-Bio-geography notes A level 2015

Biogeography
 The study of organisms.
 It is concerned with the origin of plants and animals and the way they organize
themselves.
 It is also concerned with the interaction between organisms and their environment, how
the environment supports them and how they in turn affect the environment.
Ecosystems
 An ecosystem is a distinctive grouping of plants and animals (biotic) that interact with
each other and with the non-living component or physical (abiotic) of the environment.
 The study of ecosystems seeks to understand the links between the various
units/parts/components and the transferences of chemicals and energy between them.
 Ecosystems are considered at any scale from a small area, such as a pond ecosystem or
hedge ecosystem up to an area such as the earth itself.
The structure of ecosystems
The parts or components of an ecosystem are classified or categorized as either biotic or abiotic.
Biotic means the living environment or parts of an ecosystem.
These include;
 Vegetation(living and decomposing)
 Mammals, insects, birds, mcro-organisms.
 People (who rarely seem to live in harmony with the environment)
The total mass of plant and animal life in an ecosystem is called the biomass.This is mainlyplant
tissue.
Abiotic means non-living, chemical or physical components of the ecosystem.
These include;
 Climate and in particular the seasonal patterns of temperature and rainfall.
 Air which provides oxygen, essential for all forms of life and carbon dioxide.
 Solar energy from the sun, which is the primary source of energy as well as providing
heat and light.
 Rocks whichprovide nutrients and which may be permeable or impermeable.
 Soils which vary in depth, acidity (pH), nutrients and fertility.
 Relief of the land.
 Drainage characteristics
-+ +KJ
The systems approach to ecosystems
 Ecosystems are open systems because energy and living matter both enter and leave the
system.
Any system has inputs, outputs, stores and flows.
Inputs
 These are the things that go into a system. They are needed in order for the system to
work properly.
 The most important input is energy from the sun, which drives photosynthesis and so
enables plants to grow.
 Other inputs are animals that arrive from elsewhere.
 Water, transported into the ecosystem by precipitation or rivers.

Outputs
 These are the products of a system. They are transferred out of the system in a number of
ways.
 Animals physically move out.
 Water moves out of the ecosystem through rivers, evapotranspiration, through flow and
ground water flow.
Flows
 The transfer or movement of nutrients from one store to another.
 For example from the soil to the vegetation through capillary uptake by plant roots.
Stores
 These are the areas where the nutrients are containedor kept.
 The three main stores of nutrients in an ecosystem are vegetation, soil and plant litter.
Energy flow
 Each ecosystem is sustained by the transfer of energy through it. Thus energy flow is the
movement or transfer of energy through an ecosystem.
 The sun is the main source of energy in an ecosystem and is used to make carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide and water through the process of photosynthesis. In this way the
plants grow and increase their biomass.
 Energy is then able to pass through the ecosystem in the food chain.
Food chain
 Is the transfer of energy through the ecosystem from primary producers to consumers and
decomposers.
 Plants are eaten by animals, some animals consume each other.
 In the food chain, each link in the chain feeds on and obtains energy from the link
preceding it. In turn it is also consumed by and provides energy for the link that follows.
 An example of a food chain is;
Grass goat hyena lion vulture

Food web

Recycling nutrients/ Nutrient cycling

Ecosystem
a system, or a group of interconnected elements, formed by the interaction of a community of
organisms with their environment.

). Plant Succession
Introduction

Succession is a directional non-seasonal cumulative change in the types of

plantspecies that occupy a given area through time. It involves the processes of
colonization, establishment, and extinction which act on the participating plant
species. Most successions contain a number of stages that can be recognized by the
collection of species that dominate at that point in the succession. Succession begin
when an area is made partially or completely devoid of vegetation because of a
disturbance. Some common mechanisms of disturbance are fires, wind storms,
volcanic eruptions, logging, climate change, severe flooding, disease, and pest
infestation. Succession stops when species composition changes no longer occur with
time, and this community is said to be a climax community.

The concept of a climax community assumes that the plants colonizing and
establishing themselves in a given region can achieve stable equilibrium. The idea
that succession ends in the development of a climax community has had a long history
in the fields of biogeography and ecology. One of the earliest proponents of this idea
was Frederic Clements who studied succession at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, beginning in the 1920s scientists began refuting the notion of a climax state.
By 1950, many scientists began viewing succession as a phenomenon that rarely
attains equilibrium. The reason why equilibrium is not reached is related to the nature
of disturbance. Disturbance acts on communities at a variety of spatial and temporal
scales. Further, the effect of disturbance is not always 100 percent. Many disturbances
remove only a part of the previous plant community. As a result of these new ideas,
plant communities are now generally seen as being composed of numerous patches of
various size at different stages of successional development.

Abandoned Field to Oak Forest

One of the earliest studies of plant succession was done by Dwight Billings in the
1930s (see 1938, Ecological Monographs 8: 437-499). In this investigation, Billings
examined the succession of plant species that occurred on abandoned agricultural
fields in North Carolina. Billings studied a number of fields that had been deserted
from just a few years to a maximum of about 150 years. From observations of the
plant communities that existed in these sites, Billings was able to construct a detailed
successional sequence.

The first stage of succession was characterized by the pioneering colonization of

annual plant species on bare ground and nutrient poor soils (Figure 9i-1). These
annual species had short lifespans (one growing season), rapid maturity, and produce
numerous small easily dispersed seeds. The annuals were then quickly replaced in
dominance in the next year by biennial plants and grasses. After about 3 to 4 years,
the biennial and grass species gave way to perennialherbs and shrubs. These plants
live for many years and have the ability to reproduce several times over their
lifespans.
 Figure9i-1:Succession of plant species on abandoned fields in
North Carolina. Pioneer species consist of a variety of annual
plants. This successional stage is then followed by communities
of perennials and grasses, shrubs, softwood trees and shrubs,
and finally hardwood trees and shrubs. This succession takes
about 120 years to go from the pioneer stage to the climax
community.

After about 5 to 15 years, the sites were then colonized by a number of different
softwood tree species including loblolly pine (Pinustaeda), shortleaf pine
(Pinusechinata), Virginia pine (Pinusvirginiana), and sweetgum. As the softwoods
increased in their numbers and grew in height, they began forming a forest canopy.
This canopy reduces the amount of light reaching the forest floor. The resulting
shaded understory conditions caused the exclusion of many light loving perennial
herb and shrub species. Low light conditions also inhibited the germination of pine
seedlings. Perennial herb and shrub species that were adapted to low light conditions
now began to take over the ground cover. The canopy also changed the microclimate
of habitat near ground level. It was now more humid, has moderated temperatures,
and less wind. These conditions, plus the development of a soillitter layer, allowed
for the germination of hardwood species, like oak (Quercus spp.) and various species
of hickory (Carya spp). The seedlings of these tree species also tolerate low light
levels.

By about 50 to 75 years after the initial colonization of the pioneer species, the
hardwoods started to replace the softwood species in the developing forest. At this
stage in the succession, the pines had maximum heights of about 25 meters, while the
oaks and hickories were on average about 10 meters tall. Because of their shorter
lifespans (50 years), many of the softwood species were beginning to die out and the
gap that was created was then filled by a subdominant hardwood tree. Hardwood
species, like oak and hickory, can live for more than 100 years. Sites more than 100
years old were found to be dominated by mature oak forests.

Organismic and Individualistic Views of Succession

In the first quarter of this century there was considerable debate about the nature of
the community. F.E. Clements (1916) conceived of the community as a sort of
superorganism whose member species were tightly bound together both now and in
their common evolutionary history. Thus, individuals, populations, and communities
have a relationship to each other that resembles the associations found between cells,
tissues, and organs.

Clements' theories on communities were also linked to succession. His successional

concept suggested that communities of organisms are subject to special laws in which
the action of the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, and that this action results
in a directional change in the species composition of the community to a climax state
controlled primarily by climate.

The main processes acting to produce the various successional stages of species
dominance, and finally climax, are competition and plant modification of the abiotic
environment. Environmental modification, however, is detrimental to the plants doing
the modifying. Modification changes the environment allowing the establishment of
new colonists, and then results in the subsequent competitive exclusion of the former
inhabitants by these colonists. This facilitative process stops when the climax
community is reached.

Clements presented a deterministic unidirectional view of succession where the

present pattern is governed by the past pattern. The philosophical structure of
Clements' holistic approach is quite similar to advances in other sciences of that time.
In geology and geomorphology theorists presented views that contained various stages
of maturity, and compared landscape evolution metaphorically to a developing
organism. The parallel in theoretical approach of these sciences with the work of
Clements may be the result of attitudes prevalent in science as a whole at that time.

In 1926, H. Gleason (1926) devised a new theory to explain the nature of

communities. Gleason's individualistic concept saw the relationship between
coexisting species as simply the result of similarities in their requirements and
tolerances (and partly the result of chance). Taking this view, community boundaries
need not be sharp, and associations of species would be much less predictable than
one would expect from the superorganism concept.

Gleason argued that the holistic view point of Clements was inadequate in explaining
the mechanism of succession. For example, Gleason suggested that Clementsian
concepts could not properly explain the occurrence of such phenomena as
retrogressive successions. In reference to his view of succession, Gleason stated that
".... every species of plant is a law unto itself, the distribution of which in space
depends upon its individual peculiarities of migration and environmental
requirements". Thus, associations of plants, or communities, were not highly
organized, but aggregations of independent plant species, each specialized to survive
on habitats they were adapted for. Retrogressive successions were possible in
Gleason's model if environmental variables deteriorated with time, changing the
pattern of establishment, growth and reproduction of plants in a habitat. Clements'
model, however, assumed long term climatic stability, and this assumption does not
allow for short term retrogressive community change.

Clements and Gleason presented two diametrically opposed opinions on community

organization and structure. Further investigation in this discussion will show that these
views are still present in the hypotheses of later theorists, but in a somewhat modified
form. Many of these modified hypotheses involve a synthesis of the early ideas of
Clements and Gleason. This synthesis is the result of the addition of new ecological
information or the re-analysis of old information on how ecosystems function over
time. The synthetic evolution of successional hypotheses must be expected, as
investigation finds new mechanisms responsible for temporal vegetation change in a
relatively unexplored world. The early presence of simple diametrically opposed
successional hypotheses in the early years is probably the result of the immature state
of understanding of turn of the century ecology.

Central to Gleason's succession model is the notion of abiotic and

bioticheterogeneity in space and time. This concept is a characteristic view of much
of modern ecology. Recently, several scientists have examined the role of
disturbance on community structure. These researchers suggest that disturbance is a
common process in most communities that shapes the nature and structure of
bioticinteractions and processes. These ideas follow directly from Gleason's early
observations of pattern and process in the plant community.

The individualistic concept of succession outlined by Gleason was ignored by the

scientific community for some twenty to thirty years. Important papers and books
citing this work did not appear until the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was the ideas of
Clements that dominated ecological thought in one way or another up to this period.

Our current view on the nature of community structure is close to the individualistic
concept. Results of many studies indicate that a given location, by virtue mainly of its
physical characteristics, possesses a reasonable predictable association of species.
However, a given species that occurs in one predictable association is also quite likely
to occur with another group of species under different conditions elsewhere.

Types of Succession

Primary succession - is the establishment of plants on land that has not been
previously vegetated - Mount Saint Helens. Begins with colonization and
establishment of pioneer species.

Secondary succession - is the invasion of a habitat by plants on land that was

previously vegetated. Removal of past vegetation may be caused by natural or human
disturbances such as fire, logging, cultivation, or hurricanes.

Allogenic succession - is caused by a change in environmental conditions which in

turn influences the composition of the plant community. In Cornwall England,
observations on the estuary of the Fal river suggest that the deposition of silt may be
causing an allogenic succession from salt marsh to woodland. Measurements indicate
sedimentation rates of about 1 cm per year on the mud flats that are found 15
kilometers (9 miles) into the estuary. Over the last 100 years, this salt marsh has
increased its elevation and has extended itself seaward by 800 meters (2600 feet). The
adjacent woodland has followed the salt marsh by invading its landward limit.

Autogenic succession - is a succession where both the plant community and

environment change, and this change is caused by the activities of the plants over
time. Mt. St. Helens after the last volcanic eruption.

Progressive succession - is a succession where the community becomes complex and

contains more species and biomass over time.

Retrogressive succession - is a succession where the community becomes simplistic

and contains fewer species and less biomass over time. Some retrogressive
successions are allogenic in nature. For example, the introduction of grazing animals
result in degenerated rangeland.

Table 9i-1 describes some of the plant, community, and ecosystem attributes that
change with succession.

Table 9i-1: Comparison of plant, community, and ecosystem

characteristics between early and late stages of succession

Early Stages of Late Stages of

Attribute Succession Succession
Plant Biomass Small Large
Plant Longevity Short Long
Seed Dispersal Characteristics of
Well dispersed Poorly dispersed
Dominant Plants
Plant Morphology and Physiology Simple Complex
Photosynthetic Efficiency of Dominant
Low High
Plants at Low Light
Rate of Soil Nutrient Resource
Fast Slow
Consumption by Plants
Plant Recovery Rate from Resource
Fast Slow
Limitation
Plant Leaf Canopy Structure Multilayered Monolayer
Living Biomass and
Site of Nutrient Storage Litter and Soil
Litter
Role of Decomposers in Cycling
Minor Great
Nutrients to Plants
Biogeochemical Cycling Open and Rapid Closed and Slow
Rate of Net Primary Productivity High Low
Community Site Characteristics Extreme Moderate (Mesic)
-Importance of Macroenvironment on
Great Moderate
Plant Success
Ecosystem Stability Low High
Plant Species Diversity Low High
Life-History Type r K
Seed Longevity Long Short

Succession Mechanisms

An overview of the mechanisms of succession has been produced by Connell and

Slatyer (1977, American Naturalist 111: 1119-1144). Connell and Slatyer propose
three models, of which the first (facilitation) is the classical explanation most often
invoked in the past, while the other two (tolerance and inhibition) may be equally
important but have frequently been overlooked.

The essential feature of facilitation succession, in contrast with either the tolerance or
inhibition models, is that changes in the abioticenvironment are imposed by the
developing plantcommunity. Thus, the entry and growth of the later species depends
on earlier species preparing the ground.

The tolerance model suggests that a predictable sequence is produced because

different species have different strategies for exploiting resources. Later species are
able to tolerate lower resource levels due to competition and can grow to maturity in
the presence of early species, eventually out competing them.

The inhibition model applies when all species resist invasions of competitors. Later
species gradually accumulate by replacing early individuals when they die. An
important distinction between models is the cause of death of the early colonists. In
the case of facilitation and tolerance, they are killed in competition for resources,
notably light and nutrients. In the case of the inhibition model, however, the early
species are killed by very local disturbances caused by extreme physical conditions
or the action of predators.

Fragile Ecosystem Additional Glossary

 Acclimation - adjustment to slowly changing new conditions.

 Adaptation - any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral

characteristic that enhances members of a population's chances of surviving and
reproducing in its environment. It usually results from a beneficial mutation.

 Adaptive radiation - period of time (usually millions of years) during which numerous
new species evolve to fill vacant and new ecological niches in changed environments,
usually after a mass extinction.

 Autotrophic succession- most common type in nature; begins in a predominantly

inorganic environment and is characterized by early and continued dominance of green
plants.

 Barrier islands - Long, thin, low, offshore islands of sediment that generally run parallel
to the shore along some coasts.

 Biological diversity - variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability

among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and variety of ecosystems
(ecological diversity).

 Biome - terrestrial regions inhabited by certain types of life, especially vegetation.

Examples are various types of deserts, grasslands, and forests.

 Bioregion - a unique life-place with its own soils, landforms, watersheds, climates, native
plants and animals, and many other distinct natural characteristics.

 Biotic potential - maximum rate at which the population of a given species can increase
when there are no limits of any sort on its rate of growth.
 Carrying capacity (K) - maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat
can support over a given period of time.

 Clear-cutting - method of timber harvesting in which all trees in a forested area are
removed in a single cutting.

 Coastal wetland - Land along a coastline, extending inland from an estuary that is
covered with salt water all or part of the year. Examples are marshes, bays, lagoons, tidal
flats, and mangrove swamps.

 Competition - two or more individual organisms of a single species (intraspecific

competition) or two or more individuals of different species (interspecific competition)
attempting to use the same scarce resources in the same ecosystem.

 Consumer - organism that cannot synthesize the organic nutrients it needs and gets its
organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of producers or of other consumers; generally
divided into primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), tertiary
(higher-level) consumers, omnivores, and detritivores (decomposers and detritus feeders).

 Consumption overpopulation - situation in which people in the world or in a geographic

region use resources at such a high rate and without sufficient pollution prevention and
control that significant pollution, resource depletion, and environmental degradation
occur.

 Controlled burning - deliberately set, carefully controlled surface fires to reduce

flammable litter and decrease the chances of damaging crown fires.

 Coral reef - formation produced by massive colonies containing billions of tiny coral
animals, called polyps, which secrete a stony substance (calcium carbonate) around
themselves for protection. When corals die, their empty outer skeletons form layers that
 cause the reef to grow. They are found in the coastal zones of warm tropical and
subtropical oceans.

 Crown fire - extremely hot forest fire that burns ground vegetation and tree tops.

 Debt-for-nature-swap - agreement in which a certain amount of foreign debt is cancelled

in exchange for local currency investments that will improve natural resource
management or protect certain areas from harmful development in the debtor country.

 Deforestation - removal of trees from a forested area without adequate replanting.

 Desert - biome where evaporation exceeds precipitation and the average mount of
precipitation is less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) a year. Such areas have little
vegetation or have widely spaced, mostly low vegetation.

 Desertification - conversion of rangeland, rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to

desertlike land, with a drop in agricultural productivity of 10% or more. It is usually
caused by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought, and climate
change.

 Ecological diversity - the variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, oceans, streams, lakes,
and other biological communities interacting with one another and with their nonliving
environment.

 Ecological niche - total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem. It includes all
physical, chemical, and biological conditions a species needs to live and reproduce in an
ecosystem.
 Ecology - study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with their
nonliving environment of matter and energy; study of the structure and function of
nature.

 Environmental degradation - depletion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource

such as soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife by using it at a faster rate than it is naturally
replenished. If such use continues, the resource can become nonrenewable on a human
time scale or nonexistent (extinct).

 Environmental science - study of how we and other species interact with each other and
with the nonliving environment of matter and energy. It is a holistic science that uses and
integrates knowledge from physics, chemistry, biology (especially ecology), geology,
geography, resource technology and engineering, resource conservation and
management, demography (the study of population dynamics), economics, politics, and
ethics.

 Estuary - partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where its fresh water,
carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land, mixes with salty seawater.

 Extinction - complete disappearance of a species from the earth. This happens when a
species cannot adapt and successfully reproduce under new environmental conditions or
when it evolves into one or more new species (speciation).

 Food web - complex network of many interconnected food chains and feeding
relationships.

 Forest - biome with enough average annual precipitation (at least 76 centimeters,or 30
inches) to support growth of various species of trees and smaller forms of vegetation.

 Gene pool - the sum total of all genes found in the individuals of the population of a
particular species.
 Grassland - biome found in regions where moderate annual average precipitation (25 to
76 centimeters, or 10 to 30 inches) is enough to support the growth of grass and small
plants, but not enough to support large stands of trees.

 Habitat - place or type of place where an organism or a population of organisms lives.

 Heterotrophic succession- characterized by early dominance of heterotrophs; occurs in

cases where environment is primarily organic.

 Immature community - community at an early stage of ecological succession. It usually

has a low number of species and ecological niches and cannot capture and use energy and
cycle critical nutrients as efficiently as more complex, mature ecosystems.

 Indicator species - species that serve as early warnings that a community or an ecosystem
is being degraded.

 Inland wetland - land away from the coast, such as a swamp, marsh, or bog, that is
covered all or part of the year with fresh water.

 Keystone species - species that play roles affecting many other organisms in an
ecosystem.

 Limiting factor - single factor that limits the growth, abundance, or distribution of the
population of a species in an ecosystem.

 Mature community - fairly stable, self-sustaining community in an advanced stage of

ecological succession; usually has a diverse array of species and ecological niches;
 captures and uses energy and cycles critical chemicals more efficiently than simpler,
immature communities.

 Native species - species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem.

 Natural selection - process by which a particular beneficial gene or set of genes is

reproduced more than others in a population, through adaptation and differential
reproduction. It is the major mechanism leading to biological evolution.

 Old-growth forest - virgin and old, second-growth forests containing trees that are often
hundreds, sometimes thousands, or years old.

 Overpopulation - state in which there are more people than can live on Earth or in a
geographic region in comfort, happiness, and health and still leave the planet or region a
fit place for future generations. It is a result of growing numbers of people, growing
affluence (resource consumption), or both.

 Pioneer community - first integrated set of plants, animals, and decomposers found in an
area undergoing primary ecological succession.

 Pioneer species - first hardy species, often microbes, mosses, and lichens, that begin
colonizing a site as the first stage of ecological succession.

 Primary succession - sequential development of communities in a bare area that has never
been occupied by a community of organisms.

 Riparian zones - thin strips and patches of vegetation that surround streams. They are
very important habitats and resources for wildlife.
 Secondary succession - sequential development of communities in an area in which
natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed.

 Successional Theory - Current theory holds that ecosystem development results from
modification of the physical environment by the biotic community acting as a whole (the
holistic component); the interaction of competition and coexistence between component
populations (the individualistic component); and a shift in energy flow from production
to respiration as more and more of the available energy is required to support the
increasing organic structure (the community metabolic component).

Go Back to Fragile Ecosystem

Important ecosystem terminology

Ecosystem Services: This the technical term for the benefits humans and other
living things get from ecosystems. These services are in four groups: Supporting
services, Provisioning services, Regulating services and Cultural services. READ
MORE HERE

Adaptation: An adaptation is a way an animal's body helps it survive, or live, in its

environment. A good example is the polar bear. Its while fur helps it to camouflage,
so its prey cannot see it. Its Thick fur also provides the warmth to help it survive in
its frozen environment

Abiotic: Physical, or nonliving, factors that shape an ecosystem. Examples include

rocks, climate, pressure, soils, precipitation, sunlight, winds and humidity. These
abiotic have a direct influence on living things.

Biotic: Living factors such as plants, animals, fungi, protist and bacteria are all
biotic or living factors. Biotic factors depend on abiotic factors to survive. Th kind of
biotic factors (living organisms) in a given area is often as a result of abiotic
conditions of that area.

Habitat: the area where an organism lives, including the biotic and abiotic factors
that affect it

Symbiosis: Relationship in which two species live closely together, usually

benefiting from each other. There are three types of this relationship:
1. Parasitism: parasite benefits, host is hurt.
2. Commensalism: one species benefits, the other is neither hurt nor helped.
3. Mutualism: both species benefit

Food Web: The complex feeding network occurring within and between food chains
in an ecosystem, whereby members of one food chain may belong to one or more
other food chains.
 Habitat: The place where a particular population (e.g., human, animal, plant,
micro-organism) lives and its surroundings. Example, The anaconda snake lives in
water and thrives very well there.

Plankton: Microscopic plants and animals that live in water.

Levels of organization in an ecosystem

To understand the levels of belonging in an ecosystem, let us consider the diagram
below.

Individual, Species, Organism:

An individual is any living thing or organism. Individuals do not breed with individuals
from other groups. Animals, unlike plants, tend to be very definite with this term
because some plants can cross-breed with other fertile plants.
In the diagram above, you will notice that Gill, the goldfish, is interacting with its
environment, and will only crossbreed with other gold fishes just like her.

Population:
A group of individuals of a given species that live in a specific geographic area at a
given time. (example is Gill and his family and friends and other fishes of Gill’s species)
Note that populations include individuals of the same species, but may have different
genetic makeup such as hair/eye/skin colour and size between themselves and other
populations.

Community:
This includes all the populations in a specific area at a given time. A community
includes populations of organisms of different species. In the diagram above, note how
populations of gold fishes, salmons, crabs and herrings coexist in a defined location. A
great community usually includes biodiversity.

Ecosystem:
As explained in the pages earlier, ecosystems include more than a community of living
organisms (abiotic) interacting with the environment (abiotic). At this level note how
they depend on other abiotic factors such as rocks, water, air and temperature.

Biome:
A biome, in simple terms, is a set of ecosystems sharing similar characteristics with
their abiotic factors adapted to their environments.

 Biosphere:
When we consider all the different biomes, each blending into the other, will all
humans living in many different geographic areas, we form a huge community of
humans, animals and plants, in their defined habitats. A biosphere is the sum of
all the ecosystems established on Earth.
What is a biome?
Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth’s surface, with fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting
their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as climate, relief, geology, soils and
vegetation. A biome is NOT an ecosystem, although in a way it can look like a massive ecosystem. If you take a
closer look, you will notice that plants or animals in any of the biomes have special adaptations that make it
possible for them to exist in that area. You may find many units of ecosystems within one biome.

There are five major categories of biomes on earth. In these five, there are many sub-biomes, under which are
many more well defined ecosystems.

Let us take a quick look at each of these biomes below:

(Click Green Buttons Below)

The Desert Biomes: They are the Hot and Dry Deserts, Semi Arid Deserts, Coastal Deserts and Cold Deserts.

The Aquatic Biomes: Aquatic biomes are grouped into two, Freshwater Biomes (lakes and ponds, rivers and
streams, wetlands) and Marine Biomes (oceans, coral reefs and estuaries).

The Forest Biomes: There are three main biomes that make up Forest Biomes. These are the Tropical Rainfores
Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Taiga)

The Grassland Biomes: There are two main types of grassland biomes: the Savanna Grasslands and the
Temperate Grasslands.

The Tundra Biomes: There are two major tundra biomes—The Artic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra.

Biomes play a crucial role in sustaining life on earth. For example, the Aquatic biome is home to millions of fish
species and the source of the water cycle. It also plays a very important role in climate formation. The terrestrial
biomes provide foods, enrich the air with oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide and other bad gases from the air.
They also help regulate climate and so on.

...

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Food chains
All living things need to feed to get energy to grow, move and reproduce. But what do these living things feed o
Smaller insects feed on green plants, and bigger animals feed on smaller ones and so on. This feeding relationsh
an ecosystem is called a food chain. Food chains are usually in a sequence, with an arrow used to show the flow
energy. Below are some living things that can fit into a food chain. Can you build it? Click to play.

Would you like to see a good example of another food chain in the Tundra? Click here!

A food chain is not the same as a food web.

A food web is a network of many food chains and is more complex.
See the food web illustration below—you can pick out a basic food chain from the web: Green plants Grassh
Frog Bird Hawk

In the diagram above, arrow shows the direction of energy flow. It points to the animal doing the eating.

Energy transfer:
Energy is transferred along food chains from one level to the next. Some of the energy is used up in growth,
reproduction repair, movement and other ways, and not made available to the next level.
Shorter food chains retain more energy than longer chains. Used up energy is absorbed by the environment.

Trophic levels of food chains

The levels of a food chain (food pyramid) is called Trophic levels. The trophic level of an organism is the level i
in a food pyramid.

The sun is the source of all the energy in food chains. Green plants, usually the first level of any food chain, a
some of the Sun’s light energy to make their own food by photosynthesis. Green plants (autotrophs) are therefo
known as ‘Producers’ in a food chain.

The second level of the food chains is called the Primary Consumer. These consume the green plants. Anim
this group are usually herbivores. Examples include insects, sheep, caterpillars and even cows.

The third in the chain are Secondary Consumers. These usually eat up the primary consumers and other an
matter. They are commonly called carnivores and examples include lions, snakes and cats.

The fourth level is called Tertiary Consumers. These are animals that eat secondary consumers.

Quaternary Consumers eat tertiary consumers.

At the top of the levels are Predators. They are animals that have little or no natural enemies. They are the ‘
of their ecosystems. Predators feed on preys. A prey is an animal that predators hunt to kill and feed on. Predat
include owls, snakes, wild cats, crocodiles and sharks. Humans can also be called predators.

When any organism dies, detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs) eat them up. The rest are broken down
decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues. Decomposers start the cycle a

What is The Carbon Cycle?

The carbon cycle is very important to all ecosystems, and ultimately life on earth. The carbon cycle is critical to t
food chain.

Living tissue contain carbon, because they contain proteins, fats and carbohydrates. The carbon in these (living
dead) tissues is recycled in various processes.

Let's see how this cycle works using the simple sketch below:

Human activities like heating homes and cars burning fuels (combustion) give off carbon into the atmosphere. D
respiration, animals also introduce carbon into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.

The Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by green plants (producers) to make food in photosynthesis.

When animals feed on green plants, they pass on carbon compounds unto other animals in the upper levels of
food chains. Animals give off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during respiration.

Carbon dioxide is also given off when plants and animals die. This occurs when decomposers (bacteria and fung
down dead plants and animals (decomposition) and release the carbon compounds stored in them.

Very often, energy trapped in the dead materials becomes fossil fuels which is used as combustion again at a
time.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is also key in the existence of ecosystems and food chains. Nitrogen forms about 78% of the air on ear
plants do not use nitrogen directly from the air. This is because nitrogen itself is unreactive, and cannot be us
green plants to make protein. Nitrogen gas therefore needs to be converted into nitrate compound in the soi
 nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil, root nodules or lightning.

To understand the cycle better, let us consider the diagram below:

1. Nitrogen is introduced to the soil by precipitation (rain, lightling).

2. Nitrates don’t only come from Nitrogen in the air. They can also be obtained by the conversion of ammo
commonly used in fertilizers by nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Some root nodules can also convert nitrogen in th
into nitrates.

3. Plants build up proteins using nitrates absorbed from the soil.

4. When animals like cows, eat these plants, they in turn use it to build animal protein.

5-6. When these animals (cows) poop, pee or die, the urea, excreta or carcass are broken down by decomp
and the nitrogen is re-introduced into the soil in the form of ammonia.

7. Nitrates in the soil can also be broken down by denitrifying bacteria (in specific conditions) and sent into th
nitrogen. This process can help make the soil infertile, because it will lack the nitrates needed for plant us

Once nitrogen gets back into the air, the cycle continues.

Glossary for Ecosystems: Change and Challenge

Abiotic Non- living components of an ecosystem and includes; climate (temperature and precipitation), soil
characteristics, parent rock, air, relief and drainage characteristics.
Arresting factors The factors that cause succession to be interrupted
Autotroph Green plants that photosynthesise to produce food to support trophic levels above them.
Azonal soil Immature soil with poorly developed profile. E.g. volcanic soil
biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or on the entire Earth. Biodiversity is
often used as a measure of the health of biological systems. The biodiversity found on Earth today
consists of many millions of distinct biological species.
Biomass The total mass of living organisms present in a community at any one time- kg/m2
Biome A major global ecosystem influenced by the climate. E.g. Tropical Rainforest
Biotic Community of interdependent living components in an ecosystem includes; vegetation, grasses,
herbs, ferns, algae, mosses shrubs, trees (living and decomposing) mammals, insects, birds and
micro organisms.
Blowouts These occur when the wind causes erosion of the dune rather than deposition. They can take place
naturally due to severe weather events, but many of the blowouts that we see around the British
coast have occurred due to degradation of the vegetation caused by trampling and footpath erosion
or BBQ fires.
Brown Earth A Zonal soil for temperate deciduous woodland, commonly on clay soils
Calcification Calcium is no longer removed if leaching is limited (evapotranspiration> precipitation) and so it
accumulates
Carnivore An animal which only eats meat; trophic level 3
Catena a sequence of soils down slopes
Cation exchange The chemical replacement of cations within the soil
Cheluviation Organic- metal compounds (chelates) are soluble and easily transported down the profile.
Climatic climax The final stage in succession, the richest community for a climate. E.g. deciduous woodland SE
vegetation England.
colonisers First plants to invade- e.g. lichens and mosses. These plants have adaptations which allow them to
grow in a difficult environment e.g. waxy leaves to retain moisture and withstand winds, prostrate
(low) habit to avoid strong winds, deep tap roots to obtain available moisture
Community The entire variety of species that are found in an ecosystem.
conservation the protection and possible enhancement of natural environments to ensure their survival for
future use
Decomposers Organisms that take the remains of dead plants and animals, as well as excreted waste and convert
them back to carbon dioxide and nutirients. e.g. Bacteria and fungi
Deforestation The deliberate clearance of forest from land by cutting or burning. Causes Plagioclimax vegetation.
Detritivores Organisms that brake down leaves and dead animals; reducing them by decomposition back into soil
nutrients
Ecology The study of communities of living organisms and the relationships among the members of those
communities and between them and the physical and chemical constituents of their surroundings
Ecosystem A dynamic, stable, community of interdependent living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
components.
Eluviation Process of washing out of materials in suspension e.g. clay from the A to the B horizon in a podsol.
(see leaching)
Fauna Animals
Flora Plants
Food chain A sequence of energy transfers from one trophic level to another. A food web is a more realistic
and complex interconnected sequence.
Fragile is one which is easily disturbed and that lacks resilience to change, many fragile environments cross
Environments national boundaries, creating international management challenges. Human activity , both direct
and indirect (in the guise of pollution and global warming) has damaged many fragile environments,
some irreparably
Gersmehl Stores are drawn proportional circles representing biomass, litter and soil. Nutrient transfers are
diagram shown as arrows whose thickness represents the relative rate of flow between stores.
Gleying Reduction of ferric to ferrous iron under waterlogged conditions.
Habitats Specific locations with a particular set of conditions and an appropriately adapted community e.g.
a hedgerow
Herbivore an animal that only eats plants; tropic level 2
Horizon a distinct horizontal layer in a soil profile
Humus decomposed organic matter in the Ao horizon
Humification Soil organisms break down organic matter to form humus.
Illuviation Process of deposition or washing in of soil material from the A to the B horizon in a podsol. This
material has been removed from an upper horizon by eluviation.
Intrazonal soil Soil with locally modified characteristics e.g. Waterlogging produces a gley soil
kite diagram Graph that shows succession
Leaching Removal of base cations from the soil by acidic rainwater (see eluviation) where precipitation
exceeds evaporation.
Micro- habitats Small specific locations e.g. under a leaf
Monoculture Plantations that produce only one species of tree or one type of food - on rainforest soil are
examples of non-sustainable agriculture.
Organic farming farming using natural manures and avoids the use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers.
Nutrient cycling The cycling of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus taken up by plants, passed up to herbivores,
carnivores and then broken down by detritivores who reduce them by decomposition back into soil
nutrients
photosynthesis The process in green plants and certain other organisms by which carbohydrates are synthesised
from carbon dioxide and water using light as an energy source, usually releasing oxygen as a by-
product.
Pioneer species Plants which invade bare ground, hardy and adapted to harsh environments. E.g. long-rooted salt
tolerant marram grass.
Plagioclimax Plant community halted by human activity e.g. heather moorland at Studland grazed by sheep.
Podsol A Zonal soil under coniferous forest and heath land especially on sandy, free- draining parent rock.
Podsolisation The development of an acid soil in cool temperate climates.
Primary AKA Herbivores- animals and occasionally plants that obtains their energy by eating green plants.
consumer
Primary (Also called prisere). A process where an area is vegetated e.g. bare rock (lithosere)
succession
Productivity The rate of creation of living matter by photosynthesis. Kg/m2/year.
Psammosere A succession on sand dunes
Regolith Weathered rock debris
Salinisation Process, by which salts are drawn to the surface by strong evaporation, may result in solid duricrust
on the surface.
Secondary AKA carnivores- meat eaters
consumers
Secondary A succession which occurs on a previously vegetated surface that has been disturbed.
succession
Sere A stage in the development of a plant community.
Soil acidity The concentration of hydrogen ions in a soil, measured on pH scale.
Soil profile A vertical section through the soil to show horizons
Soil structure The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates or peds. E.g. crumbs
Soil texture Relative proportion of sizes clay, sand and silt. A loam is a mixture of all three, creating a fertile
soil.
Succession A series of changes that take place in a plant community over time.
sustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology the word describes how biological systems remain diverse and
productive over time.
Translocation The movement of soil components (in solution/ suspension) up or down through the profile.
Trophic level A level in which energy is transferred from one group of organisms in the food chain to
another.Level 1 –autotrophs (plants) , level 2 –primary ( that feed on level 1) consumers and so on.
Urban niches Colonisation of wastelend: the development of distinctive ecologies along routeways (eg roads and
railways). The planned and unplanned introduction of new species and the impact of this on
 ecosystems.
Weathering Process which breaks down rocks in situ
Zonal soils A major group of mature soils which reflect the climate and vegetation of the area in which they
are found. E.g. podzols.
Zones Units within biomes e.g. layers in rainforest

1. What is soil?
Different people mean different things when they use the word “soil”. To civil engineers it is unconsolidated loose material
isn’t rock – so geological deposits like estuary mud, lake clays, boulder clay, loess (wind-blown silty deposits) and sand dun
might be included. To gardeners and farmers it is, perhaps the top 40 cm or so of the ground, the bit that you dig, and sink f
posts into. A grave digger is traditionally interested in the top 2 metres! For purposes of soil study we are close to the grav
digger. Soil scientists and surveyors who map soil types usually study the surface of the earth to about 1.2 metres, although
parts of the world, as we shall see, soil can be much deeper than this. In practice, many soils are quite shallow, as they are
developed in hard rocks, but we need a cut-off point. 1.2 metres is a practical depth, as health and safety legislation in seve
countries rightly insists on shoring and hard hats once you get deeper than this. Much survey work is done with a hand auge
screw tool like a wood auger that brings up samples. These are usually one to 1.2 metres long. So soil can be defined as the
physically altered top 1.2 m of the earth’s crust. We will see that the physical and chemical alterations of the earth's surface
depths are very significant, especially for the growth of plants.

We can all recognise topsoil when we see it. It is a dark crumbly looking material that readily breaks up in the hand, and le
your fingers dirty. Most people, if asked, will say that it is a mixture of mineral particles and organic matter from decompos
plants. Moist topsoil shaken in the hand will break up into lumps of various sizes, but these lumps are obviously made of s
kinds of mixed materials stuck together, and will break down further if we grind them between our fingers, or with a pestle
mortar. Those who study soil have agreed to consider the basic mineral particles in four categories, depending on their size
finest particles are known as clay defined as having a diameter of less than 2 micrometres (m, a micrometre is one thousan
millimetre. Just for comparison, a red blood cell is about 7m in diameter). Clay does not easily separate into individual pa
as it is very cohesive, to study it we have to disperse it in water using chemicals that break the bonds between particles. Th
size of particle is called silt and has a diameter of 2 to 60m. Particles larger than this can be seen with the naked eye, and a
known as sand sometimes divided into fine, medium and coarse sand. Sand, silt and clay contitute what is known as the “fi
earth”. Particles larger than 2000m (2 mm) are included with stones which vary from fine grit, or gravel to large boulders

Soil samples, of course, are never composed of just one of these particle-sizes. They contain mixtures of sand silt and clay,
mixture is conventionally called the texture or “particle size-class” of the soil. Stones also occur in most soils, but they are
considered seperately, and do not constitute part of the particle size-class. The word “loam” has come to be used for a good
containing enough clay to provide nutrients and enough silt and sand to give good drainage and water-holding properties to
Thus soil scientists refer to sandy loams, silt loams, silty clay loams and clay loams depending on the proportions of these p
sizes in the mix. Soils with more than 35% clay-size particles are called clay, whilst those with more than 80% sand are cal
loamy sands and sands. There is more information on this available from the Wikipedia entry on “soil” - see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil . Although rather technical in parts, this is, in general, a useful source of further informatio
most aspects of this course.

The dark colour of topsoil is caused by finely divided organic matter, or humus. This is the stuff that sticks to your hands a
makes them dirty. In fact, it sometimes reacts chemically with fluids on and in the skin, staining the surface cells. (Soil scie
know this well, as it takes ages to clean hands that have been dealing with humus-rich soils). We are also likely to see some
recognisable fragments of plants – pieces of stem, leaf, flower fruit, root etc. in various states of preservation, and often som
animals like earthworms, ants, millipedes, slugs or insect larvae. A magnifying hand lens will reveal more detail, including
which the humus is distributed through the other materials, and smaller soil fauna like springtails. The architecture of the so
becomes evident, with living and dead roots, often forming dense mats near the surface, and leaving impressions in the form
pores. The fauna also create pores, whilst the casts, or droppings of earthworms and other animals may be visible. Sometim
are chemical concretions that have precipitated out in the soil; small nodules of manganese and iron for example, or larger
fragments of ironpan – we will discuss this later in relation to waterlogged and upland soils, and to the laterite soils of tropic

We begin to get the feeling that this is pretty special and complex stuff. The feeling is right! Chemists have spent centuries
into the chemical components of soil, and are still some way from identifying all the molecules that make it up. This is not
surprising when we consider the origin of the materials in soil. The minerals are derived from geological deposits that were
before soil formed. These, in themselves, are chemically and physically complicated, having been created ultimately from t
earth’s mantle in volcanic activity that heated and pressurised the rocks near the earth’s surface. Although clay particles are
their molecules are very complex and varied, depending on the chemical origin of the rocks from which they are derived. A
as being chemically versatile, the molecules in clay have complicated three dimensional structures that affect the ways in wh
mineral elements attach to them, and they play an important role in the storage and distribution of important plant nutrients.
also affect the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. This important characteristic has a fundamental effect on what will grow in th
The rocks from which the soil particles (sand, silt, clay and stones) derive may be acidic in themselves.

The organic soil constituents are even more complex, consisting of the breakdown products of plants mixed with substance
excreted by animals and micro-organisms. Some of this material is readily recognisable as fragments of plant tissue, but mo
is broken down – either by passing through the digestive tracts of animals, or by being incorporated into microbial material.
humus is found in particular parts of the soil – especially in the topsoil, where it glues fragments of soil together, and coats
surfaces of the resulting structural units, which are known as peds. If you shake some garden soil in your hand it will usuall
into breadcrumb shaped fragments a few mm to a couple of cm in diameter. These are the peds. Their surfaces are often co
with humus, whilst pores that run through them may also contain enhanced amounts of this material.

This leads us on to the physical structure of soil. Peds are a unique feature of the material, and can be used to identify ancie
deposits, for example below the archaeological “occupation layers” formed from the debris of human lives – the remains of
buildings and the accumulated junk that people have discarded over the centuries – or even millennia. At the base of these l
is usual to find soil that has been preserved by the overlying layers. Below Mediaeval and Roman layers in York U.K. , for
example, I have seen topsoils with peds and the remains of earthworm casts still identifiable after 2000 years.

Topsoil crumb structures in grassland soil

Soil is never homogeneous - the solid mineral parts are mixed with humus, air and water to form a complex system in which
"whole is more than the sum of the parts". The mixture of mineral particles giving the texture is itself organised into the lar
compound peds - soil structural units. Subsoils often form into blocky or prismatic peds, which may have angular or more r
surfaces. These peds form by wetting and drying of the soil, by the binding and secreting actions of roots and by the activiti
the soil animals. They often have a zonation of organic matter content, with most of the OM coating the surfaces of the ped
ped surfaces may be coated with other materials such as iron and manganese oxides, or clay that has been re-distributed by w
flowing through the soil pores and over the ped surfaces.

Prismatic peds with clay coatings in subsoil

Porosity is a subdivision of structure - pores and fissures occur between peds, but also within the ped structures. They form
through root penetration and decay, and through the activities of small boring animals like nematodes and pot worms. Larg
earthworm channels extend from the surface to as much as 1.5 m. depth.

So far I have been talking mainly about the topsoil. This is the dark brown, black or grey layer extending about 20 to 30 cm
the surface. Under wild (natural orsemi-natural) vegetation it contains a dense mat of roots from the surface to about 10 cm
In grassland it is this root mat that can be scraped up as turf and used for laying lawns. Many people regard the topsoil laye
soil, and don’t think too much about what lies below it. However, if you look at soil sections exposed in road sides, quarrie
on, you will notice that the layer immediately below the topsoil, often called the subsoil, still has some characteristics which
distinguish it from the material from which it is developed.

Roadside section – U.K.

 It is often a brownish colour, contrasting with the material below. Closer inspection will show that it still contains roots and
animals, and the pores, fissures and peds that we saw in the topsoil. These are all soil characteristics and can be used to diff
soil from non soil. The material from which the soil is developed is called the “parent material” (see box 1). It is conventio
call the organic matter-enriched topsoil, the A horizon, whilst the distinctive layer below, which is not as dark and has fewer
called the B horizon. The B horizon is of particular importance as its depth, structure and wetness are critical to plant growt
to the way the land can be managed. The colour and structure of the horizons below the topsoil give us vital information ab
character and potential of the soil, and are used to classify the soil. The relatively unaltered parent material below this is cal
C horizon. The C horizon may be solid rock, much weathered rock, or a variety of unconsolidated deposits like sands, silts,
etc. In temperate regions the rock surfaces were often strongly altered by freezing and thawing during the period just after t
glaciers retreated. During this period too, large deposits of boulder clay were deposited from the glaciers leaving a material
(properly called till) that contains chaotic mixtures of sand, silt, clay and stones, including large boulders.

Exercises

1.Write your own definition of soil, and describe how it is used in your local area. What do you think are the most important f
for maintaining or improving the quality and sustainability of your local soils?
2.What are the best opportunities for examining soil in your area? Are there good roadside exposures, or other places where s
profiles are visible?
3.If you have access to the world-wide web, look up some soil characteristics like soil structure, soil profile etc. What do you
the results? Are they in agreement with what you have learnt so far, or do they create confusion?

Introduction to the Lithosphere

(u). Soil Pedogenesis
Introduction

Pedogenesis can be defined as the process of soil development. Late in the 19th century, scientists Hilgard in
United States and the Russian Dukuchaev both suggested independently that pedogenesis was principally cont
by climate and vegetation. This idea was based on the observation that comparable soils developed in spatially
separate areas when their climate and vegetation were similar. In the 1940s, Hans Jenny extended these ideas b
on the observations of many subsequent studies examining the processes involved in the formation of soils. Je
believed that the kinds of soils that develop in a particular area are largely determined by five interrelated facto
climate; living organisms; parent material; topography; and time (Figure 10u-1).
 Figure 10u-1: The development of a soil is influenced by five interrelated factors:
organisms, topography, time, parent material, and climate.

Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil. On the global scale, there is an obvious correlation
between major soil types and the Köppen climatic classification systems major climatic types. At regional and
scales, climate becomes less important in soil formation. Instead, pedogenesis is more influenced by factors lik
parent material, topography, vegetation, and time. The two most important climatic variables influencing soil
formation are temperature and moisture. Temperature has a direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to
produce mineral particles. Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher temperatures. Temperat
also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, an
rate of plant growth. Moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the addition of water via precipi
minus the losses due to evapotranspiration. If additions of water from precipitation surpass losses from
evapotranspiration, moisture levels in a soil tend to be high. If the water loss due to evapotranspiration exceed
from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low. High moisture availability in a soil promotes the
weathering of bedrock and sediments, chemical reactions, and plant growth. The availability of moisture also h
influence on soil pH and the decomposition of organic matter.

Living Organisms have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis including organic matter
accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling. Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation
soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient cycling. The cycling of nitrogen and carbon in soils is a
completely controlled by the presence of animals and plants. Through litterfall and the process of decomposi
organisms add humus and nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility. Surface vegetation
protects the upper layers of a soil from erosion by way of binding the soils surface and reducing the speed of m
wind and water across the ground surface.

Parent Material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils develop. These materials can b
derived from residual sediment due to the weathering of bedrock or from sediment transported into an area by
the erosive forces of wind, water, or ice. Pedogenesis is often faster on transported sediments because the wea
of parent material usually takes a long period of time. The influence of parent material on pedogenesis is usua
related to soil texture, soil chemistry, and nutrient cycling.

Topography generally modifies the development of soil on a local or regional scale. Pedogenesis is primarily
influenced by topography's effect on microclimate and drainage. Soils developing on moderate to gentle slope
often better drained than soils found at the bottom of valleys. Good drainage enhances an number of pedogeni
processes of illuviationandeluviation that are responsible for the development of soil horizons. Under conditi
poor drainage, soils tend to be immature. Steep topographic gradients inhibit the development of soils because
erosion. Erosion can retard the development through the continued removal of surface sediments. Soil microcl
is also influenced by topography. In the Northern Hemisphere, south facing slopes tend to be warmer and drie
north facing slopes. This difference results in the soils of the two areas being different in terms of depth, textu
biological activity, and soil profile development.

Time influences the temporal consequences of all of the factors described above. Many soil processes become
state overtime when a soil reaches maturity. Pedogenic processes in young soils are usually under active
modification through negativeandpositive feedback mechanisms in attempt to achieve equilibrium.

Principal Pedogenic Processes

A large number of processes are responsible for the formation of soils. This fact is evident by the large numbe
different types of soils that have been classified by soil scientists (see topic 10v). However, at the macro-scale
suggest that there are five main principal pedogenic processes acting on soils. These processes are laterization
podzolization, calcification, salinization, and gleization.

Laterization is a pedogenic process common to soils found in tropical and subtropical environments. High
temperatures and heavy precipitation result in the rapid weathering of rocks and minerals. Movements of larg
amounts of water through the soil cause eluviation and leaching to occur. Almost all of the by products of
weathering, very simple small compounds or nutrient ions, are translocated out of the soil profile by leaching
taken up by plants for nutrition. The two exceptions to this process are iron and aluminum compounds. Iron ox
give tropical soils their unique reddish coloring. Heavy leaching also causes these soils to have an acidicpH b
of the net loss of basecations.

Podzolization is associated with humid cold mid-latitude climates and coniferous vegetation. Decomposition
coniferous litter and heavy summer precipitation create a soil solution that is strongly acidic. This acidic soil s
enhances the processes of eluviation and leaching causing the removal of soluble basecations and aluminum
iron compounds from the A horizon. This process creates a sub-layer in the A horizon that is white to gray in
and composed of silica sand.

Calcification occurs when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation causing the upward movement of dissolve
alkaline salts from the groundwater. At the same time, the movement of rain water causes a downward movem
the salts. The net result is the deposition of the translocated cations in the B horizon. In some cases, these dep
can form a hard layer called caliche. The most common substance involved in this process is calcium carbon
Calcification is common in the prairie grasslands.

Salinization is a process that functions in the similar way to calcification. It differs from calcification in that th
deposits occur at or very near the soil surface. Salinization also takes place in much drier climates.

Gleization is a pedogenic process associated with poor drainage. This process involves the accumulations of o
matter in the upper layers of the soil. In lower horizons, mineral layers are stained blue-gray because of the ch
reduction of iron.

Factors in soil formation

The factors involved in soil formation are time, geology, relief, drainage, climate, vegetation and people.

Time
It takes about 1000 years for one centimetre of soil to form. In many parts of Britain we have had only 10,000 years since th
Ice Age stripped the original surface soils away.

Geology
Minerals from the parent material are added to the soil by physical and chemical weathering.

Relief
Different soils will form on different degrees of slope and aspect. Gravity and temperatures will affect the degree of slope
movement and weathering.
Drainage
Whether water can or cannot move through the soil easily will affect the development of the soil profile.

Climate
How much water and air enter the soil - and their temperatures - will affect the organic life of the soil and evaporation rates
surface.

Vegetation
The type and quantity of plant cover will affect the amount of organic material added to the soil. This is called humus.

People
When people change the angle of a slope through construction, or change the vegetation cover and/or drainage in an area, th
will also change.

The video below shows a soil scientist explaining what soil is and what it is ma
from.
Jump media player
Media player help

Study Guide
Additional Readings
Internet Weblinks
 2. Soil Forming Factors and Processes
Soil Parent materials

In a wistful allusion to the genetics of living organisms the raw materials from which soils form are called parent materials

Vegetation established on rocky islets, Costa Rica

The formation of a new soil depends on the presence of new soil material – obtained either by denudation - the scraping cle
surface by action of wind, water or ice - or deposition of new materials from erosion elsewhere - for example river gravels,
falls or blowing sand - or the formation of new rocks by uplift of the ocean bed or volcanic action. Thus there is a huge varie
possible parent materials, all with uniquely different characteristics which will be incorporated into the soils which form on

Here are some examples :

 Rocks - Sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, limestone, volcanic lavas or dusts

 Gravels - river and sea deposits
 Scree - fallen rocks
 Alluvium – sands, silts, clays from marine, estuarine or freshwater rivers and lakes
 Boulder clay - can be very variable deposits laid down by scraping ice
 Loess - blown silts and clays are common inland on the continents
 Blown sand - forming dunes or plains
 Man made materials – e.g. quarry or mining waste
estuarine sediments will eventually form alluvial soils (Wales, U.K.)

Soils form from these parent materials by processes of weathering - i.e. the breakdown of the material under the influence o
gravity, wind and water, accelerated by the chemical and physical effects of plant roots and animal action. Soils are also for
the formation and decay of OM and by pedogenic processes - the leaching and evaporating effects of water and the biochem
actions of bacteria and other living things. In the illustration above, soils form as the silty estuarine sediments are colonised
hardy plants which trap more sediment, and eventually raise the surface level beyond the reach of normal tides.

Read pp. 22 - 26 of “The Nature & Properties of Soils” by NC Brady (10th edition 1990) – or similar material on the

A Lithosere is a sequence of vegetational development - succession - on terrestrial soils which have newly formed on a pa
parent material (PM). As plant species colonise the PM, so the soil itself begins to change - a process called soil formatio

We only see the stages of the sere where new, unvegetated materials appear - e.g. naturally as when a river changes course l
fresh alluvium or gravel, or artificially where quarrying exposes new rock, sand, gravel or clay faces. New material is some
exposed within existing ecosystems - e.g. The falling trees in forests expose new soil material for colonisation - so sometim
formation re-starts on material altered during a previous phase of vegetation. Land-slips, earthquakes, floods, powerful win
volcanic activities can also provide fresh parent materials.

2. Formation conditions determine the type of vegetation and the type of soil which will develop from the fresh PM. The
of the eventual soil is determined by:

a. PM

b. Topography - i.e. slope and land form

c. Climate - the chemical breakdown of the PM is influenced by heat and cold, ice formation, wind etc.

d. Vegetation and the activity of animals - roots bind soil particles, and cleave rocks, whilst animals burrow into the soil an
the various components including organic matter from decaying organisms, mineral particles and chemicals produced by ph
chemical and biological activity in the soil.

e. Management (or mis-management) by people - ploughing, fertilising etc.

3. Soil formation

can be divided into Inputs, movement / change / organisation, and Outputs. These all change with Time.

a. Inputs include the original PM + organic matter from living and dead organisms. As the vegetation develops it adds mat
the soil - by fixing carbon from the air, organic matter or humus is added. The fungi, algae and bacteria in the developing so
able to free plant nutrients bound in the OM and the rocks into forms more easily taken up by plants, so the fertility graduall
increases. Certain plants, with the help of bacteria, are able to take nitrogen from the air and form it into nitrates and ammo
compounds in the soil - again essential nutrients for flowering plants a process known as nitrogenfixation.

b. Movement occurs in a number of ways - on slopes there is movement under gravity. As vegetation covers the land surfa
tendency for material to move down slopes is reduced. Mature vegetation may stabilise steep slopes. Change and "organi
is related to movement and occurs in a number of ways:

Roots mould the soil into aggregates or peds, and may release sticky substances as they operate or decay. The living mater
humus are rich in energy, and attract:

soil animals which make tunnels through the soil and ingest and egest soil materials, mixing them with their own secretions
soil begins to take on its own organisation or architecture, which may improve natural drainage, and make nutrients availabl
competing flora and fauna. Animals also bring in materials on their feet and surfaces, especially seeds and spores, whilst the
and more mobile animals often deliver materials from elsewhere in urine and faeces. The developing soil is affected by:

Climate. The speed of OM decay depends on temperature and humidity, whilst rainfall washes (leaches) substances - espec
soluble nutrients and iron-rich compounds - from the upper layers (horizons) into the lower ones. In some tropical climates
evaoration of soil water causes compounds like salts to accumulate in the surface horizons. On slopes, material can be wash
the soil from above. Wind can also bring in mineral grains and OM from elsewhere.
c. Outputs comprise the materials lost from the soil. Plant materials can blow away, or be eaten by animals and removed.
plants are harvested and removed. Soil material itself can be removed by erosion by wind water and ice. Some of the subst
moved by leaching may enter water courses above or below the ground, and be moved out of the system.

Podzol
There are three main British soils; podzol, brown earth and gley.

Podzols are easily recognisable by their distinct layers or horizons. A grey or light-coloured 'E' horizon is the result of sever
leaching, or eluviation, which washes out everything but quartz grains.
Eluviation is the removal of soil, clay, silt or fine organic matter in suspension from a soil horizon.

The iron and aluminium oxides collect in the 'B' horizon where the iron oxides can accumulate to form a thin layer of hardp
which impedes drainage through the soil.

Illuviation is the process of deposition of soil material removed from one horizon to another, usually from an upper to a low
horizon as material is washed down profile by percolating water. Some iron and aluminium oxides get through the iron hard
giving this 'B' horizon its dull orange colour.

These soils are found where there is good drainage and soil water is strongly acidic. They tend to be found on the upper slop
upland areas where precipitation is heavy or where the vegetation is coniferous forest, producing an acid humus.
The acidic conditions are not liked by soil organisms which would normally merge the boundaries of the horizons.

Brown earth
Brown earth soils are widespread in Britain, except in highland areas.

Soil organisms, like earthworms, mix the materials together, merging the boundaries between the horizons.
These soils are leached, but not heavily, so the aluminium and iron oxides are dispersed through the soil to give the overall b
colour.

The original vegetation was deciduous forest, resulting in a layer of decaying leaves giving a rich humus.

The deep roots of these trees reached down to the 'B' horizon, unlike with coniferous trees, tapping the nutrient supply and a
good drainage.
Soil structure (properties)

Soils have four main parts: water, air, minerals and organic matter, their relationships
produce a number of properties found in soil which are outlined below.

Refers to the shape of peds (individual soil particles) and their grouping. The shape of peds,
their alignments, along with particle size/texture determines the size and number of pore
spaces. Structure can be improved by ploughing.

Soil texture:

How fine or course the mineral matter is in the soil that is dependent on the amount of sand,
silt and clay particles in the soil.

The textures of different soils are shown below:

Soil nutrients (bases):

Chemical elements in the soil are vital for plant growth and soil fertility. They come from
rainwater, fertilizer, parent rock, decaying organic matter and clay. Minerals from decaying
organic matter are positively charged ions (cations), those from clay are negatively charged ions
(anions).

Exchanges that occur are known as cation exchange and this is where bases are made available
for plants.
Soil moisture:

This is important because it influences upward and downward movement of nutrients and
water in the soil.

Other properties of soil include temperature, acidity, biota, air, organic and inorganic matter.

Soil formation processes

Translocation

Includes numerous processes but is primarily the downward movement of water or materials
in soil. The main features of translocation are shown below:

Processes that come under the heading of translocation include:

1.Leaching: Where soluble material is removed in solution.

2.Cheluviation: When iron and aluminum sesquioxides are removed due to chelating agents.
3.Illuviation: Material re-deposited in the lower horizons.

Soil types and examples

Zonal soils

These are classified on a global scale and have climate as the major determining factor. They
are mature, have distinct profiles and clear horizons. They are strongly tied to climatic
regions as shown in the chart below:

Climate
Soil Type:
Zone:

Arctic Tundra

Mediterrane
Mediterranean
an

Red yellow
Desert
desert

Equatorial Latosols

Azonal soils

Far more recent, and soil forming processes have not been in operation for long. Horizons are
unclear and they are not linked with climate and vegetation. Their immaturity is a result of high
altitudes, low temperatures and slow decay of organic matter. Examples include scree, till and
volcanic soil.

Intrazonal soils
 Soils found within the climate belt are different from normal, they are a result of a dominant
local factor, for example, parent rock. Three types exist:

1. Calcomorphic/calcareous soils: which develop on limestone.

2. Hydromorphic soils: where water content is always high.
3. Halomorphic soils: saline due to high salt level.

Podsol

Develops if precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Often soils are sandy, coniferous forest
exists and the climate is cool. A typical podsol is shown below:

Leaching is intense, humus acidic, and horizons are bleached as iron, aluminium and organic
matter is removed. Horizons are clear as the cool conditions lead to acidic soils, which do not
encourage earthworms.

Brown earths

These are moderately or well-drained soils, found where precipitation exceeds potential
evapotranspiration, and particles move downward through the soil. They are the main soil in
the UK due to the warm temperate climate. Annual leaf fall contains nutrients and mull
develops which is fertile humus. Top horizons are dark and become lighter in the B horizon as
leaching and eluviation occur. The soil is reasonably fertile.

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Makin' The Soil

The process of soil formation happens in many ways. Here are
five of the most important factors involved in soil formation.
There are others, but these are the biggies.

(1) It can be created because of the shape of the landscape.

That shape is called the topography. When you have
mountains, the sides of the mountains are said to have a slope.
When you have a slope and it rains, there will be drainage. The
runoff carries away small rocks and minerals. This runoff winds
up in valleys or in the ocean. It slowly builds up and the small
pieces make soil.

(2) There are climatic effects that create soil. Moisture and
rain combine with the temperature to do amazing things to
rocks. We just explained that when it rains you have runoff and
erosion. Those physical activities break down the rocks and
hard surfaces. Temperature plays a role when you move below
and above the freezing point. When water freezes, it expands.
Rocks and soil that hold water can be cracked when the water
freezes and expands. They pop open with a cracking sound!

(3) What's in the soil is dependent on geologic factors. The

type of soil under your feet is dependent on the bedrock deep
below the surface. As the bedrock breaks down, smaller pieces
move to the surface and mix with the existing soil.
(4) In the same way that there are large geologic factors,
chronological factors play an important part in the process.
Chronological means time. You need time to make soil. That's
it. Sediment can move around quickly but it takes a long time
to break down bedrock. We can't just sit and watch this
process happen. We have to study it over many years. Also, if
we pollute our soil we can't renew it in our lifetime. It takes
hundreds to thousands of years.

(5) Soil is also created by biological factors. You'll find that

soil is half minerals/rocks and half air/water. All sorts of
biological things are happening in the air/water space. The
organic material is most important. There are tiny living
organisms (like bacteria) that break down organic stuff. The
"stuff" could be dead leaves or dead animals. The organic stuff
is called humus. There are also roots and tunneling creatures
that work like the microbes. They turn the soil around and
move it. They churn the pieces of soil.

The world desires wood; the timber industry is here to supply it. An increasing human population
desires food; farmers are here to supply it. How can the demands for farmland, wood and wood
products be reconciled with the preservation of forests? Most deforestation, as has been pointed
out, results from exploitation of forests to generate foreign exchange or to provide subsistence.
This means that rainforests can only be saved by finding alternatives to subsistence goods (food,
materials for construction, fuels) taken from rainforests, by providing alternatives to current
export goods, and by using forest products sustainably.
Many solutions to the problem of tropical rain forest loss have been proposed, but it will take a
combination of many actions to slow the destruction of tropical rainforests. There is
 disagreement about how forests might best be preserved, and how to reconcile the need for forest
products with the need for conservation. Formerly, protection of old-growth forests by keeping
them intact was the preferred model. More recently, in the 1980’s, the concept of forest
dynamism and the potential for regeneration was ascendant. Now that so much forest has
disappeared, stress has been laid on the ability of fragments, logged forests and second-growth
forests to conserve at least some biodiversity. Since it seems impossible to keep humans away
from forests, we must discover ways to preserve them in conjunction with some human
activities. What are some means which can be used to save rainforests?
 1) Drastic reduction of human population growth
 2) Improvement of land use
 3) Improvement of forest management
 4) Institution of changes in public policies toward forests
 5) Protection of forest land
 6) Improvement of agricultural methods and productivity
 7) Modification of economic and legal systems
 8) Reduction of social and economic imbalances
 9) Reduction of anthropogenic effects on forests
 10) Utilization of indigenous species for resources
 11) Establishment of national centers for the conservation of threatened and endangered species
 12) Increase in basic research on tropical rainforests
 13) Regarding tropical rainforest preservation as an asset in economic calculations
 14) Institution of economic measures favorable to rainforest preservation
 15) Reformation of trade policies
 16) Reduction of poverty, both urban and rural
 17) “Community-based” conservation
 18) Promotion of the rights of indigenous peoples
 19) Increasing international pressures
 20) Improving environmental education
 21) Reduction of waste
 22) Reduction of demand
 23) Market reform
 24) Care of secondary forests
 25) Thinking on a large scale

Soils

Soil is the mineral and organic material on the earth’s surface which provides the necessities for plant
growth. It is alive and dynamic. Soils are complexes in which chemical, physical and biological activity
takes place.

Soil is dynamic because it changes in response to changing environmental conditions.

Pedology

is the study of soils.

Pedogenesis

is the process of soil formation.

Soil profile

It is made up of distinct layers or horizons. The upper layer/ horizons are A and B which are able to
support plants. These are made up of minerals and organic material.

The lowest horizon C, is composed of the parent rock in the form of either solid rock or as partly
weathered rock. Horizon C is entirely mineral in composition

Classification of soils
Zonal classification
This is base on the premise that mature soils develop over a long period of time to a point where
there is equilibrium between the soil and its environment, mainly climate and vegetation.
Zonal soils
These are soils that have developed over a long period of time and have become mature.the soils
are in equilibrium with their environment namely climate and vegetation. The soils nolonger
have the strong effect or influence of the parent rock and have a distinct profile.
Intrazonal soils
These are soils whose development has been interrupted in their development by the influence or
effect of one soil forming factor such as ground water or parent rock.
Azonal soils
These are immature soils which have only started to develop. They show no distinct profile and
exist on new alluvial materials and on sand dunes.
Soil erosion/ deterioration
Causes of soil erosion
Soil erosion occurs under natural conditions but is often caused or accelerated by human
activities or actions.
Human causes of soil erosion
Deforestation
The removal of surface vegetation. This is done when people clear land for agricultural purposes
or cultivation and for settlement. This leaves the land bare and exposed to agents of erosion such
as wind and water. At times the trees are felled without any replanting. Rain drop impact is
increased and runoff is accelerated.
Overstocking

Overgrazing
Overcultivation
Poor farming methods
Stream bank cultivation
Ploughing along slopes
Monoculture

Evidence of soil erosion

 Exposed plant roots
 Exposed rocks
 Muddy water
  Siltation of rivers.
 Development of gullies.
 Loss of soil fertility
 Reduced yields
 Depleting humus content of soil.
 Reduced water retention.
 Increased drought due to reduced evapotranspiration.
 Dust bowls.

Types of soil erosion

Sheet erosion
This is even/uniform flow of water and soil downslope which takes place over the surface of the
earth where there is no channel.
Gully erosion
Occurs in irregular earth surface channels dug by water. The water cuts deep gullies due to its
erosive power. The land becomes dissected.
Raindrop splash erosion
Soil conservation
Afforestation
Reforestation
Planting of trees such as shrubs protects the soil by reducing the mechanical beating of the rain ,
reduces runoff and increases the soil’s moisture reserves.
Contour ploughing
The construction of ridges and furrows prevent the downslope movement of soil.
Terracing
The construction of steps on hillslopes to reduce the speed of water on the slope.
Strip farming
This is the growing of crops interspersed in strips across a slope.
Retaining walls
These are walls built at intervals to hold back the soil.
Wind breaks
Planting of trees such as hedge rows to block wind. It is important in areas where strong winds
remove soils.
Crop rotation
The growing of different types of crops on the same piece of land helps build soil fertility and
enables the soil to hold more moisture.
Conservation farming
This seeks to build up oisture reserves. Areas of land are left fallow and weeds are kept down.
This reduces evapotranspiration rates and enables soil moisture to build up. This is most
effective in dry areas where wind erosion is very effective.

Soil characteristics
Factors influencing the development of soil
Soil forming processes
Weathering
 Is the breakdown of rock material by physical and chemical means. This provides the
basic soil material. The rate of weathering and the type of weathering depends largely on
climate. Weathering releases colloids and bases from parent rock. and these are
distributed through the soil by the percolation of soil water.
Leaching and enrichment

humification
Soil types
Soil profiles
Tropical soil catena/the role of slopes in soil formation
Eluviation
Illuviation
Upward capillary movement of water and minerals
Soil fertility
Soil erosion processes and solutions
The human impact
Sustainable management of soil in some areas
Soil catena
 This refers to the differences in soil types and characteristics from the top of a slope
downward.
 It is the different soils that are found down a slope with each soil facet showing different
characteristics but all occurring in the same climate and on the same underlying parent
material.
 A catena shows the lateral variations in soils over a hillslope where the climate and
parent material is the same from the op to the bottom.
 The slope varies in gradient. The top is steep and erosion takes place easily while the
bottom is gentler and materials tend to accumulate.
 It illustrates the way in which soils change down a slope where there are no marked
changes in climate and parent material when sufficient time has passed for equilibrium to
be reached between processes that bring materials into a facet and the processes that take
material away.
 Each catena shows an example of a small-scale open system with its inputs, processes
and outputs.
 The slope itself is in a delicate state of dynamic/changing equilibrium with the soils and
landforms being in a state of flux/flow and where the ratio of erosion and deposition
varies between the different soil facets.
 The slope is divided into or broken into sections known as a ridge, crest, mid-slope and
toe-slope.
The lower slope/Toeslope /upper part
 Soils on the lower slopes tend to be deeper and has more moisture or wetter than those on
the upper slope. The soils on the lower is also richer than the upper slope due to leached
materials.
 Richer in clay and organic matter.
 The soils are thicker or deeper because they gain materials due to iluviation.
 Water content is higher on the lower part of the hillslope.
The middle slope/central slope
 Is the thinnest and driest.
 The main process is the transportation of materials on the middle of the slope.
The crest or steeper slope
 Is freely drained.
 The soils are thin or shallow and drier due to run-off due to exposure.
 The soils lose materials such as mineral salts where they are washed away by rain water
(eluviation)
  Steep slopes encourage movement down the slope rather than through the soil. This
means that nutrients are washed downslope, along with small particles. This has an effect
on the texture and pH of the soil.
A soil catena is created by a balance of processes such as precipitation, infiltration and runoff.
The soil catenas develop in stable environments where there are little changes in climate and
landscape.
The importance of a soil catena
 Is the variation of soils across a small area such as a slope.
 This helps in the mapping of soils across a given region.
 Soil catenas help to understand the influence of soil hydrology on soil formation.
 Soil catenas also help us understand the history of the land surface, its hydrology,
erosion, sediment transport and deposition as well as pedogenic processes.
 In the field it helps us understand processes operating within the soil such as ;
 The depth of organic matter. It is linked with cycling efficiency, wetness,
temperature and acidity by analyzing its structure.
 Red and grey colours indicate the oxidation status.
 Leaching processes can be deduced from accumulation lower down in the soil
profile.
 Human activities are influenced by soil quality.

The soil catena

The catena concept in soil science comes from the Latin word “catena” which means chain. So it
is a chain of soils linked by topography. It also refers to a sequence of soils in different positions
in the landscape. It was introduced to the scientific literature by Geoffrey Milne (1898-1942) in a
paper entitled “Some suggested units of classification and mapping particularly for East African
soils” published in Soil Research-Bodenkundliche Forschung, Supplement to the Proceedings of
the International Union of Soil Science Vol. IV No. 3 (1935), pp: 183-198. He noted “the regular
repetition of a certain sequence of soil profiles in association with topography” in East Africa
which was also observed earlier (in 1911 and 1912) by the German Peter Vageler. Milne wrote
that "a distinctive word is needed in referring to this phenomenon" hence, he proposed the word
catena.
Ernst Schlichting (1923-1988) who was professor at the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart
pioneered the approach of considering the soil always as part of the landscape. He proposed that
soils in different positions in the catena exchange materials through transport processes and thus
could be compared to the transfer processes between horizons in a soil profile. He and his
students have shown that the downward transport of solids or solutions may lead to a direct or an
indirect linkage between catena elements (Sommer and Schlichting, 1997; see above figure). In
Schlichting’s view, the genesis of a soil can only be understood if its relation to the other soils in
the catena is taken into consideration.