable
Energy consumption Energy consumption
inefficient efficient
Some nutrient loss Nutrient cycling
Low species diversity High species diversity
Fluctuations common Fluctuations uncommon
r-adapted K-adapted
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Indicator species
• Indicator species are sensitive to specific
environmental conditions and consequently have a
limited range of tolerance.
• Their absence or presence may indicate specific
environmental conditions, making them a useful
means of monitoring change.
• Indicator species may give us an idea about the
stage of a succession or about environmental stress.
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Sensitivity of Indicator species
• Lichen, along with mosses, are susceptible to
air-borne pollutants dissolved in water (e.g. sulphur
dioxide)
• Tubifex worms are sensitive to concentrations of
heavy metals
• Mayfly larvae and certain aquatic invertebrates are
sensitive to dissolved oxygen levels in water
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Keystone species
• Keystone Species - A species or group of species
whose impact on its community or ecosystem is much
larger and more influential than would be expected from
mere abundance or biomass. Organisms which play a
unique or crucial role in their habitat.
– Large predators
– Critical food organisms (bamboo and pandas)
– Pollinators
– Often, many species are intricately interconnected so
that it is difficult to tell which is the essential
component.
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Examples of Keystone species
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Keystone species – thought
question
It is often difficult to pinpoint keystone species. Keystone status appears to depend on context,
whether of particular geography or of such factors as community diversity (for example, a
reduction in species diversity may thrust more of the remaining species into keystone roles) and
length of species interaction (since newly arrived species in particular may dramatically affect an
ecosystem).
Which of the following, if true, would most clearly support the argument about keystone status
suggested in the passage above?

A. A species of bat is primarily responsible for keeping insect populations within an ecosystem low,
and the size of the insect population in turn affects bird species within that ecosystem.
B. A species of iguana occupies a keystone role on certain tropical islands, but does not play that
role on adjacent tropical islands that are inhabited by a greater number of animal species.
C. Close observation of a savannah ecosystem reveals that more species occupy keystone roles
within that ecosystem than biologists had previously believed.
D. As a keystone species of bee becomes more abundant, it has a larger effect on the ecosystem
it habits.
E. A species of mouse that occupies a keystone role in a prairie habitat develops coloration
patterns that camouflage it from potential predators.
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The type of climax community
depends upon temperature and rainfall
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Climax communities lead to the
biomes of the world
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APES
Free Response
Question

The diagram above shows the succession of communities from annual plants to hardwood trees in a specific area
over a period of time.

(a) Discuss the expected changes in biodiversity as the stages of succession progress as shown in the diagram
above.

(b) Describe and explain THREE changes in abiotic conditions over time that lead to the succession, as shown in
the diagram above.

(c) For each of the following disturbances, discuss the immediate and long-term effects on ecosystem Succession.
(i) A volcano erupts, covering a 10-square-kilometer portion of a mature forest with lava.
(ii) A 10- square-kilometer portion of a mature forest is clear-cut