Introduction
• Most Applications collect huge amount of
File Structure And Hashing
File structure and data structure
• A data structure could be present both in
RAM and DISK.
• Technically the file structures are more
standardized, especially if one wants to allow
a third party app or a newer version of the
same app to open the file.
• Data structures can change between app
versions and there is no need for compatibility.
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Data, [ Bank Accounts, College Admissions,
Scientific Experiments etc.]
• Files stored on computer are a good alternative
to store.
• Primary Storage vs. Secondary Storage.
• Less Time and Less Space vs. More Time and
More Space.
File structure and data structure
• In most (binary) file structures, the basic
organizing elements are Pages and Physical
Links. 
• Page (computer memory) map to file system
chunks that are (hopefully) guaranteed to be
stored contiguously and can be read and
written in a single operation.
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 Data Hierarchy File Attributes
• Every file contains data which can be • Every file is stored in directory in computer
organized in hierarchy for systematic system.
organization. • Each file is having list of attributes associated
– Data Field with it. They state how to use file to any
– Record software program looks up the directory.
– File • Just like hidden files are not displayed in DOS
– Directory when we apply DIR command.

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File Attributes File Attributes

• File name – string of characters vary by OS • Attributes Flag – a single byte is used to
• File position – position where the next specify 6 flags attached to a file
read/write operation can be performed Attribute Byte
• File structure – whether text file or binary file Read-Only 0000 0001
Hidden 0000 0010
• File access method – how to access records, System 0000 0100
sequentially or randomly Volume Label 0000 1000
Directory 0001 0000
Archive 0010 0000

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 File Attributes
• Read-only – can’t get deleted or modified. Get
message ‘access denied’ if you do so.
• Hidden – Not displayed in directory listing.
• System – Important as used by system and
must not be altered or removed. More than
Read-only.
• Volume label – Every disk volume is assigned
for identification, mainly at the time of
formatting.
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Text files vs. Binary files
• Basically every file is just a series of bytes one
after the other.  "line-oriented". Any file where besides the
• In general every file is a binary file, but if the
data in it contains only text like letter,
numbers and other symbols one would use in
writing, and if it consists of lines, then we
consider it a text file.
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File Attributes
• Directory – Extra bit to differentiate directory
from file. In directory listing it is used to
specify sub directories. Theoretically by
changing this bit, we can convert a file to
directory but practically results in failure.
• Archive – Backup program uses it by setting 1
to 0 and 0 to 1 to have the latest copy.
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Text files vs. Binary files
• A binary file is basically any file that is not
actual written characters and newlines there
are other symbols as well.
• A Microsoft word file is a binary file as besides
the actual text, it also contains various
characters representing font size and color.
• Program written in the C programming
language is a text file, but after you compiled
it, the compiled version is binary.
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 File Organization File Organization
• File is a collection of related records so main • Sequential Organization
issue in file management is the way records • Relative File Organization
are organized inside the file.
• Indexed Sequential File Organization
• How to select file organization method:
– Rapid access to one or more records
– Ease of insert/update/delete one or more records
w/o affecting speed of accessing records
– Efficient storage of records

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Sequential Organization Sequential Organization

• In a sequential file, we place records in a block • Suppose we only wish to find one record. We
one after another until there is no room for may have to search the entire file, reading
another complete record in the block. one block at a time to find the record.
• If we wish to access all the records, one after
another, this is a highly efficient file
organization.

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 Relative File Organization
• In contrast to SEQ files, records of a RELATIVE
file can be accessed by specifying the record
sequence number/relative key and without
needing to read all the previous records.
• Record with sequence number 16 is located
just after the 15th record.
• Range from 0 to n-1.
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Relative File Organization
• This can be used as Relative as well as
sequential
• Random access, ease of processing, low
overhead, add/delete based on relative key
• Only disk devices uses this, limited to fixed
length records, relative record number must
be known in advance to access any record
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Relative File Organization
• Address of ith record =
base_add + (i-1)*record_length
• Add of 5th record = 1000+(4)*20 = 1080
• Possible only if records are of equal lenths.
Relative Record Number Records in Memory
0 Record 0
1 Record 1
2 Free
3 Free
…… …..
98 Free
99 Record 99
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Indexed Sequential File Organization
• Provides fast data retrieval
• Mostly records are of fixed length
• Index table stores address of each record
• Sequential and random access is possible
• Index table is read sequentially to find the
address of the desired record
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 Indexed Sequential File Organization Indexing
• Advantage is that indexes are small and • Index to file is like a catalogue to library
searched quickly • Indexed sequential file organization is efficient
• Disadvantage is extra space for index to use but in practical where a file may have
Record Number Address of Record
millions of records, method fails
1 1234 Record • Based on access time, access type, insertion
2 NULL
time, deletion time, we have two categories,
…. ….
99 4567 Record – Ordered Indices
– Hash Indices

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Ordered Indices Ordered Indices

• Indexes are used to provide fast and random
access to records
• Primary Index – Index whose search key
specifies the sequential order of file.
• Example, STUDENT file has sequential order
starting from roll no. 1 to 70. So roll number is
primary index. Call roll no 20 and you get
record.
• Secondary Index, while primary index
provides sequential order only. Here the
search key which provides random access or
different from sequential order will work as
secondary index.
• Example, in STUDENT file use student name as
index which never provides sequential order,
as they are sorted roll number wise.

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 Hash Indices
• Based on Hashing Techniques
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Why not traditional data structures?
• Traditional data structures like Arrays and
Linked Lists?
• Amount of time required to look up an
element in the array is either O(log n) or O( n).
– If array is sorted then binary search or searched
linearly.
• Either case may not be desirable if we need to
process a very large data set.
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Why Hashing ?
• Internet has grown to millions of users
generating terabytes of content every day.
• With this kind of growth, it is impossible to
find anything in the internet, unless we
develop new data structures and algorithms
for storing and accessing data.
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Why Hashing ?
• Therefore we discuss a new technique called
hashing that allows us to update and retrieve
any entry in constant time O(1).
• The constant time or O(1) performance means,
the amount of time to perform the operation
does not depend on data size 'n'.
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 Hash Function
• Pair is of the form (key, value), where for
given a key, we can find a value using some
kind of a “function” that maps keys to values.
• The key for a given object can be calculated
using a function called a hash function.
• For example, given an array A, if i is the key,
then we can find the value by simply looking
up A[i].
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Example
• Suppose we have a set of strings {“abc”, “def”, “ghi”}
that we’d like to store in a table.
• Our objective here is to find or update them quickly
from a table, actually in O(1).
• We are not concerned about ordering them or
maintaining any order at all.
• Suppose we assign “a” = 1, “b”=2, … etc to all
alphabetical characters, then simply compute a
number for each of the strings.
• “abc” = 1 + 2 + 3=6, “def” = 4 + 5 + 6=15 , “ghi” = 7 +
8 + 9=24
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Hash Function
• The concept of a hash table is a generalized
idea of an array where key does not have to
be an integer.
• We can have a name as a key, or for that
matter any object as the key.
• The trick is to find a hash function to compute
an index so that an object can be stored at a
specific location in a table such that it can
easily be found.
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Example
• If we assume that we have a table of size 5 to store
these strings,
• we can compute the location of the string by taking
the sum mod 5. So we will then store “abc” in 6 mod
5 = 1, “def” in 15 mod 5 = 0, and “ghi” in 24 mod 5 =
4.
• So locations 1, 0 and 4 as follows.
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 Example
• We can immediately compute the location
using a simple hash function, which is sum of
the characters mod Table size.
• Using this hash value, we can search for the
string. This seems to be great way to store a
Dictionary.
• Therefore the idea of hashing seems to be a
great way to store pairs of (key, value) in a
table.
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Problem with Hashing
• Question 1: How do we pick a good hash
function?
• Question 2: How do we deal with collisions?
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Problem with Hashing
• The method discussed seems too good as we begin
to think more about the hash function.
• First of all, the hash function we used, that is the
sum of the letters, is a bad one.
• In case we have permutations of the same letters,
"abc", "bac" etc in the set, we will end up with the
same value for the sum and hence the key.
• In this case, the strings would hash into the same
location, creating what we call a "collision".
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Question 1
• Picking a “good” hash function is key to
successfully implementing a hash table.
• What we mean by “good” is that the function
must be easy to compute and avoid collisions
as much as possible.
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 Question 1 Division Method
• Properties of Good Hash Function • This method divides Key K by Prime number
– Low Cost – Binary search find value with log n, so M and then uses the reminder thus obtained.
hash function must cost less than this
– Determinism – same hash value for same input
• h(K) = K mod M
– Uniformity – uniform hash values minimize the
number of collisions
• Example:
– h(12345) = 12345 % 95 = 90

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Midsquare Method Folding Method

• Square the value of the Key • Divide the Key value into a number of parts.
• Extract the middle r bits of the result – K into k1, k2, k3, .....kn. where each part has same
number of digits except the last one.
• Add the individual parts.
• Example: – obtain k1+k2+k3+....+kn. the hash value is
– if K = 12345 obtained by ignoring the last carry.
– Square(K) = 152399025 • Example:
– middle 3 bits: 399 – K = 12345: k1=12, k2=34,k3=5
– middle 2 bits: 39 – k1+k2+k3 = 51

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 Multiplication Method
• Choose a constant A such that 0 < A < 1
• Multiply Key K by A
• Extract the fractional part of KA
• Multiply the result by m and take floor
• h(K) = floor [m (KA mod 1)]
• Example:
– h(12345) = floor[ 100 (12345*0.357840 mod 1)]
= floor[ 100 (4417.5348 mod 1) ]
= floor[ 100 (0.5348) ]
= floor[ 53.48 ]
= 53
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Collisions
• It is difficult to find a “perfect” hash function,
that is a function that has no collisions.
• One problem with hashing is that it is possible
that two strings can hash into the same
location. This is called a collision.
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Algebraic Method
• Suppose we need to store a dictionary in a
hash table. A dictionary is a set of Strings and
we can define a hash function as follows.
Assume that S is a string of length n and
• where p is a prime number. Obviously, each
string will lead to a unique number
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Collision Resolution
• If two keys hash to the same index, the
corresponding records cannot be stored in the
same location.
• So, if it's already occupied, we must find
another location to store the new record, and
do it so that we can find it when we look it up
later on.
• There are number of collision resolution
techniques, but the most popular
are chaining and open addressing.
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 Open Addressing
• Open addressing hash tables can store the
records directly within the array.
• A hash collision is resolved by probing, or
searching through alternate locations in the
array (the probe sequence) until either the
target record is found, or an unused array slot
is found, which indicates that there is no such
key in the table.
Open Addressing
• Linear probing, looking for the next available
location i+1, i+2, etc. from the hashed value i
• Quadratic probing, same as linear probing,
except we look for available positions i+1 , i +
4, i + 9, etc from the hashed value i

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Chaining
• Each slot in the array references a linked list of
inserted records that collide to the same slot.
• Insertion requires finding the correct slot, and
appending to either end of the list in that slot; Thank You...
deletion requires searching the list and removal.

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