Module 2

What are the Threats to Terrestrial Ecosystems?

Overview
The earth witnessed mass extinctions as recorded in the earth’s geologic time scale. Mass extinction is
usually defined as a loss of about three quarters of all species in existence across the entire Earth over a
geological period of time. It is any substantial increase in the amount of extinction (lineage termination)
suffered by more than one geographically wide-spread higher taxon during a relatively short interval of
geologic time resulting in an at least temporary decline in their standing diversity (Sepkoski, 1986). An
extinction event is a widespread and quick decrease in the earth’s biodiversity.

There were five mass extinction events on earth:

Ordovician-Silurian Extinction – 444 MYA. This is also known as the Late Ordovician Mass Extinction which
eliminated 49-60% of marine genera and nearly 85% of marine species; this is also considered the second
largest of the five major extinction events surpassed only by the Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction. There
were two pulses of extinction. The first began at the boundary between the Katian and Hirnantian stages of
the Late Ordovician Period attributed to the Late Ordovician glaciation abruptly expanded over Gondwana
at the beginning of the Hirnantian stage, shifting the earth from a greenhouse to icehouse climate. Habitat
loss especially that of the continental shelves affected the endemic taxa with restricted temperature
tolerance. Marine life re-diversified in part, during the cold and new cold-water ecosystem which is referred
to as the Hirnantia Biota; thus the establishment of the Hirnantia Biota. In the later half of the Hirnantian
stage, glaciation abruptly receded and warm conditions returned; that is the second pulse of this mass
extinction.

Late Devonian Extinction - 383-359 MYA. The tagline for this mass extinction, “oceans choke to death,”
drastically ended the Devonian period, technically known as the “Age of Fish.” There were few land animals
during that time but the oceans were abundant. The Gogo Formation, a fossilized reef in Western Australia,
is an evidence supporting this extinction. However, it is not clear how extinction of the armoured
placoderm fish, Dunkleosteus, and trilobites and ammonites happened. A possibility is that a massive
asteroid impact is thought to have scattered debris across the planet, which blocked out the sun and played
havoc with the climate. Other craters were found, but another idea forwarded is that the Devonian sea life
was killed off by “marauding” plants. During the Devonian period, vascular land plants including trees to
ferns and flowering plants proliferated. The primitive vascular forms (moss and lichen) evolved during this
time. It is viewed that these plants had a powerful impact on the land, penetrating the land with their roots,
breaking up the rocks and helping to create soil. This process released nutrients and minerals benefiting the
plants, and at the same time, nutrients and minerals were washed into rivers and into the oceans. The
nutrients would have supported algal blooms which used up the oxygen. Sounds familiar?
This depleted the water column of oxygen creating an anoxic zone. Still, this is not the complete story for
there are still existing holes in the argument.

Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction – 252 MYA. This event witnessed the mass extinction of insects mainly,
amongst others; the most diverse and numerous fauna of the earth. Thus, the largest and most severe

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extinction event of insects. Evidence suggests three pulses for this, occurring over the course of 15 million
years with 80 to 96% losses on species and ~50% families of marine invertebrates lost also. The earth faced
the “Great Dying,” because this cataclysm was solely the worst event so far ever experienced on earth
wiping out large numbers of insect species. Moreover, marine ecosystems took around 4 to 9 MY to
recover. Recent evidence suggests that there is no mass extinction for land plants (Nowak et al., 2019).

Triassic-Jurassic Mass Extinction – 201 MYA. It is much smaller than the Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction,
but allowed the pioneering of dinosaurs, because small niches or microhabitats were destroyed. Thirty
percent of marine species went extinct. What is notable is that this mass extinction event coincided with
the break-up of Pangaea (a supercontinent that had formed as the continents drifted together), which led to
massive changes in the flora and fauna. The background events purported was the lack of speciation _ it
might have been caused by “missing the boat,” or just failing because the species failed to adapt or because
there are no available niches. It is always assumed that with mass extinctions, there are background events
such as possible speciation that occurred. It is not that clear what was the cause of the mass extinction, and
in this case we normally attribute this to asteroids and climate change.

Cretaceous-Paleogene Mass Extinction – 66 MYA. This is the most recent mass extinction and definitively
connected to a major asteroid impact. It was recorded that 76% of all species on the planet that includes
nonavian dinosaurs.

Why present to you the mass extinctions of the earth? Opinions and ideas have been dragging through the
past decade if the next mass extinction would be anthropogenic. What is our viewpoint on the
environmental threats to the only planet we are living in? Are any or the combined threats and issues
driving us to the sixth mass extinction?

This module presents the threats to terrestrial ecosystems.

Learning Objectives
1. Illustrate through an infographic what are the reasons for land degradation, conversion, loss of
biodiversity, fragmentation and encroachments.
2. Enumerate how simple lifestyle changes or community advocacies may help lessen carbon-
footprint.

Vocabulary List
Add to this list as you encounter words in readings or studyings.
TERM DEFINITION
Abiotic Part of an ecosystem that are non-living
Adapt To adjust to new surroundings or a new situation
Adaptive is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species
radiation into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment
makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new
environmental niches.
Albedo Strictly speaking, it is whiteness. It is the proportion of light reflected from a surface
(Perkins, 2019)
Biotic Part of an ecosystem that are living or “were once living.”
Biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships,
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 usually defined as the thin outer layer of the earth capable of supporting life.
Biomes is defined by Osborne (2000) as the subdivisions of biogeographical regions that
support characteristic forms of plants and animals.
This term was coined to describe areas on the earth with similar climate, plants and
animals. There are eight officially classified terrestrial biomes (listed below)
Carbon Sink pertains to area or ecosystem that absorbs more carbon dioxide than it releases.
Carnivores Heterotrophs that consume other animals.
Clade A group of biological taxa (such as species) that includes all descendants of one
common ancestor
Climate is the average state of the atmosphere for a given time scale (hour, day, month,
season, year, decade, etc.) and generally for a specified geographical region
(Houghton, 2002).
Climate Change It is the change in climate attributed directly or indirectly to human activity which in
addition to natural climate variability is observed over comparable time periods
(adapted by UNFCCC). The confusion on what climate change is arises when
perceived to include all climate variability. This course will adapt this definition that
climate change is centered on the human activity that alters the composition of the
global atmosphere and excludes other human activity effects such as changes in the
land surface.
Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms.
Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta, also known as
Coniferophyta or Coniferae.
Conspecific Two or more individual organisms, populations, or taxa are conspecific if they
belong to the same species
Consumers Organisms that obtain energy by feeding on other organisms.
Decomposers Break down wastes and dead organisms and return the raw materials to the
ecosystem.
Desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and,
consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life.
Detritus
Detritivores (also known as detrivores, detritophages, detritus feeders, or detritus eaters)
are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing
plant and animal parts as well as faeces).There are many kinds of
invertebrates, vertebrates and plants that carry out coprophagy.`
Diurnal This is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that
temperature occurs during the same day.
variation
Ecosphere The Earth, all of the organisms living on it, and all the environmental factors
which act on the organism
Ecosystem is all the plants and animals that live in a particular area together with the
complex relationship that exists between them and their environment.
El Nino This refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate=e interaction linked to a
periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-central
equatorial Pacific (NOAA.gov)
Global Warming is the gradual increase in the over-all temperature of the earth’s atmosphere due to
the greenhouse effect. The absence of greenhouse
Grassland are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses occur naturally on all
continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth.
One of the largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide.
They cover 31-43% of the Earth’s land area.
Greenhouse It is actually a natural process that warms the earth’s surface. When the sun’s
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Effect energy reaches the earth’s atmosphere, some of the energy is reflected back to
space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. The warming if
the earth’s atmosphere is due to the build-up of hear trapping gases such as CO2 and
CH4 (a.k.a. pollutants).
Greenhouse gas Gas in the atmosphere including CO2, CH4, water vapor, and ozone that absorbs solar
hear reflected by the surface of the earth, warming the atmosphere.
Hazard Based on the explanation by the earth sciences, a hazard is a natural event that has
the potential for a significant negative impact on humans, infrastructure, or the
environment
Herbivores Heterotrophs that consume plant only.
Homeostasis Any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain
stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival
Humidity Amount of water vapor in the air
Intertropical The region that circles the Earth, near the equator, where the trade winds of
Convergence Northern and Southern hemispheres come together
Zone
La Nina It is a climate pattern the describes the cooling of surface of ocean water along the
tropical west coast of South America (National Geographic) and considered as a
counterpart of El Nino.
Limiting Factor is a variable of a system that causes a noticeable change in output or another
measure of a type of system. The limiting factor is in a pyramid shape of
organisms going up from the producers to consumers and so on.
Monsoon It is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing or strongest winds of a region
which cause wet and dry seasons throughout most of the tropics.
Muskeg An acidic soil type common in Arctic and boreal areas. Can look like solid
ground being covered with moss, short grassess and even trees however they
are wet and spongy.
Niche A position or role taken by a particular organism within its community. Such a
position may be occupied by different organisms in different localities, e.g.
antelopes in Africa and kangaroo in Australia
Omnivores An omnivore is an organism that regularly consumes a variety of material,
including plants, animals, algae, and fungi. They range in size from tiny
insects like ants to large creatures
Paleoclimatology Study of Earth’s climate during the entire history of Earth
Permafrost Any grounds that remain completely frozen,32 degrees Fahrenheit or 0
degree Celsius or colder for at least 2 years straight. Most common in regions
with high mountains and in Earth’s higher latitudes, North and South poles
Phylogenetic Relating to the evolutionary development and diversification of a species or
group of organisms, or of a particular feature of an organism
Phylogenetic Defined as the tendency for lineages to retain ancestral ecological
niche characteristics over time (Holt & Gaines, 1992; Ricklefs & Latham, 1992;
conservatism Peterson, Soberon & Sanchez-Cordero, 1999; Prinzing, 2001; Wiens &
Graham, 2005)
Pollution The introduction of harmful materials into the environment
Producers Organisms that obtains energy by feeding on other organisms.
Scavengers Feed on dead organisms.
Taiga generally referred to in North America as boreal forest or snow forest, is a
biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces,
and larches.

Temperature degree of hotness or coldness measured by a thermometer with a numerical

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 scale
Terrestrial refers to things related to land or the planet Earth
Terrestrial is a type of ecosystem found only on land forms
ecosystem
Tide pool small pond created by an ebb tide and submerged by a high tide.
Tropical Rain are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there
Forest is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm
– and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest.
Tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and
short growing seasons.
Weather state of the atmosphere, including temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind,
humidity, precipitation, and cloudiness. This involves the description of the
atmospheric condition at a single instance of time for a single occurrence. Climate
can be an average of weather condition over a period of time including the
probability for distributions from this average.

Learning Plan
1. Take the Pre-Test 2.
2. Read through the Information Sheet. As you read, add up to our Vocabulary List, words that you
deem important to your current learning! As you will notice, we are continually building our
vocabulary.
3. Accomplish the tasks encountered.
 Task 1 – Issue Selection and Argument
 Task 2 – Design an Infographic
4. Watch a movie. Select a movie from the list at the end of Module 2. Share what it is all about, then
criticize by identifying or noting at least two “not so good” things about the movie (500 to 1000
words). Then, add in your concluding remarks (Maximum of three sentences). This is just for
additional points (not mandatory).

Pretest

Information Sheet*

2. Threat is anything likely to cause damage. Threats to the ecosystem may refer to processes or events
causing harm by alteration brought about by human activities leading to ecological impacts to a given
ecosystem. Threats can be identified and a rating ascribed through determinations of the source of
threat and running through an assessment (minimal, moderate or severe). A sample of assessment is
provided below (Source: https://seas.umich.edu.ecomgt/pubs/manistee/chapter6.pdf)

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Issue is defined as an important topic or problem for debate or discussion. Threats to the ecosystem
are issues that we have to act on!?!

Easton and Goldfarb in 2003 presented 19 environmental issues and the concomitant clashing
viewpoints. This epitomizes the bleak realities for an environmental issue, that instead of coming to
terms with how to mitigate the issue, much time is spent determining whether an issue is really an
issue.
The following issues were presented:

“Issue 1. Should a Price Be Put on the Goods and Services Provided by the
World’s Ecosystems?

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Issue 2. Is Biodiversity Overprotected?

Issue 3. Are Environmental Regulations Too Restrictive?

Issue 4. Should Environmental Policy Attempt to Cure Environmental Racism?

Issue 5. Is the Precautionary Principle a Sound Basis for International Policy?

Issue 6. Do Environmentalists Overstate Their Case?

Issue 7. Should the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Be Opened to Oil Drilling?

Issue 8. Should DDT Be Banned Worldwide?

Issue 9. Is Genetic Engineering an Environmentally Sound Way to Increase

Food Production?

Issue 10. Do Environmental Hormone Mimics Pose a Potentially Serious

Health Threat?

Issue 11. Is the Environmental Protection Agency’s Decision to Tighten Air

Quality Standards for Ozone and Particulates Justified?

Issue 12. Do Human Activities Threaten to Change the Global Climate?

Issue 13. Hazardous Waste: Should the “Polluter Pays” Provision of

Superfund Be Weakened?

Issue 14. Municipal Waste: Is Recycling an Environmentally and Economically

Sound Waste Management Strategy?

Issue 15. Nuclear Waste: Should the United States Continue to Focus Plans
for Permanent Nuclear Waste Disposal Exclusively at Yucca
Mountain?

Issue 16. Is Limiting Population Growth a Key Factor in Protecting the Global
Environment?

Issue 17. Will Pollution Rights Trading Effectively Control Environmental

Problems?

Issue 18. Will Voluntary Action by Industry Reduce the Need for Future
Environmental Regulation?

Issue 19. Is Sustainable Development Compatible with Human Welfare?

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 Is it possible that these issues are already addressed and are not issues anymore? Based on what we
are hearing and seeing, these issues are still current. In a recent Webinar that I have attended, the
earth was described as a “gloomy globe, and doom awaits humanity.”

The following threats are presented to you and the stance I am adapting is that of Theodore D. Goldfarb
as pointed out by Thomas A. Easton,“ …No matter whether the goal is to attempt an objective
presentation or to encourage advocacy, it is necessary to present both sides of any argument. To be a
successful proponent of any position, it is essential to understand your opponents’ arguments.”

Task 1: Find an issue (which is not included in the list) that you think you may develop into an
argument. Indicate why you chose that. Expound why it is an issue, or why it is not really an issue.
Explain your conviction or your stand, and indicate why you are convinced about this. End your
argument with a possible advocacy. Points to earn: Indication of “issue” choice or selection, 10
points; standpoint, 20 points; concluding remarks or advocacy, 20 points.

Present this activity through a video presentation.

Threats included in this module are climate change, wildlife crime, infrastructure development, soil erosion,
deforestation and forest degradation, UV radiation and by-catch.

2.1. Climate Change

In the previous module, the definition of climate change is part of the Vocabulary List. Some view
this term(s) as an oxymoron since climate is really dependent on the geographical location, hence
varies from area to area, i.e. change. However, for the sake of coming up with a technical
definition, the following is stated. It is the change in climate attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity which in addition to natural climate variability is observed over comparable time
periods (adapted by UNFCCC). The confusion on what climate change is, arises when perceived to
include all climate variability. This course will adapt this definition that climate change is centered
on the human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and excludes other
human activity effects such as changes in the land surface.

2.1.1. Signs of Climate Change. The long-term effects/signs of climate change are rising
temperatures, occurrence of extreme events, heavy precipitation and decreased water as a
natural resource in semi-arid regions, and sea level rise.

2.1.1.1. Sea Level Rise. Sea Level is the base level for measuring elevation and depth on
earth. Why use it as the base level? It is used as a base level because the ocean is one
continuous body of water and therefore the surface tends to seek the same level
throughout the world. Thus, heights such as elevation may be measured based on this
benchmark. The Mean Sea Level (MSL) shortened to sea level is an average level and a
global MSL is a vertical datum. Sea levels are affected by many factors and are known to
have varied greatly over geological time scales. In our current situation (and the 20 th
century), sea level rise is presumed to be caused by climate change, and the variations in
the data gathered can enlighten us on the impacts of climate change.
Why does sea level rise? The rise of the sea level is caused by the thermal expansion
caused by the warming of the ocean because water expands as it warms, and another is
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 due to increased melting of land-based ice (glaciers and ice sheets). The next question to
ask is, “Is the sea level rising?” Experts agree that sea level is rising and has been rising
over the past century; and the rate increased in the more recent decades. Some facts:
 3.3 mm per year is the rate of change in sea level (climate.nasa.gov)
 As of this year’s last measurement, it is 4 mm
 Sea level has risen 21 to 24 cm since 1880
 Even if the world follows a low greenhouse gas pathway, global sea level will likely
rise at least (0.3 meters) above 2000 levels by 2100.
 Sea level rise at specific locations will vary on local factors such as ground setlling,
upstream flood control, erosion, regional ocean currents and whether the land is still
rebounding from the compressive weight of Ice Age glaciers.
2.1.1.2. Precipitation. Storm-affected areas are likely to experience increases in
precipitation increasing the risks of flooding. But how does climate change affect
precipitation? Models used to forecast, predicts that the rising temperatures will
intensify the earth’s water cycle, i.e. increasing evaporation which will lead to more
frequent and intense storms, and consequently dry some areas. Thus, storm-affected
areas will experience increases in precipitation and the concomitant risk of flooding.
Areas that are far away from storms are likely to experience less precipitations and
higher risk of drought.
A measure to quantify the effect of climate change on precipitation is called the PMP or
Probable Maximum Precipitation. This is termed as the greatest accumulation of
precipitation for a given duration meteorologically possible for an area (Kunkel et al.,
2013). The analysis includes maximization of moisture and persistent upward motion
combining climate model simulations and conceptual models of relevant meteorological
systems. The study of Kunkel et al. predicted that there will be an increase of 20 to 30%
in PMP of the United States in 2071-2100. This prediction is based on assumptions that
there will be higher levels of atmospheric moisture content and consequent higher levels
of moisture transport into storms.
Brought forward is the possible effects of climate change on extreme precipitation which
culminates when the radiative energy imbalance causes increases in greenhouse gas
concentrations. This situation cannot be abated because the increase in ocean heat
storage continues effecting rise in sea surface temperatures. The already warm ocean
will lead to a rise in evaporation and atmospheric water vapor content, thus intensified
hydrologic cycle is foreseen.
Plainly speaking, warmer atmosphere will hold more rain, and on a global scale water
vapor will increase by 7% for every oC of warming. Thus, every 1- oC warming, there is 1 -
2 oC volume of precipitation. On a local scale, this will be harder to confirm. One thing is
sure for the tropics, the wet will get wetter.
2.1.1.3. Extreme Events. The types of extreme events recorded were compiled by
McPhillips et al. which include
 chemical contamination  dust storm
 climate non-specific  earthquake
 coastal erosions/ surges  fire
 cold  flooding
 cyclone/ hurricane/  heat
typhoon  ice
 drought  landslide/ rockfall
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  multiple non-specific  tornado
 rainfall  vegetation loss
 snow  volcano
 solar phenomena  wind
 species invasion  others
Scientists of varied disciplines found out that extreme events are easily recognized, but
defining it was not easy. Some descriptives were high-impact, hard-to-predict
phenomenon, beyond normal (Gaussian bell curve-wise) expectations. Categories to
characterize are intensity, frequency and duration. Various disciplines study extreme
events such as climatology, earth science, ecology, engineering, hydrology, and social
science. Frequent descriptors from these sciences when collated are event types
(precipitation, flood, temperature), event magnitude (high percentile, exceed, threshold,
extreme), event impact (impact, damage, value), and event occurrence (event, occur,
cause).
Philippines. We need not go far to know more about extreme events. Our country is one
of the most affected in terms of extreme weather events from 2000 to 2019 (Inquirer.net;
Philippine Daily Inquirer January 26, 2021), ranking fourth amongst 180 countries in the 20-
year period, following Puerto Rico, Myanmar and Haiti. There were 317 extreme weather
events for that 20-day period. Damages come from storms _ strong winds, heavy rainfall,
floods and landslides. The excessive rainfall is said to be due to climate change; damages
are magnified due to improper land uses, from construction of settlements, cultivation in
flood-prone areas, siltation of waterways caused by excessive soil erosion which is because
of illegal logging and deforestation, and also, poor or non-implementation of the solid waste
management policies on the local level (Philippine Information Agency, February 2021).
Severity and the number of strong tropical cyclones will increase with every tenth degree in
global average temperature rise. Our country is vulnerable since we have low coping
capacity. It was observed that poorer countries are hit hardest. The richer nations agreed
to contribute to financing projects to help poorer countries adopt cleaner energy systems to
alleviate the impacts of planetary warming.
Notwithstanding the fact that the Philippines face an average of 20 tropical cyclones every
year. Some of the worst we had faced were Ondoy (2009), Pablo (Bopha) in 2012, Yolanda
(Haiyan) in 2013 and Ompong (Mangkhut) in 2018. In terms of deaths due to typhoons, our
country ranked thirteenth overall in 2019.
The top three ranked world’s most powerful tropical cyclones at landfall occurred in the
country were Goni, Meranti and Haiyan: Goni (locally, Rolly) is the strongest landfalling
tropical cyclone in world recorded history with 195 mph. Meranti (Ferdie) in September
2016 and Haiyan (Yolanda) were at 190 mph. The irony here which were pointed out by
other countries is the reality, that we have been hit thrice and still we are not prepared.
This is only one of the many other types of disasters.
Risks reported were either climatic, geophysical, economic or health-related.

2.1.1.4. Global Temperature. The following presents the highlights of Lindsey and Dahlman
(2021) regarding global temperature based on the history of global surface temperature
since 1880:
 2020 was the second-warmest year on record based on NOAA’s (National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration) temperature data, and land areas were record
warm;
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  2020 surface temperature averaged across land and ocean was 0.98 oC warmer than
the 20th century average of 13.9 oC and 1.19 oC warmer than the pre-industrial period
(1880-1900);
 Even if 2020 had a cooling possibility brought by the late in the year La Niña event,
the last year (2020) was just a bit warmer by 0.02 oC than the warmest year (2016)
on record.
 An increase of 0.08 oC per decade since 1880 has been experienced by the earth, and
the rate of warming in the last 40 years is more than twice (0.18 oC) per decade since
1981.
 It was since 2005 that the warmest temperatures have occurred.
 A new record was set on an average of 13.5 years from 1900 to 1980 but from 1981
to 2019, a new record was set every 3 years. This is temperature record.
The question is: “why do global temperatures matter?” Why is it of any concern to us? First,
we must remember that temperature change is not uniform across the globe; there will be
cooler areas, as well as warmer ones.

Projected changes across the globe brought out by average temperature increase of 1.5 and 2.0
o
C (Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sprecial Report on Global Warming by
Blobal Climate Change, 2019. climate.nasa.gov)

Climate-related risks for natural and human –systems are deduced to be higher under the
hotter temperature threshold, and are affected by factors such as rate, duration and
magnitude of warming, geographic location, levels of development and vulnerability, and on
how humans respond through adaptation and mitigation options. Small islands are
predicted to experience multiple climate-related risks that compounds the issue/s. Though it
is the Arctic during the cool seasons that strongest warming occurs, it is in the Earth’s mid-

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 latitude regions which are impacted during the warm season. Hence the Philippines cannot
escape this trend especially so that it is the tropic land regions that will see more hot days.
The implication of a 1.5 oC warming is that 14% of the Earth’s population will be exposed to
severe heat waves at least once every five years, but at 2.0 oC warming, this is pegged at
37%. To predict furthermore, 420 million people less will be exposed to extreme heatwaves
if warming is only at 1.5 degree Celsius.
It is also forecasted that the warmest extreme temperatures will be in Central and Eastern
North America, Central and Southern Europe, the Mediterranean (including Southern
Europe, Northern Africa and the near-East), Western and Central Asia and Southern Africa.
Due to the temperature rise, cold spells will be shorter. Predictions for the Arctic land
regions include cold extremes warming by ~5.5 oC if earth warms at the 1.5 oC; at 2 oC, it will
be up to 8 oC warmer.

2.1.2. Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate Change

Human-caused or anthropogenic climate-changers (DoC, Drivers of Change) include emissions
of heat-trapping gases (GHGs, greenhouse gases) and changes in land use that make land reflect
more or less sunlight energy such as the case of conversion of TRFs to traditional or
conventional agriculture. A recently introduced term to include here is Climate Forcing.
Climate Forcing is the physical process of affecting the climate on the Earth through a number of
forcing factors. These factors are specifically known as forcings because they drive the climate
to change. This will be dealt in detail after the three foregoing topics _ deforestation, human
population and industrialization.

2.1.2.1. Deforestation is described as the clearing on thinning of forests initiated by human

beings. Simply put, when trees are alive, they take in CO 2 and release oxygen during
photosynthesis; but when these are cut and burned or allowed to rot, the stored carbon
is released into the air as CO 2. This is how it contributes to global warming. To deal with
this issue, first we must address the reasons for deforestation (deforestation-drivers).
Hosonuma et al. (2012) categorized deforestation drivers: (i) agriculture (commercial),
(ii) agriculture (subsistence), (iii) mining, (iv) infrastructure, and (v) urban expansion.
Forest degradation drivers are included here since deforestation can include this in a
broad sense: (i) timber logging, (ii) uncontrolled fires, (iii) livestock grazing. More on
deforestation is presented in the succeeding topics. This in included here as part of
climate change. This is one example substantiating the interconnectivity of the
environment.
2.1.2.2. Human Population. The argument that human population growth will result to
greenhouse gases build-up and global climate disruption is undeniable. Finding ways to
lessen our Carbon footprint, and putting this to sustainable practice are two different
things. We can do all the research and find all the effective ways to lessen C-footprint
but if this does not become us or our lifestyle. All our efforts go to nothing. It is
important that we follow through. What is carbon footprint? Carbon footprint pertains
to the amount of carbon dioxide each one of us is directly or indirectly responsible for
producing. The carbon footprint size depends on the lifestyle choices _ diet,
transportation and purchases. To produce these products for diet, transportation,
purchases, and the like, fossil fuels are used as energy source. During the process, a
number of pollutants, including carbon dioxide is released. The increased level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is a result of human activities, which intensify climate change.
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 We must do some (more for others?) lifestyle changes to lessen human-caused climate
change.
Impinging on this, is the nagging situation that population growth has not been letting
up. Comparing the change in the lifestyle, with potential Carbon-savings with less
reproduction, the latter still comes out the winner. There is also that discrepancy in the
carbon legacy size; a child born in the US is reported to be responsible for almost seven
times the carbon emissions of a child born in China and 168 times the impact of a child
born in Bangladesh. And again, a different picture is posed with the globalization of
world economy. The reality of the true carbon footprint can be masked with this
ongoing globalization wherein China can surpass the United States and now be the
world’s leading GHGs emitter. Still, if we take a look, these products manufactured in
China is exported throughout the globe. Small things that contribute to carbon footprint
build-up are car-dependent suburbs, high-energy consumption in homes (air
conditioning and other power-generated appliances, increasing demand of fast foods
and food deliveries, to name a few. Scaling-back consumption patterns and reduction in
population is something we can do as a society.

2.1.2.3. Industrialization. The need for industrialization may be brought out due to human
population growth. As population grows, demand for products increases; higher
production of goods due to demand by the consumers, inevitably lead to elevated GHGs.
Going back to the roots of industrialization, industrialism is defined as a way of life
encompassing profound economic, social, political and cultural changes. Societies
undergoing the comprehensive changes of industrialization are said to become modern.
Modernization viewed in this way connotes a negative impact to global climate; this
should not be our stand since we all benefit in this concept in our lifestyles. However,
we must accept the challenge to allow modernization in a sustainable manner that does
not infringe on our desire to sustain the earth.

Climate Forcing. To reiterate, climate forcing is the physical process of affecting the climate
through a number of FORCING FACTORS. These Forcing Factors drive the climate to change and
it is important to note that these forcings exist outside of the existing CLIMATE SYSTEM. To
clarify, the following form the part of the climate system: hydrosphere, land surface,
cryosphere, biosphere and atmosphere. Forcings include (i) variations in solar radiation levels,
(ii) volcanic eruptions, (iii) changing albedo, (iv) changing levels of GHGs. It is expected that the
climate is affected due to some modification in the Earth’s energy flow. What defines climate
are temperature and other characteristics, consequently, the “ins and the outs” of energy flows
constrain climate change. The physical processes that can modify these energy flows will be the
basis for forcings. Modelling climate change can utilize these physical processes and will be
necessary to mitigate climate change. To enumerate forcings for GHGs, this will include CO 2,
CH4, NO2; for ozone, tropospheric, stratospheric, stratospheric with water vapor; for albedo,
land use, black carbon on snow; for aerosols, direct effect, cloud albedo effect. On top of these,
we consider linear contrails and solar irradiance.

2.1.3. Climate Change Projections and Climate Scenarios

An extensive report was compiled by Collins et al. (2013) on the long term impact of the
climate change projections using systems-modelling:

13 | M o d u l e 2
  Projections of Temperature Change. Global mean temperatures will continue to rise
over the 21st century if GHGs continue unabated. This temperature change will not be
regionally uniform and that increases in the frequencies, duration and magnitude of
hot extremes are to be expected on both daily and seasonal time scales. It is also
projected that changes in atmospheric circulation will ensue affecting the mean sea
level pressure which will decreases in high latitudes and increase in the mid latitudes
as global temperatures rise. Others that will change are water cycle, cryosphere, and
oceans, carbon cycle and crop lands.
 Changes in Temperature and Energy Budget. This will include surface warming of
Land-Sea contrast, polar amplification and sea surface temperatures.
 Commitments that must be made are: (i) Constant emission commitment which is the
warming that would result from maintaining annual anthropogenic emissions at the
current level, (ii) Zero emission commitment involves commitment on climate change
where emissions are set to zero, and (iii) Results-based commitment which is
addressing the question of how much warming we are committed to as a result of
inertia and commitments related to time scales for energy system transitions and
other societal, economic and technological aspects.
 Useful concepts are forwarded: (i) ECS or equilibrium climate sensitivity, and (ii) TCR
or transient climate response. These primarily ascribes to the response of a model to
an external forcing perturbation and are generally sensitive and considered reliable or
with high confidence.
 The following forecast and projections might give you an idea on what system
component of the climate are expected by experts to abruptly change or stabilize:

A list of the Earth’s components collated that are potentially being susceptible to abrupt or irreversible
change (Collins et al., 2013)
Change in Potentially Irreversibility if Projected likelihood of 21st century change in
Climate System abrupt forcing reversed scenarios considered
Atlantic MOC Yes Unknown Very unlikely that the AMOC will undergo a rapid
collapse transition (high confidence)
Ice sheet No Irreversible for Exceptionally unlikely that either Greenland or West
collapse millennia Antarctic Ice sheets will suffer near-complete
disintegration (high confidence)
Permafrost No Irreversible for Possible that permafrost will become a net source of
carbon release millennia atmospheric greenhouse gases (low confidence)
Clathrate Yes Irreversible for Very unlikely that methane from clathrates will
methane millennia undergo catastrophic release (high confidence)
release
Tropical forests Yes Reversible Low confidence in projections of the collapse of large
dieback within centuries areas of tropical forest
Boreal forests Yes Reversible Low confidence in projections of the collapse of large
dieback within centuries areas of boreal forest
Disappearance Yes Reversible Likely that the Arctic Ocean becomes nearly ice-free
of summer within years to in September before mid-century under high forcing
Arctic sea ice decades scenarios such as RCP8.5 (medium confidence)
Long term Yes Reversible Low confidence in projections of changes in the
droughts within years to frequency and duration of mega droughts
14 | M o d u l e 2
 decades
Monsoonal Yes Reversible Low confidence in projections of a collapse in
circulation within years to monsoon circulations.
decades
MOC – Meridional Overturning Circulation
AMOC – Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
Clathrate – is a structure in which water molecules under certain conditions bond to form complex networks
of molecules forming cage-like structures that encapsulate a guest molecule, which is a gas.

2.1.4. Climate Change Impacts on Natural Resources

2.1.4.1. Water and Watersheds. The potential effects of climate change on water and water
watersheds were enumerated by Mamuye and Kebebewu (2018):
 Increased atmospheric evaporative demand (increased evapotranspiration)
 Change in vegetation composition affecting evaporation and interception
 Precipitation
 Altered groundwater storage and recharge
 Change in stream flow and runoff characteristics
2.1.4.2. Land. Since economy is a vital aspect of society for survival of human race, five
sectors are sensitive to climate change, namely agriculture, forestry, water, coastal and
energy. Four of these except energy involve land; and it is quite obvious that agriculture
and forestry are key land uses. Climate change impacts the land in terms of global soil
erosion by water (Borrelli et al., 2020), loss of endangered species and potential health
effects.
2.1.4.3. Biodiversity. The abnormal change in climate patterns consequently forces
fluctuation of ecosystems and their respective biodiversity. This will harm species in the
different ecosystems. It has long been established that climate change fully impacts
biodiversity. Persistent amongst these impacts is biodiversity loss in varying levels such
as loss of gene, loss of species and loss of ecosystem leading to the loss of ecosystem
functioning and services. Also, there could be shifts in species distribution, smaller sizes
of populations, phenological shifts to name some.
The loss of ecosystem services will impact economy as 40% of world’s economy depends
on these services while the less industrialized countries’ economy relies on 80% of the
services. Ecosystem services are crucial to sustainable increases in agricultural
productivity. Aside from the regular provisioning services, it is expected the regulating
services specifically for disease and climate regulation.

2.1.5. Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture

2.1.5.1. Crop Production. Aside from the apparent reduction of crop yield and quality,
temperature rise was found to affect sugar content by reducing it, production of off-
colored produce, shorter shelf-life of fruits on top of exacerbating problems in
production such as weediness, diseases and insect pests.
2.1.5.2. Livestock Production. Protein source from livestock will be a pressing issue relative
to food security. The livestock production and reproduction will be lower since water
availability, and health issues will be a concern. In short, climate change impacts are
major stressors in the production.
2.1.5.3. Fisheries (Open and Aquaculture). GHG accumulation and global warming changes
ocean currents, El Niňo Southern Oscillation, sea level rise, rainfall, river flows, lake
15 | M o d u l e 2
 levels, thermal structure, storm severity, storm frequency and acidification. Acidification
has been reported negatively impacting shellfish aquaculture while fish biomass may
decrease in the tropics. Tropical species are expected to spread which can be a
potential, but autochthonous species may be affected negatively with the increase in
temperatures. Inland fisheries are at risk also because of water shortages, drought and
impacts from other sectors; mass coral bleaching and mortality and concomitant impacts
on fish stocks may also ensue. These are just some of the impacts.
2.1.6.Climate Change Impacts on Food Security
Food security is assessed based on the following: (i) availability, (ii) stability, (iii) access, and
(iv) utilization. With the foregoing impacts discussed, food security will be negatively affected.
An interesting finding presented by partnership for economic policy pertinent on climate
change effect in the food security of the Philippines, specified that increased or unstable
rainfall, or extremely cold or extremely hot temperatures would likely lead to increased
vulnerability to food insecurity.

Further Readings
https://youtu.be/dcBXmj1nMTQ What is Climate Change?
https://youtu.be/G4H1N_yXBiA Causes and Effects of Climate Change

2.2. Wildlife Crime is operated by international networks, wildlife and animal parts are trafficked much
like illegal drugs and arms.
2.2.1. Poaching. Hunting have been around for ~400,000 years, and has played an important role in
leadership and community formation which built societies. For comparison, agriculture began
in 10,000BC in the Crescent Valley of the Mesopotamia. However, hunting persevered as an
important part of culture and also our economy. The difference between poaching and
hunting is that the former is illegal. Poaching for animal products like horn, ivory, bone, and
teeth is a source of income for these are sold as materials for making jewelry and accessories,
even clothing. At times, poaching becomes acceptable to halt encroaching on farms, or as a
form of sports.

2.2.2. Categories of Threatened Species. These include vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN), critically
endangered (CR), and recently extinct (EX) species, near threatened (NT), and data deficient
(DD), and prehistoric species. The IUCN or the International Union for Conservation of Nature,
categorized the different levels of the health of world’s biodiversity including the species that
are endangered. The definition for each follows:
2.2.2.1. Vulnerable (VU): A taxon is categorized as VU or vulnerable when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable, and it is
therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
2.2.2.2. Endangered: A taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that
it meets any of the criteria A to E for endangered, and it is therefore considered to be
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
2.2.2.3. Critically Endangered (CR): A taxon is considered CR when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically endangered, and it
is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild
2.2.2.4. Extinct: or EX is a taxon categorized as such when there is no reasonable doubt that
the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed EX when exhaustive surveys and/or
16 | M o d u l e 2
 expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic
range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame
appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.
2.2.2.5. Near Threatened: A taxon that is near threatened when it has been evaluated
against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or
Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for a threatened category in the near future.
2.2.2.6. Data Deficient (DD): A taxon that is considered as Data Deficient does not have
inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction
based on its distribution and/or population status. In addition, a taxon belonging to this
category might be well studied, and biology well known, but appropriate data on
abundance and or distribution are lacking.
2.2.2.7. Least Concern (LC): A category of a taxon that is Least Concern or LC when it has
been evaluated against the Red List criteria and does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened.
2.2.2.8. Extinct in the Wild (EW): A taxon is EW, when it is known only to survive in
cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the
past range. When exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat at appropriate
times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an
individual, then a taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild. Surveys conducted should be
over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.
2.2.2.9. Not Evaluated (NE). At implied, this will categorize all taxon that has not yet been
evaluated.

Following is a copy of the criteria used for categorization to be used with the previous
descriptive.

17 | M o d u l e 2
18 | M o d u l e 2
Further Readings
http://www.cites.org
http://www.nwf.org

2.3. Infrastructure Development. This is defined as the construction of basic foundational services in
order to stimulate economic growth and quality of life improvement. This being beneficial can be
viewed as something good for humanity. Ecosystems are also vital to humanity’s survival, however
most of the times, infrastructure development and natural ecosystems do not go hand-in-hand.
2.3.1. Causes
2.3.1.1. Dams. At the onset of dam constructions, immediately out of the picture are
riverbank gardens. Major modification of the landscapes and ecosystems cannot be
avoided in dam constructions. The repercussions of which are far-reaching. Over-all
changes in water, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems ensue which in turn reduce and
simplify household incomes for affected communities especially where Indigenous
Peoples are concerned. The key ecosystem services that are adversely affected include
fisheries, floodplain agriculture and sediment transport. The socio-economic and
environmental costs outweigh the benefits if constructions are substandard. It is worthy
to note that dams are built to store and regulate water in order that water will be
available whole year-round especially during the dry seasons. This is being done to
combat poverty, achieve economic growth and foster food security.
2.3.1.2. Water Transfers and Channelization. Channelization is described as involving
modification through engineering methods, for purposes of flood control, drainage,
navigation, and prevention of erosion (Gregory, 2001). The designs are usually for
promotion of transportation, and enhance the capacity of the communities in the areas
whereat. Water transfers are the answer to distribution of water equally. It is ambitious
endeavor for it entails large-scale physical transfers of water. Water scarcity is a
complex issue since there are some parts of the globe that has too much of it, and there
are some parts where this is scarce, but definitely, a more prevalent issue us the unequal
distribution of water across the globe. Water transfers are said to be ambitious because
some go as far as continent to continent. The down-side is that donor basins can
experience lower water levels and limited access to their own freshwater. Some projects
resulted to entire communities being relocated. For the recipient of the water such as in
flooding wetlands, a myriad of disadvantages was discovered such as the release of
GHGs (carbon dioxide and methane), favoring the increase and conversion by bacteria of
mercury in flooded soils and vegetation to methylmercury _ its toxic from. It is also
possible that alien invasives can play havoc in varying salinities of the water, interrupt
river systems, and disrupt fish spawning and migration patterns.
2.3.1.3. Oil, Gas and Mining Facilities. Easily, when you search for the impacts of oil and gas
drilling to ecosystem, results of your search would include destruction of water sources,
wildlife disruption, human health hazards, encroachment of habitats under conservation
or protected. (i) Drilling, by itself, disrupts wildlife habitat by posing as barriers and
making difficult navigation. Forage are being bulldozed which hampers their survival. (ii)
Oil spill are potentially deadly to animals. There are the big spills that results to obvious
killings but there are also the small spills that can drastically affect the microhabitats of
certain species. (iii) Air and water pollution are detrimental to local communities. (iv)
dangerous emissions contribute to climate change. Pristine landscapes can be ruined by
oil and gas development.
19 | M o d u l e 2
2.4. Soil Erosion. Evidence suggests that soil erosion degrades soil. The topmost layer of the soil is
nutrient-rich, and during soil erosion, this portion is the first to go. It is considered as one of the
worst environmental problem, and agriculturally as well. In the Philippine scenario, Asio et al.
(2009) enumerated three contributory factors aggravating soil erosion namely, country’s steep
topography, deforested uplands, and heavy rainfall. On top of that, soils in the sloping land in the
country is either unstable/ heavy clay with low infiltration capacity or poorly developed thus
favoring soil loss.
Global soil erosion brought about by cropland expansion are continuously increasing (Borrelli et al.,
2013).

2.5. Deforestation and Forest Degradation represent one of the largest issues in global land use,
commonly impacting TRFs. Conversion of forests for other purposes had long been part of
civilization since farming was developed. Bulk of the area now used in farming are forested lands.
Deforestation is defined as the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost caused by
purposive conversion to agriculture croplands, constructions of infrastructures, urbanization and
mining activities. Since the 1960s, the conversion rate has been escalating, and the Philippines is
one of the most severely deforested countries in the tropics. Most deforestation occurred in the
last 40 years. Based on data from ETFRN, the estimated forest cover in the country is at 21 million
hectares in the 1900s covering 70% of the area. By 1999, forest cover had gone down to 5.5.
million hectares (primary forest was 800,000 hectares of this 5.5 million).
2.5.1. Causes
2.5.1.1. Conversion to agriculture or crop land is the first and foremost cause of
deforestation. In turn, population pressure and poverty are the top two factors that
begins or brings about forestland encroachment (Iftekhar et al., 2003). Iftekhar and
Hoque (2005) emphasize that deforestation is a major cause of environmental
degradation.
Encroachment is legally defined as something that carries the sense of something slowly
creeping into something else’s space, and in this sense, a crop land encroaching in a
forest land. Habitat composition of forest lands gradually changes with encroachments.
Other impacts include erosion, magnified by the sloping landscape; loss of biodiversity
and in certain areas vulnerable or endangered species go extinct.
Fragmentation, or habitat fragmentation is defined as the process during which a large
expanse of habitat is transformed into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area
isolated from each other by a matrix of habitats unlike the original (Fahrig, 2003).
Fragmentation may lead to formation of metapopulations or smaller demes of
populations of the species. Rogan and Lacher (2018) shared the impact of fragmentation
on terrestrial biology which is habitat loss leading to loss of biodiversity. Again, (i)
outright loss of biodiversity, (ii) creation of forest edges that differ from interior forest in
many physical and biological properties (wind speed, humidity, temperature and
predator populations), and (iii) disruption of movement and dispersal patterns of forest
species, are causes of forest fragmentation (Primack and Morrison, 2013).
2.5.1.2. Urbanization. Sejati et al. (2011) studied the impact of urbanization in forest
degradation. Results of their work supported the forecasting of continued degradation
of forests brought about by urbanization. Urbanization is the defined as the process by
which large number of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small
areas, forming cities. Another definition is a description; urbanization refers to the
population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion
20 | M o d u l e 2
 of people living in rural areas. The National Geographic Society defined it as a process
through which cities grow, and higher and higher percentages of the population comes
to live in the city. For the WHO, urbanization is a process of global scale changing the
social and environmental landscape on every continent and is a result of population
migration from rural areas in addition to natural urban demographic growth.
2.5.1.3. Fires. With hotter climates and drier forests, fires ignited by humans or lightning,
are likely to burn over larger areas of forests. In a natural setting, fires will be deemed as
drivers of change. However, fires compromise the state of the ecosystem. The
headliner in the recent grasslands, monitoring and methods, research summaries states
that “Fire is a globally important driver of ecosystem composition, structure and
function.” If used properly, fires may help in bringing back native mammals back from
the brink of extinction. A study by Shaw et al. (2021) showed evidence that small
mammal populations can recover after fire provided some conditions are met. It is a
pervading point that fire plays a pivotal role in ecosystems around the world influencing
where species are found, their abundance in the landscape, and the life history
strategies that evolve; as such, fire shapes population dynamics.
2.6. UV Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is divided into three categories of increasing energy which are the UV-A
320 – 400nm), UV-B (280-320 nm), and the UV-C (200-280nm). Of the three, UV-A has low energy
form of UV and has minimal biological effects. UV-B is a higher energy form and causes the most
damage to living organisms. UV-C is absorbed by the oxygen in the atmosphere and does not reach
the earth’s surface. UV radiation is the shortest wavelength and thus the highest energy (per
photon) solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface. UV is potentially very damaging to living
organisms due to the high energy.
Despite the intense power of UV Radiation, only 6% reaches the earth’s surface; 90% of which is the
longer wavelength UV-A and the rest is UV-B. The different wavelengths vary in intensity depending
on sun angle, latitude and elevation. The atmospheric gases selectively absorb the shorter
wavelength UV-B, and ozone in particular is good at this. Thus, almost no UV that is less than 295
reaches the surface of the earth.
Earth’s atmosphere has layers; troposphere (0-15 km), stratosphere (~15-50 km). The troposphere
is twice thicker when at the equator than at the poles, while the reverse is true with that of
stratosphere. Most of the ozone in the atmospheric column would be in the stratosphere. It is
present also in the troposphere, and it is produced here via photochemical reactions between UVR
and smog. This results to a formation to a “pollution shield” especially in cities where UV may
appear to be lower than natural ecosystems. However, this tropospheric ozone is known to be a
serious irritant to respiratory organs of humans.
Researches in the ecology of UV are conducted to measure the effect of UV to different organisms,
and or how organisms respond to environmental variations in UV exposure. Some examples would
include changes in behavior of organisms depending on the UV exposure.
2.7. Bycatch generally refers to organisms that are not intended to be caught or be killed. In the
application of pesticides, this would refer to the NTOs or non-target organisms; it is not the
intention to kill the good bugs. In the fishing industry, this would mean that the wrong size, wrong
sex, undersized or oversized are caught. The word bycatch is intended originally to the fishing
industry. Incidental captures are not uncommon.

21 | M o d u l e 2
 Task 2: Infographic

Design an Infographic on a topic you feel strongly about that is related to the topics in
this Module. The way I will check your topic is, if I can understand what message you are
trying to convey; then that is surely an effective infographic. I will engage others to check
your Infographic for objectivity. Below (from Google) are some pointers on how to make
an infographic:

1. Outline your goals for creating your infographic.

2. Collect data for your infographic.
3. Make data visualizations for your infographic.
4. Create your layout using an infographic template (downloadable or your own).
5. Add style to your infographic to make it stand out.

Please do not forget to check the Learning Objectives at the beginning of this Module.

Total Points to Earn (150)

Enrichment Tasks
Task 4. Attend a Webinar pertaining to the topic, and develop your own thoughts on a specific issue that
interests you (25 points).

Task 5. Watch and Collect the following movies. For additional points, critique one. (25 points) and submit a
movie review with at least 500 words.

Before the Flood

Demain
Home
March of the Penguins
Mountain
Racing Extinction
The End of the Line
The Inconvenient Truth
2012
The Year Earth Changed
Tiny World
Virunga
Wall-E

22 | M o d u l e 2
Reference:
Asio, VB, R Jahn, FO Perez, IA Navarrete, SM Abit Jr. (2009). A review of the soil degradation in the
Philippines. Annals of Tropical Research 31 (2): 69 -94.

Borrelli, P, DA Robinson, P Panagos, E Lugato, JE Yang, C Alewell, D Wuepper, L Montanarella and C Ballabio.
(2020). Land use and climate change impacts on global soil erosion by water (2015-2070). PNAS 117 (36),
21994-22001.www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2001403117.

Borrelli, P, DA Robinson, LR Fleischer, E Lugato, C Ballabio, C Alewell, K Meusburger, S Modugno, B Schȕtt, V

Ferro, V Bagarello, KV Oost, L Montanarella and P Panagos. (2013). An assessment of the global impact of
21st century land use change on soil erosion. Nature Communications doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02142-7|
www.nature.com/naturecommunications.

Chan, EH, HC Liew and AG Mazlan. (1988). The incidental capture of sea turtles in fishing gear in
Terengganu, Malaysia. Biological Conservation 43, 1-7.

Collins, M, R Knutti, J Arblaster, JL Dufresne, T Fichefet, P Friedlingstein, X Gao, WJ Gutowski, T Johns, G

Krinner, M Shongwe, C Tebladi, AJ Weaver and M Wehner. 2013. Long-term climate change: projections,
commitments and irreversibility. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, TF, D Qin, GK Plattner, M Tignot, SK Allen, J Boschung, A Nauels, Y Xia, V Bex and PM Midgley
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 1029-1136.

Easton, TA and TD Goldfarb. (2003). Taking Sides. Clashing Views on Controversial. Environmental Issues.
McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. A Division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Guilford, Connecticut.

Gregory, KJ. (2001). Conservation: waterways. In International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral
Sciences. Sciencedirect.com/topics/agric…

Iftekhar, MS and AKF Hoque. (2005). Causes of forest encroachment: an analysis of Bangladesh. GeoJournal
62: 95-106.

Iftekhar, MS, AKF Hoque and M Rafiqul Islam. (2003). Root causes of forest encroachment: a critical analysis
for Bangladesh. Fao.org/3/XII/0262-B1.htm#fn1

Kunkel, KE, TR Karl, DR Easterling, K Redmond, J Young, S Yin and P Hennon. (2013). Probable maximum
precipitation and climate change. Geophysl Res Lett 40, 1402-1408. doi:10.1002/grl.50334.

Lindsey, R and L Dahlman. (2021). Climate change: global temperature. climate.gov

Mamuye, M and Z Kebebewu. (2018). Review of impacts of climate change on watershed hydrology. J
Environment and Earth Science 8 (2), 91 – 99.

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McPhillips, LE, H Chang, MV Chester, Y Depietri, E Friedman, NB Grimm, JS Kominoski, T Mc Phearson, P
Mendez-Lazaro, EJ Rosi and JS Shiva. (2018). Defining extreme events: a cross-disciplinary review. Earth’s
Future 6 (3), 441-455.

Nowak, H, E Schneebeli-Hermann and E Kustatscher. (2019). No mass extinction for land plants at the
Permian-Triassic transition. Nature Communications 10, 384. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07945-
w|www.nature.com/naturecommunications

Paunan, JCR. (2021). CCC: Scale-up disaster risk measures as PH among top countries affected by extreme
weather events. Philippine Information Agency. pia.gov.ph

Perkins. S (2020). Albedo is a simple concept that plays complicated roles in climate and astronomy. Core
Concepts 117 (3), 25369 – 25371. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1918770116.

Primack, RB and RA Morrison. (2013). Causes of extinction. In Encyclopaedia of Biodiversity. Second

Edition.

Reyes, C, J Bancolita, NL Leyso and SJ Calubhayan. (2017). Impacts of climate change on household food
security in the Philippines. Partnership for Economic Policy. Pep-net.org/impact-climate-change-food-
security-philippines.

Rogan, JE and TE Lacher Jr. (2018). Impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on terrestrial biodiversity.
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12-409548-9.10913-3.

https://seas.umich.edu.ecomgt/pubs/manistee/chapter6.pdf

Sejati, AW, I Buchori, and I Rudiarto. (2018). The impact of urbanization to forest degradation in
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