Biogeography Complete Notes A Level 2019-20

NEW CURRICULUM NOTES
BIOGEOGRAPHY A LEVEL 2019-22

Biogeography
 Biogeography is a branch of geography that studies the past and present distribution of the
world's many species.
 biogeography focuses on the spatial variation of forms, composition, and processes within
the biosphere.
 Riddle (2005) provides a definition of biogeography which states that the work of
biogeographers consists of observing, recording, and explaining the geographic range of all
living things.
 However, biogeography would not be complete if we do not address the reasons for the
distribution patterns of the world plants and animals. In other words, biogeographers should
also answer the question on why plants and animals are distributed in their present manner
( some species exist in small areas whereas other exist all over the world and why some
regions have more species and greater biological diversity than others).
Factors affecting vegetation distribution

Climate
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Plant Succession
 Succession is a directional non-seasonal cumulative change in the types of plant species

that occupy a given area through time.
 It involves the processes of colonisation, establishment, and extinction which act on the
participating plant species.
 Most successions contain a number of stages that can be recognised by the collection of
species that dominate at that point in the succession.
 The stages in a plant community is know as seres or seral stages.
 Succession begin when an area is made partially or completely devoid of vegetation because
of a disturbance such as fires, wind storms, volcanic eruptions, logging, climate change,
severe flooding, disease, and pest infestation.
 Succession stops when species composition changes no longer occur with time, and this
community is said to be a climax community.
 The concept of a climax community assumes that the plants colonising and establishing
themselves in a given region can achieve stable equilibrium.
 Plant succession is grouped into two stages 1)primary and 2) secondary succession.
Organismic and Individualistic Views of Succession
 In the first quarter of this century there was considerable debate about the nature of the
community. F.E. Clements (1916) propounded a theory on communities which was also
linked to succession.
 His concepts suggested that communities of organisms are subject to special laws in which
the action of the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, and that this action results in a
directional change in the species composition of the community to a climax state controlled
primarily by climate.
 The main processes acting to produce the various successional stages of species dominance,
and finally climax, are competition and plant modification of the abiotic environment.
 Modification changes the environment allowing the establishment of new colonists, and
then results in the subsequent competitive exclusion of the former inhabitants by these
colonists. This facilitative process stops when the climax community is reached.
 In 1926, H. Gleason (1926) devised a new theory to explain the nature of communities.
Gleason's individualistic concept saw the relationship between coexisting species as simply
the result of similarities in their requirements and tolerances (and partly the result of
chance).
 Central to Gleason's succession model is the notion of abiotic and bioticheterogeneity in
space and time. This concept is a characteristic view of much of modern ecology.
 Our current view on the nature of community structure is close to the individualistic
concept.
Types of Succession
Primary succession ( Prisere)
 Is the establishment of plants on land that has not been previously vegetated - Mount Saint
Helens. Begins with colonisation and establishment of pioneer species.
Forms of Primary succession
 Primary succession takes various forms ,some of which are:

1. Lithosere.
2. Psammosere.
3. Halosere.
4. Hydrosere.
Lithosere
1)(a) Pioneer flora(plants) are lichens.
(b)Pioneer fauna(animal) only ants ,mites and spiders can live here.
2)(a)Acids from lichens break down rock. Small accumulations of dust moss patches.
(b)Small spiders, spring –tails.
3)(a)Soil accumulates in moss mats. Isolated grasses spread.
b)Worms ,grubs (larval insects).
4)(a)Small tree seedlings appear.
(b)Small mammals ,birds, reptiles.
5)(a) Trees emerge .
(b) Food web now complex and complete.
Psammosere
 It takes place on sand surfaces e.g.1)Beaches and2)Sand dunes.
 First colonisers are 1)sea couch,2) hyme grass and 3)sand –tolerant fugitive species.
 First seral Succeeding seral communities
 Climax vegetation stage. It is basic to note that most preceding plant communities are suicidal
since they create conditions which will lead to their elimination.
Halosere
 It takes place in 1) saline water and 2) salty marshes.
 Pioneer plants/First colonisers are green algae.
 Green algae survives under submerged and saline conditions.
 Pioneer plants are typically halophytes which accept saline conditions.
 It is essential to accentuate that in all forms of primary succession, the initial plant communities
will create and modify the environment for the upcoming seral stages until climax level is
achieved.
Hydrosere
 Plant succession occurs in fresh water.
 The pioneer communities are 1)algae and 2)mosses .
 They transferred to water surfaces by wind.
 Pioneer/First seral communities will also modify the environment to take room for more
advanced species such as reeds and bulrush which are naturally water-loving.
 The continued succession by more complex species will finally lead to shrinking and
subsequent dying of the water body to give room for the final seral climax stage which is usually
OAK vegetation.
Case study
Secondary succession (Sub sere)
 Is the invasion of a habitat by plants on land that was previously vegetated. Removal of past
vegetation may be caused by natural or human disturbances such as fire, logging, cultivation,
or hurricanes. Abandoned farmlands are quite vulnerable to fast plant recolonisation until
climax vegetation.
 Plant succession occurs over a long period of time e.g. Krakatau(50 years).
 Usually ,it takes 500 years for a deforested area to regenerate to its climax vegetation.
Secondary succession stages
1. Some seeds in the soil begin to grow.
2. Larger shrubs move in.
3. Fast growing trees (such as pines) move in.
4. These are followed by slower-growing hardwood trees.
Case Study
Abandoned Field to Oak Forest
 In the 1930s, Dwight Billings studied the succession of plant species that occurred on
abandoned agricultural fields in North Carolina.
 Billings studied a number of fields that had been deserted from just a few years to a maximum
of about 150 years.
 From observations of the plant communities that existed in these sites, Billings was able to
construct a detailed successional sequence:
 The first stage of succession was characterized by the pioneering colonisation of annual plant
species on bare ground and nutrient poor soils. These annual species had short lifespans (one
growing season), rapid maturity, and produce numerous small easily dispersed seeds.
 The annuals were then quickly replaced in dominance in the next year by biennial plants and
grasses.
 After about 3 to 4 years, the biennial and grass species gave way to perennial herbs and
shrubs. These plants live for many years and have the ability to reproduce several times over
their lifespans.
 After about 5 to 15 years, the sites were then colonised by a number of different softwood tree
species including loblolly pine (Pinustaeda), shortleaf pine (Pinusechinata), Virginia pine
(Pinusvirginiana), and sweetgum.
 Changes in softwoods allowed for the germination of hardwood species, like oak (Quercus
spp.) and various species of hickory (Carya spp).
 Sites more than 100 years old were found to be dominated by mature oak forests.
 This succession takes about 120 years to go from the pioneer stage to the climax community.
Concept of Climax vegetation

 This is a mature stage in plant succession when plant species are in a state of dynamic
equilibrium with the environment.
 A balance between the biotic and abiotic components will have been attained .
 No major changes will be taking place other than the death of senile plants and their sudden
replacement by the next generation of the same community.
 Pryde (1972) referred to it as the steady state between the plant cover and the physical
environment .
 At times ,the term ‘climatic climax vegetation’ is used to suggest the predominant role of
climate in determining the nature of plant communities .
 However, the term ‘Climatic climax’ has been criticised as it negates the influence of other
factors such as soil in plant development.
Plagioclimax vegetation.
 Plagioclimax vegetation is also another feature of the ecosystem.
 It refers to a state where plant communities are permanently affected by man such that they
will be hindered from attaining natural climax state .
 The main reason for plagioclimax vegetation is agricultural activities and other economic
activities such as lumbering .
 This implies that most of agro-ecosystems are characterised by plagioclimax communities
which do not have opportunities to fully develop to climax levels.
 The savanna grasslands clearly exhibit plagioclimax state ,since grazing and cultivation
have disturbed the progression towards climax vegetation.
 Stability of climax several stages can also be disturbed by changes in climatic and physical
conditions .
 Once these changes have taken place ,plant communities will have to adjust to the new
state.
 Generally ,most of the forests which are called natural today could have at one stage been
disrupted by humans or natural activities.
Threats to Climax communities

 Forest Fires
 Humans building cities and roads
 Flooding, Volcanic eruptions
 Clearing a community for agricultural purposes
 Anything that destroys the existing community, but much of the soil remains. Sometimes,
some of the organisms remain as well.
Energy Flows in Ecosystems
 Energy flows through ecosystems while matter cycles within them.
 Energy flow is the movement of energy from solar radiation, to a chemically fixed form
produced by green plants. This form of potential energy is used by the plants themselves,
herbivores, and carnivores and all those bacteria and other life forms that need energy for
life.
 In order to understand the flow of energy, in an ecosystem, it is important to examine the
feeding relationships as indicated on the diagram below.
 Autotrophs build molecules themselves using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis as an
energy source; heterotrophs depend on the biosynthetic output of other organisms.
 Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers
(herbivores) to secondary consumers (carnivores) to tertiary consumers (carnivores that
feed on other carnivores) (Paine, 1966).
 Trophic structure is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community and is
dependent on the number of energy transfers that have been used to reach that level. It is a
key factor in community dynamics.
 Food chains link trophic levels from producers to top carnivores. Producers are at the
bottom level as they only have one transfer of energy that is of the sun’s radiation
transferred into stored chemical energy. The primary consumers or herbivores are next on
the trophic level. The secondary consumers are found in two levels, for example, one that
includes animals that eat both plant and animals (omnivores) and some carnivores and lastly
the tertiary consumers (carnivores).
Biological and Geochemical processes

o Life depends on recycling chemical elements. Nutrient circuits in ecosystems involve biotic
and abiotic components and are often called biogeochemical cycles.
o Gaseous carbon, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen occur in the atmosphere and cycle globally.
o Less mobile elements such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium cycle on a more local
level.
Biochemical cycles
o It is a natural process that recycles nutrients in various chemical forms from the non-living
environment to living organisms and then back to the non living environment.
o A biochemical cycle is defined as the movement or cycling of a chemical element or
elements through the earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere (rivers, lakes, oceans) lithosphere
(rocks, soils, and sediments) and biosphere (Botkin & Keller, 1995).
o A model of nutrient cycling includes main reservoirs of elements and processes that transfer
elements between reservoirs. All elements cycle between organic and inorganic reservoirs.
The Carbon Cycle
 Carbon is an important element because it is the basic building block of the carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, nucleic acids such as (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) DNA and (Ribonucleic Acid)
RNA and other organic compounds necessary for life.
 The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide gas, which makes up only 0.036% of the
volume the troposphere and is also dissolved in water.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a key component of nature’s thermostat. If the carbon cycle
removes too much CO2 from the atmosphere, Earth will cool; if the cycle generates too
much, Earth will get warmer. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is so
small (0.036), that the fairly large input of CO2 from human activities or changes in natural
processes can affect the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere.
 Producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere (terrestrial producers or water (aquatic
producers) and use photosynthesis to convert it into complex carbohydrates such as glucose
(C6H12O6).
 The cells in oxygen–consuming producers, consumers and decomposers then carry out
aerobic respiration, which breaks down glucose and other complex organic compounds and
converts the carbon back to CO2 in the atmosphere or water for reuse by producers.
 Oxygen and hydrogen, the other elements in the carbohydrates, cycle almost in step with
carbon.
 Some carbon lies deep in the Earth in fossil fuels-coal, petroleum, and natural gas and is
released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide only when these fuels are extracted and
burned.
 Some CO2 also enters the atmosphere from aerobic respiration and from volcanic eruptions,
which free carbon from rocks deep in Earth’s crust. The oceans also play a major role in
regulating the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 Some carbon dioxide gas which readily soluble in water, stays dissolved in the sea, some is
removed by photosynthesizing producers, and some reacts with sea water to carbon ions
(CO32-) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). As water warms, more dissolved CO2 returns to
the atmosphere, just as more carbon dioxide fizzes out of a carbonated beverage when it
warms.
 In marine ecosystems, some organisms take up dissolved CO2 molecules, carbon ions, or
bicarbonate ions from ocean water. These ions can then react with calcium ions (Ca2+) in
sea water to form slightly soluble carbonate compounds such as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) to build shells and skeletons of marine organisms. When these organisms die, tiny
particles of their and borne slowly sink to the ocean depths and are buried in bottom
sediments where under immense they are converted into limestone rock (Botkin & Keller,
1995).
The Carbon Cycle
(Source: https://www.wageningenur.nl/en/show/2014).
The Nitrogen Cycle
 Organisms need nitrogen to make many organic compounds especially proteins, DNA and
RNA.
 Even though nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78% of the volume of the troposphere, this largest
reservoir of Earth’s nitrogen cannot be used directly as a nutrient by multicellular plants or
animals, which is why nitrogen can often be the limiting factor for the growth of plants and
animals in ecosystems. This is one reason why farmers add nitrogen fertilizer to soil to
support crop growth.
 Lightning and certain bacteria convert nitrogen gas into compounds that can enter the food
webs as part of the nitrogen cycle.
 The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into chemical forms that are useful to plants –
mostly nitrate ions (NO3-) and ammonium ions (NH4+) is called nitrogen fixation. It is
done mostly by cyanobacteria in the soil and water and by Rhizobium bacteria living in
small nodules on the root systems of a wide variety of plant species.
 Plants convert inorganic nitrate ions and ammonium ions in soil water into DNA, proteins,
and other nitrogen-containing nutrients.
 Animals get their nitrogen by eating plants or plant eating animals. After nitrogen has
served its purpose in living organisms, vast armies of specialized decomposer bacteria
convert the nitrogen rich organic compounds, wastes, cast-off particles and dead bodies of
organisms into simpler inorganic compounds such as water-soluble salts containing
ammonium ions (NH4+).
 Other specialised bacteria (mostly anaerobic bacteria in the soil or in the bottom sediments
of lakes, oceans, swamps, and bogs) then convert these inorganic forms of nitrogen back
into nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) ions and then into nitrogen gas which is released to
the atmosphere to begin the cycle all over again (Botkin & Keller, 1995).
Nitrogen Cycle
 Humans influence nitrogen cycle through:
- Large quantities of nitric oxide (NO) are emitted into the atmosphere when any fuel is
burned. This nitric oxide combines with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas which
can react with water vapour to form nitric acids (HNO3). HNO3 is a component of acid
deposition- commonly called acid rain which along with other air pollutants can damage
and weaken trees and upset aquatic ecosystems.
- Heat trapping nitrous oxide (N2O) gas is emitted into the atmosphere by the bacteria on
livestock wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers applied to the soil.
- Nitrogen is removed from Earth’s crust when we mine nitrogen containing minerals
deposits such as ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) fertilizers; deplete nitrogen from topsoil by
harvesting nitrogen rich crops.
- When grasslands and forests are burned before planting, crops, nitrogen is lost from topsoil
and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere.
- Finally, we add excess nitrogen compounds to aquatic ecosystems in the agricultural runoff
and discharge of municipal sewage. The excess plant nutrients stimulate rapid growth of
algae and other aquatic plants. The subsequent breakdown of dead algae by aerobic
decomposers can deplete the water of dissolved oxygen and can disrupt aquatic
ecosystems.
Nutrient Cycle Continued
Gerschmel Compartment Model
 In 1976, Gerschmel proposed the three compartment model basically to illustrate the transfer
of nutrients between biomass store (plants and animals), litter store and soil store.
 He used circles and arrows to show the transfers from the stores.
 The sizes of circles correspond to the quantity of nutrient store, that is, the bigger the circle,
the bigger the quantity.
 Arrow thickness shows the amount being transferred to and from the nutrient store.
 The size of compartment vary from one climatic region to another.
 The storage compartments have inputs and outputs in-between which are processes that link
the compartments.
 All the ‘biomes’ nutrient cycling can be illustrated through this model.
Model explained
Inputs of nutrients 3. Sun & atmosphere 3. Biomass.
4. Artificial
1. Precipitation &
supplements. Outputs of nutrients
dry deposition
Possible stores 1. Runoff
2. Weathering of
1. Soil 2. Leaching
bedrock
2. Leaf litter 3. Human removal.
Temperate deciduous biome
Rain forest biome
Boreal forest (taiga)
Question:
a) Using figure 5.9, outline the effects of human interference in the tropical rainforest
nutrient cycle. (10)
b) Using three biomes of your choice, describe the nutrient cycle using Gerschmel
compartment model.(12)
c) Define the term biomass.(3)`
Biomass and Biomes
The objectives are:
1. Outline inputs of tropical biomes
2. Identify the adaptation of tropical plants and animals to their environment
3. Explain the characteristics of each biome.
Biomes
 Are major global scale zones with characteristic life forms of plants and animals.
 In general it refers to a major type of ecosystem, characterised by a certain range of
environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, salinity) and including a set of
characteristic organisms.
Tropical Biomes
 The world is divided into a number biomes based on spatial and temporal climatic
variations.
Figure 3.4 Tropical biomes of the world (Source:

(http://www.tesarta.com/www/resources/library/biomes.html, March 2015)
Tropical Deserts and Semi deserts
 A desert is an area where evaporation exceeds precipitation, which is below 250mm per
year.
 There is much variation in desert biomes, from the extreme of the Sahara desert where
rain rarely fall to seasonal deserts found in Namibia and Botswana where life springs
forth immediately after sporadic thunderstorms.
General distributions
 Most deserts are located between 30° North and South of the Equator.
 In terms of global wind patterns, most deserts are located on the western side of
continents where winds blow offshore.
 Desert regions also lie within sub-tropical high pressure belts where dry air that has lost
its moisture is subsiding and this reduces the capacity of these winds to yield significant
rainfall.
 However, some are located alongside cold ocean currents (such as the Namib and
Atacama deserts), some are located in the lee of mountain ranges (such as the Gobi and
Patagonian deserts) while others are located in continental interiors (such as the Sahara
and the Australian deserts).
Climate
 The desert climate which is hot and dry all year round is the dominant control factor.
 There is insufficient moisture for complete ground cover. In some areas, there is regular
moisture but it is insufficient to counteract very high evaporation.
 Temperatures are variable seasonally and daily with large diurnal temperatures being
characteristic of desert biomes. Some deserts may not experience any sporadic rainfall
for many years.
 Soils in deserts are poorly developed but increased nutrients are found around root
systems.
Basic ecology
 Vegetation is varied but low in height and very open stands.
 Clustering of vegetation species is dependent on water, local geology and
geomorphological factors.
 Biomass is mainly underground mainly in the form of geophytes or therophytes.
 Low biodiversity is characteristic of desert biomes and net primary productivity is
strongly related to rainfall.
Adaptations
 Desert plants and animals have evolved strategies to control evaporation and maximise
water conservation.
 Common desert animals include many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, beetles,
and migratory and resident birds.
Plants adaptations
 Some plants are evergreen with wax-coated leaves (creosote bush) that minimise
transpiration.
 Mesquite plants have long deep roots to tap into the ground water whereas fleshy–
stemmed, short and tall cacti spread their shallow roots wide to collect scarce water for
storage in their spongy tissues.
 Some desert plants have seeds which can lie dormant over a long period of time and
can spring to life immediately after sporadic thunderstorms.
 Annual plants are also characteristic of desert biomes as such plants will only grow in
specific seasons, which receive significant amounts of rainfall.
 Other mechanisms used to reduce transpiration relate to the stomata pores. Stomata can
be reduced in number and in some cases can be completely absent on the upper
epidermis, which is exposed to the sun. Where such stomata are present, they are only
opened during the night when evaporation is low.
 Many xerophytes (drought tolerant plants) are succulents, which mean they have water
storing tissues in leaves, stems and in roots. Such stored water is then utilized during
moisture stress periods.
 Some structural modifications, such as small leaf size, needle shaped leaves and rolled
leaves tend to reduce the rate of water loss through transpiration.
NB: After sporadic storms, some desert plants will grow very quickly and complete their life
cycle and then the seeds will lie dormant waiting for the next thunderstorm.
Animal adaptations
 Some desert animals are small, which reduces heat gain and loss and also escape the
heat by hiding in burrows and rocky crevices.
 Nocturnal animals are also common in desert biomes. Such animals hide during the day
to avoid high temperatures and are only active during the night or early morning hours
when temperatures will be cooler.
 Insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize water loss through
evaporation.
 Some desert animals are completely dormant during periods of extreme heat and
drought.
 Desert animals such as camels can also drink large quantities of water at one time and
stay for long periods without drinking water. For example, a camel can drink water
equivalent to 33% of its body at one occasion. However, the camel’s large hump is not
used to store water. It is storage of fat, which can be metabolized to provide water
during periods of extreme water shortages.
Human impacts in deserts
 Long distance transportation of water and deep underground wells have made it
possible for deserts to maintain relatively large populations.
 Conversion to irrigated agriculture and the urbanization processes have also contributed
to biodiversity loss in desert biomes. Large scale irrigation has had many negative
impacts as it has increased soil salinity and alkalinity to levels which reduce primary
productivity and eventually render the soil infertile.
 Large scale mining activities have also contributed to the environmental degradation of
desert biomes.
 Due to the slow growth rates of plants, low species diversity, and shortages of water,
deserts take a long time to recover from disruptions.
 Vegetation destroyed by livestock overgrazing, road construction may take decades to
regenerate.
 Vehicles, mining activities and irrigation can also collapse the underground burrows
that are habitats to many desert animals.
Tropical Savanna Biomes

 Tropical Savanna or Savanna climates are most commonly found in Southern Africa,
parts of Asia and South America.
 The biome is also prevalent in sections of Central America, northern Australia and
southern North America, specifically in sections of Mexico and the state of Florida in
the United States.
 Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone,
but occasionally an inner-tropical location.
Tropical Savanna climate
 Savanna regions have sufficient average annual precipitation to allow grass and few
trees to grow well but the precipitation is so erratic that drought and fire prevent large
stands of trees from growing. Rainfall is seasonal and can vary from 30-50 centimetres
per year.
 Temperature is almost similar to rainforest but the dry season is generally longer lasting
up to eight or nine months with average temperatures reaching about 30°C . Winters
are generally cooler with average temperatures falling below -10°C (Miller, 1996).
 A gradient from the equator is observed as follows: Savanna woodland → tree Savanna
→ shrub Savanna → Savanna grassland. Soil is one of the major controls of the
Savanna biome.
Tropical Savanna vegetation

 Savanna is used to refer to a range of tropical vegetation types ranging from grasses,
varying amounts of shrubs, and trees. The grass is largely perennial and most grass
species have xerophytic features. Some of the trees and shrubs are also drought tolerant.
 Savanna ecosystems are characterised by more open canopy than forests where trees
are fewer except where the water table is close to the surface. Due to low rainfall and
periodic drought spells, the most extensive tree species is the mopane, due to its
tolerance to limited water conditions and sometimes to virtually waterlogged
conditions.
 Grassland stands dominated by few tree species, which tends to form a mosaic of
diverse structure due to the differences in water and soil nutrients. The large canopies
of some Savanna trees provide shade which lowers solar radiation and evaporation
stress below the canopy and this also lowers the temperatures. Trees can provide
favourable conditions to the growth of grass. A mosaic of vegetation structure occurs
due to differences in water and soil nutrients availability.
 Savanna vegetation can be divided into three major types, namely Savanna woodland,
Dry Savanna and Sahel Savanna.
Animals of the Savanna

 African Savannas are home to the largest diversity of large and small animal species
ranging from grazers, browsers, and carnivores.
 Grazers feed on the herbaceous grass which is readily available while browsers take
advantage of tree leaves not accessible to other grazers. Grazing is thus an important
ecological factor in these areas. For example, the presence of native grazers prevents
any single plant from out competing the others.
 Animals in the Savanna ecosystems have also adapted to the seasonal conditions
characteristic of this biomes.
 Large herbivores such as elephants and buffaloes have large home ranges, which allow
them to roam long distances in search for water. The Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania
provides a classic adaptation strategy of Savanna wild animals as evidenced by the large
migration of animals such as wildebeest and zebras along certain wildlife corridors.
Zimbabwe also experiences large scale movements of elephants especially along the
Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, which connects Zimbabwe,
Mozambique and South Africa.
 Savanna predators such as wild dogs, lions, hyenas, hunt in groups to enhance their
success rates.
 On the other hand prey species such as impalas, buffaloes also live in large groups as a
strategy to wade of any attack from predators. Species such as impala can also run very
fast if faced by any danger.
 The giraffes browse on tall trees and shoots, which are not accessible to other grazers
and this reduces competition for food resources.
 Thompson gazelle and the wildebeests prefer short grass, whereas zebras graze on
longer grass.
 Savanna ecosystems are generally efficient at converting carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates through photosynthesis, equalling or even exceeding the net primary
productivity of tropical-rain forests. Much of the carbon removed from the atmosphere
is locked up in the soil, in dead plant matter, and in roots and underground stems. Thus
deliberately burning Savanna, ploughing up its grasses and converting it into cropland
releases large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This practice may
contribute to enhanced greenhouse effect as much as the clearing and burning of the
tropical rainforests.
Ecosystem changes
 Savanna ecosystems are easily influenced by human activities and major climatic
readjustment.
 Introduced domestic grazers (cattle or sheep for example) have different grazing
patterns and the floristic composition has been distorted.
 Fire is an important component of grasslands. Some areas may burn every year and
such burnings may be deliberate planning strategies by rangeland managers or they may
be accidental.
 When grass is burnt just before the rain season, research has demonstrated that grass
tend to grow vigorously in burnt plots compared to those which are not burnt.
 Burning also kills pests and diseases which have negative effects on both animals and
people. For example, trees can be severely damaged and seeds in the soil destroyed
preventing any regenerative growth. Old trees which are burnt may not be replaced.
 Protection of Savanna biomes from fires may actually increase tree densities and
sometimes lead to the emergence of new tree species thus increasing the biodiversity
of the ecosystems.
Tropical Rain forests
 It is generally found near the Equator in Africa, South America, especially the Zaire
Basin, Australia, and the Pacific Islands and the eastern coast of Malagasy.
 The tropical rain forest is a lush, productive ecosystem containing more than half of all
the species that live on Earth.
 A rain forest may contain more than 700 species of trees and over 1000 species of
flowering plants. It may also contain a large variety of animal species.
 They are a type of evergreen broadleaf forest found near the equator with an
undergrowth of lianas and other climbing trees.
Tropical Rain forests climate

 Since they are located in low elevations and along low latitudes, equatorial climates
experience abundant rainfall, which ranges between 1500mm and 2500mm per year.
 The rain season is not less than 8 months and the rainfall pattern is generally uniform
throughout the year.
 The temperatures are generally high and mean monthly temperatures are usually above
26℃. Thus temperature is also generally homogeneous throughout the year.
 Humidity is also high throughout the year with relative humidity ranging between 80%
and 100%.
 The almost unchanging climate suggests that water and temperature are not limiting
factors as in other biomes; instead, soil nutrients are the major limiting factor.
Tropical Rain forests vegetation

 Undisturbed areas with moderate to high average annual precipitation tend to be
covered with forests containing various species of trees and smaller forms of vegetation.
 A mature tropical rain forest has more plant and animal species per unit area than any
other biome. Although large stretches of the forests are not penetrable, because of dense
and tangled growth of trees, and climbing plants, the African rain forest is not as dense
as that of the Amazon Basin.
 The rain forest is rich in economic trees such as the iroko, mahogany, sapele wood, and
walnut. However, the stands of these economically valuable species are widely
scattered making their exploitation expensive. Exploitation is also difficult because the
bases of many of the tree trunks are fluted by winged buttresses, which rise up to 3 m
from the ground.
 Tropical forests have four distinct layers
The Emergent Layer
 This comprises the tallest trees, which may be over 40m high. Since emergent trees are
exposed to weather elements such as drying winds, they normally have small, pointed
leaves.
 Some species lose their leaves during the brief dry season in monsoon rainforests.
 These giant trees have straight, smooth trunks with few branches. Their root system is
very shallow, and to support their size they grow buttresses that can spread out to a
distance of 3 m.
 Birds and some insects are found within this layer.
The Upper Canopy
 The average tree height in this canopy ranges from 6 to 13 m. At this height, trees
generally allow light to be easily available at the top of this layer, but below it light is
greatly reduced.
 Most of the rainforest's animals live in the upper canopy. There is so much food
available at this level that some animals never go down to the forest floor.
 The leaves have "drip spouts" that allows rain to run off. This keeps them dry and
prevents mold and mildew from forming in the humid environment.
The Lower Canopy
 The lower canopy consists of trees whose height is about 6m.
 This layer is made up of the trunks of canopy trees, shrubs, plants and small trees.
 There is little air movement. As a result the humidity is constantly high. This level is in
constant shade (Allaby, 1999).
The Forest Floor
 This layer is usually completely shaded, except where a canopy tree has fallen and
created an opening.
 Most areas of the forest floor receive so little light that few bushes or herbs can grow
there. As a result, a person can easily walk through most parts of a tropical rain forest.
 The top soil is very thin and of poor quality. A lot of litter falls to the ground where it
is quickly broken down by decomposers like termites, earthworms and fungi. The heat
and humidity further help to break down the litter. This organic matter is then just as
quickly absorbed by the trees' shallow roots.
Animals of Tropical Rainforests
 Much of the animal life especially insects, bats, and birds live in the sunny canopy layer
with its abundant shelter and food.
 Monkeys, apes, toads, geckos, snakes, chameleons and other animals move up and
down the trunks and vines to feed on insects or leaves.
 Multitudes of tiny animals live on the ground alongside vast populations of termites
and decomposers. Because of the warm, moist conditions, dropped leaves and dead
animals break down quickly.
Human Activities in Tropical Rainforests
 Various human activities ranging from agriculture, logging and road construction are
posing the greatest danger to the tropical forests.
 As population continues to grow, human settlements and the attendant agriculture
activities are forced to encroach into adjacent rainforests with disastrous consequences.
 In recent years, tropical rainforests have been decimated on a massive scale due to the
wholesale clearance for timber sales, agriculture and ranching.
 In parts of the eastern states of Nigeria, where there is great demand for farmland, the
rainforest has since been replaced by oil palm bush. The oil palm tree is an important
economic crop and for it to be grown large tracks of land should be cleared for farming.
 Removal of forest vegetation has also exposed the ground to rapid evaporation which
resulted in the salinisation of the soils.
 Salinisation has caused a decline in soil fertility and has also increased the rate of soil
erosion as the soils are now exposed to weather elements.
 Extensive deforestation is not only affecting many plant species but it is also affecting
large animal species as well as indigenous groups, which are under threat from
extinction (Waugh, 2000).
Temperate deciduous
 Precipitation varies from 250-1000mm.

 Temperature; winter -5˚C, summer 25˚C.
 The grass type and height vary with rainfall,e.g.U.S prairies ,wetter areas :bluestem
grass 1m high ;drier areas :buffalo grass , bunch grass 20cm high .
 Rare trees –willows, poplars –occur along water courses.
 Small mammals (gophers, shrews) have few predators .
 Birds abundant.
 Grasses can remain dormant in cold winter, resist fire (below), need less rain.
 Temperate grasslands probably do not represent a climatic climax since they have
everywhere been altered by man .
 Fires have encouraged the growth of vegetation –resistant species( grass, with the
majority of roots below ground, can withstand fire well).
 Grazing has modified rather than replaced vegetation.
 The intensive root-networks decay into humus implanted into the soil by the vegetation.
 Soils are deeply fertile ,with a fine crumb structure between the roots ,and are pervious-
thus welldraining.
 The two soil types associated with temperate grasslands are chernozems and prairie
soils: they are not the same.
Contrasts between chernozem and prairie soils
Chernozem Praire soil
Dominant process Calcification Leaching of calcium

Humus content Very high Very high
Colour Dark brown-black Brown
PH Basic Slightly acidic
Other Calcium nodules No calcium deposits
 Major changes have been destruction of bison; over-cropping leading to soil erosion,
gullying, dust bowls.
Boreal Forest Biome

 The global distribution of this biome is closely associated with the subarctic climates
and is the broad expanse of coniferous forest that occurs across Alaska, Canada, and
Russia .
 This vegetation assemblage is located entirely within the higher midlatitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere because the large continents have very cold winter temperatures
and relatively low rainfall. If you recall, the Southern Hemisphere contains no large
landmasses, other than frigid Antarctica, at high latitudes. As a result, this hemisphere
has no large expanse of subarctic climate and thus, no boreal forest biome.
 The boreal forest biome, or taiga in the Russian language, has the least diverse
assemblage of plants of any biome. Most of the trees in the boreal forest biome are
coniferous needle-leaf evergreens such as spruce, pine, and fir, with large regions
covered almost entirely by one or two of these species.
 These expanses of conifers are occasionally broken by small stands of broadleaf
deciduous trees, specifically birch, poplar, and aspen. These trees are adapted to fire in
that they are the first trees to move into a freshly burned area. Subsequently, they are
succeeded by the coniferous trees, which also include the needle-dropping species
tamarack and larch. The lower level of the boreal forest biome is sparsely vegetated,
consisting of low shrubs, mosses, and lichens.
 Although this region appears to be biologically productive, in fact it is not, due to the
short growing season and the persistently wet soils in which the plants grow.
 The stress of this environment on plant growth is best seen in the northern parts of the
boreal forest biome, where the growing season is very short and cold. Here, the trees
are quite scraggly and stunted in comparison to their counterparts that live in the
southern, warmer parts of the biome.
Biodiversity
 Diversification is origination of several different species from one "ancestral" species.
 Is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of
individuals (a dataset).
Components of species diversity
a) Species richness and b) relative abundance
Species abundance
 Is the number of individuals per species, and relative abundance refers to the evenness
of distribution of individuals among species in a community eg. Colombia and Kenya,
each have more than 1,000 breeding species of birds.
Species Richness
 Is the count of species in an area.
 Is simply the number of species present in a sample, community, or taxonomic group.
 Species richness is one component of the concept of species diversity, which also
incorporates evenness, that is, the relative abundance of species.
Factors affecting Species Richness
Geographic factors
1. Species–area relationships - this can be shown using species area-curves where species
richness is shown on the y-axis against area on the x-axis (Species distribution curves).
2. Immigration.
3. Climate.
 Generally, species richness is higher in tropical regions than it is in temperate or polar
regions. Not surprisingly, the two most species-rich habitat types, rainforests and coral
reefs, are located in tropical regions.
Biological factors
 For example, species richness is often higher in areas with higher productivity (the
amount of carbon fixed by photosynthesis per unit area per time).
a) Competition
Environmental factors
 Disturbances, such as fires, hurricanes, and floods, can also affect species richness.
 In many communities, species richness is greatest at intermediate frequency and /or
intensity of disturbance (the intermediate disturbance hypothesis). This is because very
frequent disturbance eliminates sensitive species, whereas very infrequent disturbance
allows time for superior competitors to eliminate species that cannot compete.
 According to Tivy(1993) factors that affect species richness include evolutionary time,
environmental conditions, biotic processes and human activity.
 The diversity of tropical areas compared with temperate biomass has been attributed
to the more constantly favourable climatic conditions over a long period to allow
sufficiently speciation and dispersal.
 Biotic processes such as competition, predation and dispersal may operate to increase
or decrease species richness’.
Extinction
 The complete elimination of an entire species is the harshest reality of nature.
 Extinction cannot be undone -extinction is forever.
History of Lineages (Phyleogeography)

 An evolutionary lineage is a sequence of species, that form a line of descent, each new
species the direct result of speciation from an immediate ancestral species.
 Lineages are subsets of the evolutionary tree of life.
 Lineages are often determined by the techniques of molecular systematic.
 A continuous line of descent; a series of organisms, populations, cells, or genes
connected by ancestor / descendent relationships.
Eco-geographical Rules
 Describe similar patterns of variation within and across species and their correlation
to biogeography, particularly latitude. While they are described as rules there are often
many exceptions to them.
 A more synthetic approach to understanding spatial patterns in biogeography,
particularly of the way in which these patterns interact.
 Some proposed key elements of such a synthesis are broadly termed 'eco-geographical
rules', that is spatial patterns in biological traits.
A) Gloger’s Rule
 Proposed by C.W.L Gloger in 1893.
 It states that races of birds and mammals in warmer regions are more darkly coloured
than races in colder or drier regions
 In other words birds and mammals tend to have darker furthers and fur in areas of higher
humidity.
 An explanation to this being that animals in warmer and more humid regions require
more pigmentation to protect them from the light.
B) Bergmann's rule
 By Carl Bergmann in 1847 and states that species of birds and mammals living in
warm climates are larger than their congeners that inhabit cold climates.
 According to Bergmann many species conform to this rule for big animals have a
thermal advantage over small animals in cold climates as an object increases in size its
surface area becomes relatively smaller increasing by the square than its volume
(increasing by the cube).
C) Allen’s Rule
 Forwarded by J.A Allen (1887).Sometimes referred to as the proportional rule.
 It extends Bergmann’s rule to include the protruding parts of the body, such as legs ,
necks, ears, tails and bills.
 Discovered that protruding parts in wolves, foxes, hares and wild cats are shorter in
cooler regions.
 Short protruding parts help to reduce the surface area and to conserve heat in colder
areas eg the jackrabbit in the South Eastern parts of USA has ears one third its body
length.
 Also another observation conforming to this Rule is that mammals as bats which have
a larger surface area for their body mass are found chiefly in the tropics.
D) Guthries’s or Geist’s Rule
 A modern rule based on the observation that the seasonal amount of food available
influences body size in large mammals
 Guthrie(1984) and Geist(1987) in Hugget (1998) allude that animals in areas of high
seasonal food abundance can achieve a greater proportion of their potential annual
growth and therefore develop bigger bodies.
E) Jordan’s Rule
 The Law of Vertebrae (Jordan, 1892) says that groups of fish in northern or colder
regions show larger numbers of vertebrae as compared to those in tropical regions.
NB: Research on some of eco-geographical rules not outlined.
Soils
 Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earth’s surface that results from the
interaction of weathering and biological activity on the parent material or underlying
hard rock.
 The study of soils as naturally occurring phenomena is called pedology (from the Greek
word pedon, meaning soil or earth).
 Pedology takes into account:
 factors and processes of soil formation
 soil characteristics
 distribution of soil typesT.he study of soils as naturally occurrin
• factors and proces
Measurement of soil characteristics
- Texture
- Structure
- Ph
- Moisture content
- Organic content
- Soil colour
- Depth.
Soil Pedogenesis
Pedogenesis can be defined as the process of soil development. Late in the 19th
century, scientists Hilgard in the United States and the Russian Dokuchaev both
suggested independently that pedogenesis was principally controlled by climate and
vegetation. This idea was based on the observation that comparable soils developed
in spatially separate areas when their climate and vegetation were similar. In the
1940s, Hans Jenny extended these ideas based on the observations of many
subsequent studies examining the processes involved in the formation of soils. Jenny
believed that the kinds of soils that develop in a particular area are largely
determined by five interrelated factors: climate; living organisms; parent material;
topography; and time (Figure 6).
 Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev (1846 – 1903), the grandfather of soil science,
determined that soil is formed over time as a consequence of climatic, mineral and
biological processes as demonstrated by the soil forming equation:
 Soil = f(C, PM, O) x time (where C = climate, PM = parent material, O = biological
processes)
 In 1941 the Swiss scientist Hans Jenny expanded Vasily Dokuchaev equation by
adding relief/topology as a factor and separating the biological processes into
the fauna and floracoming up with the equation:
 Soil = f(C, PM, R, O, V,) x time (where C = climate, PM = parent material, R =
relief/topology, O = fauna, V = flora).
Figure 6: The development of a soil is influenced by five interrelated
factors: organisms, topography, time, parent material, and climate.
Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil. On the global scale,
there is an obvious correlation between major soil types and the Köppen climatic
classification systems major climatic types. At regional and local scales, climate
becomes less important in soil formation. Instead, pedogenesis is more influenced
by factors like parent material, topography, vegetation, and time. The two most
important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature and
moisture. Temperature has a direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to
produce mineral particles. Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with
higher temperatures. Temperature also influences the activity of soil
microorganisms, the frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the
rate of plant growth. Moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the
addition of water via precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration. If
additions of water from precipitation surpass losses from evapotranspiration,
moisture levels in a soil tend to be high. If the water loss due to evapotranspiration
exceeds inputs from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low. High
moisture availability in a soil promotes the weathering of bedrock and sediments,
chemical reactions, and plant growth. The availability of moisture also has an
influence on soil pH and the decomposition of organic matter.
Living Organisms have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis

including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical
nutrient cycling. Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely
linked with each other through nutrient cycling. The cycling of nitrogen and carbon
in soils is almost completely controlled by the presence of animals and plants.
Through litterfall and the process of decomposition, organisms add humus and
nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility. Surface vegetation
also protects the upper layers of a soil from erosion by way of binding the soils
surface and reducing the speed of moving wind and water across the ground surface.
Parent Material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils
develop. These materials can be derived from residual sediment due to the
weathering of bedrock or from sediment transported into an area by way of the
erosive forces of wind, water, or ice. Pedogenesis is often faster on transported
sediments because the weathering of parent material usually takes a long period of
time. The influence of parent material on pedogenesis is usually related to soil
texture, soil chemistry, and nutrient cycling.
Topography generally modifies the development of soil on a local or regional scale.

Pedogenesis is primarily influenced by topography's effect on microclimate and
drainage. Soils developing on moderate to gentle slopes are often better drained than
soils found at the bottom of valleys. Good drainage enhances an number of
pedogenic processes of illuviation and eluviation that are responsible for the
development of soil horizons. Under conditions of poor drainage, soils tend to be
immature. Steep topographic gradients inhibit the development of soils because of
erosion. Erosion can retard the development through the continued removal of
surface sediments. Soil microclimate is also influenced by topography. In the
Northern Hemisphere, south facing slopes tend to be warmer and drier than north
facing slopes. This difference results in the soils of the two areas being different in
terms of depth, texture, biological activity, and soil profile development.
Time influences the temporal consequences of all of the factors described above.
Many soil processes become steady state overtime when a soil reaches maturity.
Pedogenic processes in young soils are usually under active modification through
negative and positive feedback mechanisms in attempt to achieve equilibrium.
Principal Pedogenic Processes
A large number of processes are responsible for the formation of soils. This fact is
evident by the large number of different types of soils that have been classified by
soil scientists. However, at the macro-scale we can suggest that there are five main
principal pedogenic processes acting on soils. These processes are weathering,
laterization, podzolization, calcification, salinization, and gleization.
Weathering- The breaking down of rocks insitu. There are three kinds.
Laterization is a pedogenic process common to soils found in tropical and

subtropical environments. High temperatures and heavy precipitation result in the
rapid weathering of rocks and minerals. Movements of large amounts of water
through the soil cause eluviation and leaching to occur. Almost all of the by
products of weathering, very simple small compounds or nutrient ions, are
translocated out of the soil profile by leaching if not taken up by plants for nutrition.
The two exceptions to this process are iron and aluminum compounds. Iron oxides
give tropical soils their unique reddish coloring. Heavy leaching also causes these
soils to have an acidic pH because of the net loss of basecations.
Podzolization is associated with humid cold mid-latitude climates and coniferous

vegetation. Decomposition of coniferous litter and heavy summer precipitation
create a soil solution that is strongly acidic. This acidic soil solution enhances the
processes of eluviation and leaching causing the removal of soluble basecations
and aluminum and iron compounds from the A horizon. This process creates a sub-
layer in the A horizon that is white to gray in color and composed of silica sand.
Uses of Podzol Soils
Generally infertile, non-productive. Principally used for forestry and recreation (e.g.
forestry plantations, grouse moors). In Scotland also used for grass production and
stock rearing.Where used for agriculture the top soil is often limed (to decrease
acidity) and artificially fertilised (to increase nutrient status).Continual fertilisation
and liming necessary to maintain adequate yields
Calcification occurs when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation causing the

upward movement of dissolved alkaline salts from the groundwater. At the same
time, the movement of rain water causes a downward movement of the salts. The net
result is the deposition of the translocated cations in the B horizon. In some cases,
these deposits can form a hard layer called caliche. The most common substance
involved in this process is calcium carbonate. Calcification is common in the
prairie grasslands.
Salinization is a process that functions in the similar way to calcification. It differs

from calcification in that the salt deposits occur at or very near the soil surface.
Salinization also takes place in much drier climates.
Gleization is a pedogenic process associated with poor drainage. This process

involves the accumulations of organic matter in the upper layers of the soil. In lower
horizons, mineral layers are stained blue-gray because of the chemical reduction of
iron.
Characteristics of Gley Soils
Poorly drained, Periodic or permanent water logging, Lack of oxygen in pore space
= anaerobic conditions, Chemical reduction occurs prior to translocation, Grey or
bluish grey colour to subsoil, Where gleying is intermittent, orange/yellow coloured
mottling can occur, Horizons generally rich in organic matter intergrading into peat
deposits - peaty gley to peat
Uses of Gley Soils
 In their natural state they support wet plant species and are used for rough
grazing and forestry.
 When drained, the better gley soils can be used for agriculture; usually
productive grassland for dairy or beef cattle.
Soil Profile
 a vertical section of the soil from the ground surface downwards to where the soil meets
the underlying rock.
 can be as little as 10 cm thick in immature soils and as deep as several metres in tropical
areas where the climate is conducive to rapid alteration of the underlying rock to form soil.
 In temperate areas, the soil profile is often around a metre deep and in arid areas somewhat
shallower than this.
 Virtually all soil profiles are composed of a number of distinctive layers, termed horizons,
interpretation of which is the key to understanding how the soil has formed.
 Most soils will have three or more horizons.
 O Horizon - The top, organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf litter and humus
(decomposed organic matter).
 A Horizon - The layer called topsoil; it is found below the O horizon and above the E
horizon. Seeds germinate and plant roots grow in this dark-colored layer. It is made up
of humus (decomposed organic matter) mixed with mineral particles.
 E Horizon - This eluviation (leaching) layer is light in color; this layer is beneath the
A Horizon and above the B Horizon. It is made up mostly of sand and silt, having lost
most of its minerals and clay as water drips through the soil (in the process of
eluviation).
 B Horizon - Also called the subsoil - this layer is beneath the E Horizon and above the
C Horizon. It contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum oxides, and
calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it when mineralized water drips
from the soil above.
 C Horizon - Also called regolith: the layer beneath the B Horizon and above the R
Horizon. It consists of slightly broken-up bedrock. Plant roots do not penetrate into this
layer; very little organic material is found in this layer.
 R Horizon - The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the other layers
Soil catena
 This refers to the differences in soil types and characteristics from the top of a slope
downward.
 It is the different soils that are found down a slope with each soil facet showing
different characteristics but all occurring in the same climate and on the same
underlying parent material.
 A catena shows the lateral variations in soils over a hillslope where the climate and
parent material is the same from the op to the bottom.
 The slope varies in gradient. The top is steep and erosion takes place easily while the
bottom is gentler and materials tend to accumulate.
 It illustrates the way in which soils change down a slope where there are no marked
changes in climate and parent material when sufficient time has passed for
equilibrium to be reached between processes that bring materials into a facet and the
processes that take material away.
 Each catena shows an example of a small-scale open system with its inputs, processes
and outputs.
 The slope itself is in a delicate state of dynamic/changing equilibrium with the soils
and landforms being in a state of flux/flow and where the ratio of erosion and
deposition varies between the different soil facets.
 The slope is divided into or broken into sections known as a ridge, crest, mid-slope
and toe-slope.
The lower slope/Toeslope
 Soils on the lower slopes tend to be deeper and has more moisture or wetter than those
on the upper slope. The soils on the lower is also richer than the upper slope due to
leached materials.
 Richer in clay and organic matter.
 The soils are thicker or deeper because they gain materials due to iluviation.
 Water content is higher on the lower part of the hillslope.
The middle slope/central slope
 Is the thinnest and driest.
 The main process is the transportation of materials on the middle of the slope.
The crest or steeper slope
 Is freely drained.
 The soils are thin or shallow and drier due to run-off due to exposure.
 The soils lose materials such as mineral salts where they are washed away by rain
water (eluviation)
 Steep slopes encourage movement down the slope rather than through the soil. This
means that nutrients are washed downslope, along with small particles. This has an
effect on the texture and pH of the soil.
A soil catena is created by a balance of processes such as precipitation, infiltration and
runoff. The soil catenas develop in stable environments where there are little changes in
climate and landscape.
The importance of a soil catena
 Is the variation of soils across a small area such as a slope.
 This helps in the mapping of soils across a given region.
 Soil catenas help to understand the influence of soil hydrology on soil formation.
 Soil catenas also help us understand the history of the land surface, its hydrology,
erosion, sediment transport and deposition as well as pedogenic processes.
 In the field it helps us understand processes operating within the soil such as ;
 The depth of organic matter. It is linked with cycling efficiency, wetness,
temperature and acidity by analyzing its structure.
 Red and grey colours indicate the oxidation status.
 Leaching processes can be deduced from accumulation lower down in the soil
profile.
 Human activities are influenced by soil quality.
Sustainable Management of Ecosystems
Conservation - is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses protection as well as
exploitation and;
Preservation - is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something without altering or
changing it.
 Initiating laws to protect them.

 Afforestation.
 Use of alternative sources of energy such as solar, electricity and biogas.
 Reuse, reduce and recycle of materials- why is recycling importany to a country?
 Controlling human activity such as deforestation and veld fires, etc.
 Increasing “Communication, Education and Public Awareness” (CEPA) programmes
related to ecosystem conservation
 Ensuring local people benefit from the ecosystems.
 Ecosystem restoration.
 Sustainable use of resourses.
 Terracing.
 Destocking.
 Use of Indegenous Knowledge Systems ( IKS).
Ecosystem restoration
Ecosystem restoration is founded upon ecological and conservation principles and involves
management actions designed to facilitate the recovery or re-establishment of native
ecosystems.
 Channels and wetlands must be stabilized against erosion, run-off rates reduced, and
fire and other techniques introduced to stimulate vegetation recovery
 Heavily cultivated lands planted in single crops can be replaced with diverse cropping
systems that help maintain soil productivity and prevent erosion.
 Gully reclamation, Grass planting and Tree planting.

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NEW CURRICULUM NOTES

BIOGEOGRAPHY A LEVEL 2019-22

Factors affecting vegetation distribution

 Succession is a directional non-seasonal cumulative change in the types of plant species

Organismic and Individualistic Views of Succession

Primary succession ( Prisere)

Forms of Primary succession

 Primary succession takes various forms ,some of which are:

Abandoned Field to Oak Forest

Concept of Climax vegetation

Threats to Climax communities

Biological and Geochemical processes

The Nitrogen Cycle

Rain forest biome

Boreal forest (taiga)

Figure 3.4 Tropical biomes of the world (Source:

Tropical Savanna Biomes

Tropical Savanna vegetation

Animals of the Savanna

Tropical Rain forests

Tropical Rain forests climate

Tropical Rain forests vegetation

 Precipitation varies from 250-1000mm.

Dominant process Calcification Leaching of calcium

Boreal Forest Biome

History of Lineages (Phyleogeography)

Living Organisms have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis

Topography generally modifies the development of soil on a local or regional scale.

Principal Pedogenic Processes

Laterization is a pedogenic process common to soils found in tropical and

Podzolization is associated with humid cold mid-latitude climates and coniferous

Uses of Podzol Soils

Calcification occurs when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation causing the

Salinization is a process that functions in the similar way to calcification. It differs

Gleization is a pedogenic process associated with poor drainage. This process

Characteristics of Gley Soils

Uses of Gley Soils

 Initiating laws to protect them.

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