} The Learning App Care Poe ouTHIS BOOK BELONGS 10Abrief summary of the RIT ey seccerescees Some concepts that we recommend revisiting before starting the current lesson. REVISE THESE CONCEPTS FIRST 9 The name of the lesson you're currently studying. aU TBS ‘Why does a light ray always travel in a straight line in a medium?” These are just some of the questions that you will have to think and reflect on before answering. Don't worry, all of these questions are answered over the course of the lesson.You can find additional related to the topic you're studying in brown pitstops. Ne Jo Burdock fruits have | a eta In addition to pollination, animal help the plants in seed dispersal a rere RCC son Rus Cees Here, you can learn more about the scientists and mathematicians behind ee famous inventions and discoveries. HISTORY TIME! PIERRE DE FERMAT Pierre De Fermat was a French mathematician and physicist. He is best known for his contributions to analytic geometry, probability, and calculus. His research regarding the propagation of light is especially significant. Look out for this tag over certain topics that we've Ft fo kees found to be more important EF than others from an ‘examination point of view. tional information currently PIM eee Weed Meee | Important concepts that you absolutely should not forget highlighted in orange pitstop Tp This tag indicates that the question has previously appeared in an examination. sere aera nurs irregular reflection. Blu image formation is po re tacit maal) in a lake or pond appears! We have highlighted some common mist that students make to prevent you from actually making them in an exam. These will appear in either blue or red bovHere, you'll find a fun fact that is related to the concept you're currently studying. REER CORNER UT TAa ( Did the concepts covered in the lesson excite you? Do you want to work in that PRR ue dans field? Here, you'll ind more information ae Re ‘on an occupation that is based on the Sku ts concepts covered in the lesson. eeu neu auton Here, you'll find a short but ‘comprehensive summary of ‘everything you've learnt in the ca } e. i £8 IN ANUTSHELL 28 es roonetan Ea ae = here. E 2 eS 2H) z &5 -of very important questions from the topic. g these will definitely help you do better inLaws of Reflection... Spherical Mirrors and their Applications Snell's Law... Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection.... Spherical Lens... Dispersion of Light: The Human Eye.. Heat and its Measurement... Change of Phase and Latent Heat... Introduction to Electricity. hm’s Law and Resistor Combinations. ent-Carrying Conductors....... romagnetic Induction... of Energy.1. LAWS OF REFLECTION Uy News OF Reflection Class 10 CBSE Science Ter ed Light rays always traverse the quickest path The angle made by the incident light ray with the normal is equal to the angle made by the reflected light ray with the normal to the surface. The image formed bya plane mirror is virtual and laterally inverted, CNA AS + Light Ray Tehama DOC tone Cece tad C1 FERMAT'S PRINCIPLE Light has a tendency to travel along the path that takes the least time, Thus, a light ray travelling from one point to another, takes the quickest path and notthe shortest path, This is known as Fermat's principle, I Explore! | 6 plore!om WS Of Reflection 3 Class 10 CBSE Science jap | The shortest distance | between points A’ and C is the straight line joining these points Since this line passes: through 0, and OA and OA’ are equal, the path COA is also the shortest distance for the bail to travel from C to A after bouncing off the platform. When the ball follows this path, it reaches A from C quickest. Therefore, for the quickest path (the path that takes the least amount of time), ZAON = ZCON. Also, itis observed that the entire path lies in the same plane. Otherwise, the length of the path changes, leading to an increase in the time taken by the ball to reach A from C. Think of the path that the ball travels as @ ray of light and the platform that it bounces off a8 @ plane mirror, Then, Positive Direction of incident ray Negative Positive Nesetive oe Direction of re incident ray Principal Axis Concave mirror Convex mirror Seiad oe Te curea yy Pee ical Poa] fa ania Peer CAR i] Cre Real _VirtualLearn Spherical Mirrors 7 Class 10 CBSE Science Tn CY We know that the focal length of a plane mirror is infinite because To Of its infinite radius of curvature, so the quantity (1/4) will be zero. Me) So, from the mirror formula, the image distance is equal to the TORR tf Oem cu ME Or itt CR rm ek ek oS Object distance is negative and image distance is positive). cnn TU EUS Wena Cn ee eRe uid abject, provided the New Cartesian Sign Convention is used while substituting for numerical Raa Set Coe image distance (u) Real image NU o: EE eo ea DEUS ate Aconeave mirror converges light rays, whereas a convex mirror diverges them, ‘Acconcave mirror can form either a real or virtual image, while a convex mirror always forms a Virtual image of an object. ‘The mirror formula describes the relationship between object distance, image distance, and focal length. The magnification produced by a mirror is the ratio of image height to object height. ‘measurements (distances and height of object and Image) are made based on the New ian Sign Convention.Up W01} Wo Og Jo souPISsIp e ye JOM Ou) PINoYs UsaIDs au) ‘y9a/qo aU jo a6 ‘ ‘Bevionu 91 60 oun rein eaveojpuy ubys enyeBou AUL WO 8 24 |IIM aBew! aYp Jo 4BIoy ouns = a” a a iad = “* rr) eons + Light travels at different speeds in different media + The speed at which light travels in a medium depends on the refractive index of that medium. + Alight ray entering obliquely into a medium deviates from its path. + Refraction of light is governed by Snell's law. + Light + Transverse Waves The rays of light coming from the tip of the pencil (A) bend at the interface of water and air. When these rays are extended backwards, they appear to intersect at a position (A\) higher than their actual origin. This causes the tip of the pencil to appear at a position higher than its actual position. Thus, the pencil appears to bend in water.Learn Sreirs tew ree ane 1 J REFRACTION OF LIGHT ia vara lagi vide vane OE ‘ hh Air ‘Angle ot ‘The ray light originating from te tip ofthe pencil is called . tfetraction, the incident ray. S “4 ‘This ray of light that bends at the interface of eit and water, ‘s called the refracted ray. ‘The angle made by the incident ray with the normal at the intertace is known as the angle of incidence, while the angle formed between the normal and the refracted ray is known as the angle of refraction. The depth from the surface of the water at which the tip depth, while the depth at which the tip of the pencil is act of the pencil appears to be is known as the appar: ually located is known as the real depth. STrr tec Re eT alias A group of soldiers marching at the same pace ‘on a concrete surface approach a muddy patch ‘@t.2 certain angle. The soldiers in @ particular row are holding hands such thet these rows are rigid. When they reach the mud, it is clear that all of them = IEZTIEIC! do not enter the mud at the same time. Thus, the first soldier who reaches the mud cannot" quickly as the rest of the soldiers in his row who are still ‘on concrete surface, Siooe ie aia tokery who are stl ‘on the concLearn Snell's taw a Class 10 CBSE Science Lightis a transverse electromagnetic wave. Itcan be represented by vertical lines that are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. Direction of propagation :Normel g of soldiers in the previous example ant the vertical lines. Similar to the soldiers, ¥y also bends towards the normal when from a rarer medium toa denser medium. | [aleve Normal When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the Portion of it hitting the interface speeds up, while the remaining portion continues to move in the first medium with the same speed. This change in speed results ina change in the direction of the light ray. Thus, the light ray moves away from the normal when moving from a denser medium to a rarer medium. ISIN 0 PRU Cg a pee cu incident obliquely on a rectangular b undergoes refraction twice—when s the glass slab (at the air-glass and when it leaves the glass slab ‘Incident ay interface). When the light ray Angle of incidence \theairtothe glass, itbends towards Angle of refraction +} Jand when it moves from the glass to away fromthe normal, tated aye Eile ‘emerges from the glass slab is aaes ‘emergent ray. ‘Angle of through which the light ray enters ; is parallel to the surface through ee tetera epibcmmant In this case, the angle of alto the angle of emergence ‘ay is parallel to the emergent ray. However, they are not along the same line, The emergent y displaced from the path of the incident ray. Eda Bn 2Learn Snell's Law 22 Class 10 CBSE Science Let's go back to the example of the marching soldiers. If all the soldiers approach the interface or surface separating the two media in a direction that is perpendicular to it, then each soldier reaches the interface at the exact same time. Thus, all the soldiers in a particular row slow down together. Therefore, they remain ina straight line parallel to the interface. Similarly, alight ray incident normal to the interface passes undeviated. The speed of light changes but its direction remains unchanged. eoeD The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction was given by @ famous Dutch scientist named Willebrord Snellius. The laws governing the refraction of light are: + The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane. + Fora given pair of optical media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r) is equal to the ratio of the velocities through which light travels, in the given media. Mathematically, “HISTORY TIME! WILLEBRORD SNELLIUS Angle of Incidence () Willebrord Snellius was an early 17"-century Dutch mathematician, Although the laws of refraction of light remained his most important contribution to science, they were published almost 70 years after his death.Lean rs N Snell’s Law 23 Class 10 CBSE Science lid only when ee ers ” REFRACTIVE INDEX eally denser than water which means that light will travel faster through water than glass. The speed travels through a medium is determined by its refractive index. (of light travelling with a speed v, in medium 1 enters medium 2, its speed becomes v,. So, the jindex of the second medium with respect to the first medium is equal to the ratio of the speed of light '1(y,) to the speed of light in medium 2 (v,) and is represented by n,, % doflightin medium 1 _ ‘speed oflightinmedium2 — V. ractive index of the first medium with respect to the second medium is the ratio of the speed ond medium (v,) to the speed of light in the first medium (v,) and is represented by n, ‘of light in medium 2 DN oflightinmediumi v, | Qal{Ngl | PO UR uo RRS eee ee om a eee GARR pee nS ae the refractive index of ct to air is more than the ‘water with respect to air pavearaneprenieiemE true even for alight ay incident at any angle tothe interface Udea ee ee Gna ent medium, then the refractive index os ,, When tight travels trom air or vacuum t0 any other transparent MoT ic serascnn | medium with respect to that of air or vacuum is known as the. If the speed of light is ¢ in air or vacuum and the speed of i absolute refractive index of that medium can be expressed 28, The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to the medium 1 can be expressed in terms of their absolute refractive indices as, where n, and n, are the absolute refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. According to Snell's law, But, So, Snell's law can also be expressed as, AC TeU Ta 1. Acoin dipped in water appears to be raised due tothe __of light. 2, Theabsolute refractive indices of two media A and B are 2 and 1.5 respectively. If the ‘speed of light in medium B is 2 x 108 m/s, calculate the speed of light in Vacuum speed of lightin vacuum or air _ © ‘n= speed of light in a tranparent medium ight in another transparent medium is v the», Vv Ua Pee ee IL Ree eR a) Pee Ree ees + Refraction of light is the phenomeno: bending of a ray of light at the inter: of the two different media when trave from one transparent medium to ano’ transparent medium. + A light ray that is incident normal to» interface of the two different optical travels in the same direction, but © different speed. + Alight ray passing from a rarer to a ders: medium bends towards the normal, wv’ a light ray passing from a denser to a 53 ‘medium bends away from the normal. The frequency of a light ray always remo changes during refraction. of light in a medium depends ©ta == Critoes angte ta the angie of Incidence raya of light are no tanger refracted Dut totally + Total internal reflection ia the phenos f reflection of light raya into the same 1 9 Psa sata bcs + Refractive Index and Snel THINK & REFLECT . . : ry DEL uc Ey Cos ons pe: aaa D TOTAL INTERNAL REF Lael ped it) 4 3 od a — oe oc [te a er)‘light ray travelling from a rarer medium medium. We know that this light ray will ds the normal. As the angle of incidence the angle of refraction also increases. t from Snell's law, we infer that the angle tion will always be smaller than the angle So, even when the incident ray is parallel to the interface of the two media (angle of incidence is 90°), it undergoes refraction and enters the denser medium. Thus, for any angle of incidence, the ray travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium will always undergo retraction while entering the denser medium. 90° Rarermedium enue ey 4 light ray travelling from an optically At @ particular angle of incidence, the light ray to. rarer medium. We know that it will travels along the interface of the two media after undergoing refraction. For this angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90°. The angle of incidence for which the angle of retraction is 90° is known as the critical angle. ‘ay travelling from a denser medium to a rarer | the angle of incidence for which the angle of is known as the critical angle for the givenSS a ee 7, aM eee tt) The phenomenon of complete reflection of light into the same medium, when it travels from a denser Medium to a rarer medium and at an angle of incidence Greater than the critical angle is known as total internal reflection (TIR). Total internal reflection of light at water-air interface Total internal reflection is the reason why a diamond Critical anole while @ piece of glass does not. The refractive ind, diamond is very high (approx 2.42) and the critical a the diamond-air pair is around 24.4", which is very low The surfaces of a diamond are cut in such a way that entering it strikes its internal faces at an angle greate the critical angle. Due to this, the light rays undergc total internal reflections at the various faces of the ‘When these rays strike a face of the diamond at ar smaller than the critical angle, they undergo ref instead of total internal reflection and reach our eyes. |t to these multiple reflections of light rays inside the d that it appears to sparkle. The same thing does not happen in a piece of glass, cut in the same shape because the critical ang SGlass-sir pair of media is relatively higher. Thus, light rays directly undergo refraction and emerge w undergoing any total internal reflectionSe ee | PU Ma LF “Bonsider 2 Hight ray travelling from glass (denser im) tor (rarer medium) such that the angle of refraction is 90° ‘and the angle of incidence (i) st Ho the ctitical angle (c) for the glass-air eoere cs = critical angle, ¢ ie the absolute refractive index of glass and Also, angle of incidence, absolute refractive index of air ay _ Therefore, ' sin 90 % me sinc = %* (since sin 90° = 1) Rarer medium 7 find the critical angle for From this equation, we can the glass-air interface if the known. \eir refractive indices are Therefore, for any given pair of media, the critical angle is given by Fem Srellsiew, "=n, 2] sinr where, n, and n, are the absolute refractive indices of Where n,. is the refractive index of air with respect the rarer medium and denser medium respectively. toglass. nS oa QP: Or f a Seen ion of light can be found in optical ea a Rn Tee eM Meee eee Ue em Meme cey Re i Ray Ne RL active index of the core and the Mere nc cian Ss aewv a ae Learn Total Internal Reflection PUT sel a rag Oe dium is uniform, that is, the optical density is cons,., h jabove discussions, itis presumed that the me! e fake mediom, th 1, not medium has @ uniform optical density. Both optical q medium. However, not every ct, atmospheric air sometimes acts , ye index of a medium may vary across its length. In fa ting optical illusion known as a mirage. medium which results in an interest #21 MIRAGE FORMATION is an optical phenomenon generally observed during hot summers. It involves the on of anillusion of water ata distance. The illusion isa result of refraction of light through if layers of atmospheric air at different temperatures. On sunny days, the ground is so hot that it heats up the layer of air near the ground. With se in height from the ground, the temperature of air decreases gradually. Cold air is index. This results in an increase in the than warm air and thus has a higher refractive density of air with increasing height (or as we move from lower t0 uPPEF layers of air) as depictes figure. ee Cool air Refracted sunlight Interface of two adjacent ray Keeps moving away esa point where the of air.the angle of incidence is more than the critic; reflected back into the same medium, that is, i fefraotions untilit reaches the eyes of the observer, al angle, the ray undergoes total internal reflection and in the upward direction. These rays will undergo multiple Now, to an observer standing far away, these distorted light rays do not seem to be coming from the tree. instead, the observer thinks that the light must have come from something on the ground which can possibly produce a reflection of the tree, say a pool of water eRe Stars are very far away from us and hence appear as point sources of light. The refractive index of the atmosphere varies continuously with time. When light from the stars passes through different layers of air in the atmosphere of varying temperatures and densities, it undergoes refractions of different degrees. Hence, the amount of light reaching the observer after these refractions also varies. This is the reason why stars appear to twinkle. Planets, on the other hand, are relatively closer to Earth and do not appear as point sources of light. Thus, they can be considered as a collection of point sources (or a disk) of light.The intensity of light from all the points combined also remains unchanged. This is why planets do not twinkle, + Fora lightray travelling froma denser to a rarer medium, the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90" is known as the critical angle, + Total internal reflection occurs when a light ray travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for the given pair of denser-rarer media.inmbsnianiainse~ (@ aracuance a virtual image of an ms a virtual * Acconvex lens can form a real or objer whereas a concave lens always for Ray diagrams are used to represent the position, size, and nature of the image formed by a lens. ure of the deviation of the incident light ra power. + The mea produced by a lens is expressed in terms of its A wn = | | | e i) [== | — _— w* Ee) eee Ae San e's oc We know that both the surfaces of a glass slab are flat. However, when one (or both) of its surfaces are made spherical (or curved), it is called a lens. A magnifying glass is a lens having both its surfaces curved outwards, but how do curves in the surface of a lens enable it to burn paper? Let's look at the physics behind this phenomenon. A lens having both its surfaces curved inwards such that it is thicker at the edges than its centre is called a concave lens Concave lens Whereas, a lens having both its surfaces curved outwards such that it is thicker at the centre than Convexiens its edgesis called a convex lens.rays are incident es heyband: 3 normal as glass cal gaits these refracted light rays a args temtheather surface they bend away from the nora ‘because travelling from a denser medium (glass) to a Saal ages eats labelled 2, 4,, and Salso bend the rays of light in a similar manner. The ray incident on glass slab 3 passes through without any deviation. This is because i acts as a parallelsided glass slab with the ray incident norma) to its surface. ‘All these small glass slabs bend the ineoming rays of ight such that they merge at a common point known as the principal focus. When light rays strike the surface ofa convex lens, they undergo, refraction and converge at a point. All the heat and light energy gets focused at this point, causing the paper to burn However, if these small slabs are arranged in such a manner that the outer surfaces of the lens so formed are curved inwards, the incoming light appears to diverge from the principal focus as shown in the figure. Since a glass slab does not converge the light rays incident on it, itis not capable of burning paper. Peete tl small letters and texts to TT aCeof the Spherical lens can Part of a sphere whose radius of curvature (R), and whose the centre of curvature (c), ic centre of the lens is known as the fe (0) and the line joining it to the ture is known as the principal axis, 3 of the principal focus from the optic ae lens is known as the focal length is approximately equal to half the ire of the lens. Principal ‘ ; wis $F Fa eh two refracting surfaces, it will (orak) joa" 2) ‘of curvature (C, and C.), two radii , SERA M centre and R.), and two principal foci (F, Convex lens Principal axis Ci (or2F,) Concave lens Teena Sea el Cee ener aca) axis get focused at a point after striking the surface of a magnifying glass. In what direction will a light ray travel after striking the magnifying glass in each of the giveneRe in When a ray of light strikes a convex lens parallel to the principal axis, it passes through the focus. So, when its path is reversed, that is, when it passes through the focus, it gets refracted parallel to the principal axis as shown. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens interacts with that part of the lens for which the refracting surface is assumed to be a plane surface. Although the ray of light undergoes lateral displacement, the refracting ray is parallel to the incident ray. Moreover, this lateral displacement can be neglected in the case of thin lenses. Thus, it can be concluded that the ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens passes undeviated, Similarly, a light ray incident on a concave lens gets refracted in the following manner: We know that the image of a point object is formed by the intersection of at least two rays of light emergin, from the point. In the case of a lens, these two rays (the one passing through the focus and the one passin through the optic centre) are very useful for drawing the ray diagrams to obtain the position of the image { different positions of the object. e Le OTA BS att mes Depending upon the distance of the object from a spherical lens, the nature and position of the image formed by convex and concave lenses can be obtained, © CIID. Nature of the image Real, inverted, and highly diminished (point sized){tis interesting to note that inthe case of a concave lens, for any position of the object, the image formed is always virtual, upright, and diminished. PITSTOP! 269 i 4, 2 Virtual, upright and highly diminished (point sized) Virtual, upright. and diminishecbetweer i Pit wes a distance of the object from the optical centre SEs axores: '9¢ from the optical centre (image distance, v), and the pressed by an equation known as the lens equation or lens Pn ta een Te a a Pe eeu tt et Run Cae alias PL cue pm scGn Ee er me OU aid Ce) er Pe ie Cu cur ea bject distance u is 30 cm and the focal length fis 20 om. Thus, if we use the lens formula, distance v as 12 om. nm y the ray diagram, we observe that the image distance in the first case is more than that ‘the first case, the image is formed at a distance of more than twice the focal length of 40 om. Also, the image is formed behind the lens, whereas in the second case, the Jess than the focal length of the lens, that is, less than 20 cm from the lens, andthose below,image distance for each case using the sign convention, ~30 om, focal length (f) = 20 om (convex lens). sign indicates that the image is on the ) Jens as the object. ‘re in coherence with the observations Thus, the lens formula is valid only on is followed. By knowing the distance between the Moon uo & ie g ; ‘and Earth, an astronomer can easily find the eer tt i 8 size of the celestial body using his telescope ; ind mathematical tools such as the similarity s the Me Tr OE td * : gee — of triangles. Using the similarity of triangles in ‘the ray diagrams for convex and concave lenses, we can find out the value by which the image height has increased or reduced with respect to the object height. This relationship of the height of the image and the object with the image and object distance is known as the magnificationLearn Spherical Lens 42 Class 10 CBSE Science Using proper sign convention, the sign of the magnification obtained for different types of len, Summarised as follows, Magnificatic, cation produced by a convex a ae Coty wee ay Optical engineering is the field of science that focuses on the various applications of optics (a bra Physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light). It deals with the design of optical instrur, Such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other equipments that utilise the properties of light physics and chemistry. od PPE A convex lens converges parallel light rays, ot 1. The power ofa concave lens is __ while a concave lens diverges them. {positive/negative). * A convex lens can form a real or a virtual f 2. An object of height 5 cm is plac image of an object, buta concave lens always Bac Perpendicular to the principal axis of forms a virtual and diminished image. concave lens of focal length 10 crm + The power of a lens is equal to the reciprocal distance of the object from the optic. of its focal length, Centre of the lens is 20 cm, determine Position, nature, and size of the image * The magnification produced by a lens is formed using the lens formula. equal to the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.“poysiuiwip pue jenuia s} oBew aup ‘2ousH} (y) elo ap jo aoe (4) eBews exp yoryBiey ~ POS7 Learn Dispersion of Light 44 Class 10 CBSE Science ONT a3 Eye defects can be corrected by using lenses appropriate power. wit Rainbows are produced due to a combin refraction, total internal reflection, and dispe sunlight. + Particles larger than the wavelength of the incident lin, scatter it in all directions. Refraction + Spherical Lenses THE HUMAN EYE Let's first understand the structure and functioning of the hum eye to answer this question. O@ED The human eye is the most sensitive organ in the human body. It enables us to see objects and the colourful world around us. as a oy S a ie fo) = S wn [= | fies Le i rT) The human eye consists of a transparent thin membrane known as the cornea that bulges out from the Surface of the eye. The cornea acts as the outermost lens of Pupil the eye. It functions cise like a window that Comea controls and focuses light into the eye.- Learn Dispersion of Light 45 Class 10 CBSE Science genind the cornea, exists a pupil and an ii. The pupitiea small hole through which light enters the eye.The size of the pupil determines the amount of light entering into the eye. The iris is @ thin circular structure that controls the size of the pupil and thereby the amount of light entering into the eye. Dilated pupil oie! When our eyes are exposed to fat fe bright light, the size of the pupil & reduces, thereby preventing a ‘excess light from entering the ‘eye. When we suddenly move to a room with low light, the pupil takes some time to expand in order [ Ushtbeem Light beam 10 allow more light to enter the eye. Thus, we are not able to see Pupil . objects clearly for some time in a ~ ij-—* Pupil . Ww dark room: TCL acne Pe uu ee aay ren cet reaches our eyes. How do we perceive Ree R RUC eeu Co The light reflected from an object enters our eyes through the pupil after which it passes through a double convex crystalline lens. The lens focuses the light on a screen known as the retina where a real and inverted image is formed. The retina is made up of millions of light-sensitive cells that generate electrical signals when light falls on them. These signals are then transmitted to the brain through optic nerve fibres that are located at the rear of our eyes. The brain interprets these signals and processes them in such a way that we perceive the objects as they actually are. The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape and has a diameter of about 2.3 cm. Therefore, the distance: ‘of the image from the lens is about 2.3 cm which remains unchanged for any position of the object. In order ‘the image distance unchanged for any position of the object, the focal length of the eye lens needs to accordingly. Jens formula, we can say that lens can form an image of an objectat a fixed distance for: ‘the object only if the focal length of the lens varies. Since the focal length of alens: denen ‘variable focal length can be achieved only if the lens is able to change its shape.Bree SC OO C CORR uC a Okc a e LCD Ge f Moe aye ions is attached to ciliary musclos that can expand or contract to change the radii of curvature of th. ‘Due to the change in radii of curvature, the focal length of the lens changes. Thin lone ‘You look at a distant object, the ciliary ee relax and the lens becomes thin, — Inereases the focal length of the lens ‘to form a clear image on the retina, Thick lens when you look at an object closer ‘eye, the ciliary muscles contract and ‘becomes thicker, This decreases the ath of the lens in order to forma clear on the retina, Ka,(very small) ‘of the eye lens to adjustits focal length is known as the power of accommodation of the eye, The ‘Cannot decrease its focal length below a certain limit, otherwise, the ciliary muscles will get strained ly. Therefore, a minimum distance exists at which the eye can see the object clearly. This distance is 'as the least distance of distinct vision or near point. For a normal human eye, itis approximately 25 orm af, the maximum distance at which a normal human eye can see an object clearly is infinity. It is known ‘point. rennet 2 Re Cit is Pay Sut uy any aid by which his/her vision canecm... Sometimes people cannot see objects clear [x] sheen intr een Ths the vion decane mean Power semmeceionsl ‘There can be many reasons for this loss of clear vision. Three defects of the ‘human eye can be summarised as given in the table. oh e ee ae Inthisdefect of | + Image formation of Acconcave lens with a f vision, a person distant objects is in front | suitable power can be t can see nearby of the retina. used to rectify this defect. objects clearly + Excessive curvature of |_| This concave lens diverges | Bitcaninct see the eye lens (shorter focal _| the light rays a little so that, j distant objects length of the eye lens). the image is formed on the jeune retina, Elongation of the eyeball. Aconvex lens with a suitable power can be used to rectify this defect. This lens slightly converges the ight rays so that the image is formed on the retina. In this defect of {| vision, a person can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects. Image formation of distant objects is behind the retina. + Increase in the focal length of the eye lens. + Reduced size of the eyeball. Aperson suffering : Hypermetropia (far-sightedness) This eye defect arises due to gradual weakening of ciliary; from both myopia and muscles with age and hence hypermetropia requires reduces their ability to adjust; a bi-focal lens which is the focal length of the eye acombination of both lens. concave and convex lenses. ‘The upper portion of this lens consists of a concave objects clearly lens that facilitates distant and distinctly. vision, while the lower part isa convex lens that Sometimes, facilitates near vision. -@ person may | For some people, recedes away rom normal near point. Thus, the person is not able to. see nearbySete ww aa i Meta A oer ey Soe Cent Tey Scr ts eect eC elt bys EUdict tet td 88 white light is actually made up of a combination of several colours. The for: Which sunlight splits into its seven component: colours, is evidence of the same. Consider an example of white light falling on a green-colo ‘When the white light falls on the book, the light rays of all ‘except green are absorbed by the book and green colour is it, When this reflected green light reaches our eyes, the by ‘green-coloured. Similarly, for any coloured object, when wi On the object, the object absorbs the light rays of all colours Colour of the object. Hence, the colour of an object depen colour of the light reflected by it. To demonstrate that white light is made of seve understand the phenomenon of dispersion of light. eaten OM aes rd er Deen Mation of 3 ured boo, the colours Feflected by 00k appears ite light falig €XCEDI the 148 on the al colours, let ys |Which leads to the dispersion of Seven constituent colours of white (1), blue (B), green (@), yeliowpee | en a The larger the speed (or the wavelenath) of the light, the smaller the angle of refraction, The wavelength of red light is longest, while that of the violet light is the shortest. Thus, the deviation of red light is the least, while that of violet light is the most. Hence, red light is obtained at the top of the spectrum and violet light at the bottom. PR eesti Pe kk the prism, while all its constituer a ‘olours only deviate from its path on wpe {A glass slab has two paralel retracting surfaces. When white light is Ray of white light incident on one of its refracting surfaces, it refracts and even disperses. However, when these different coloured light rays refract from the other surface of a glass slab, they emerge as a parallel spectrum of light. If the ‘width of the glass slab is not large enough, this dispersion is difficult to \ observe with the naked eye and the spectrum appears to be white light. \\ Dispersion Incident ray Similar to the rectangular glass slab, dispersion also occurs in the case of a Dispersed colours spherical lens. However, due to the smaller width of the lens, the dispersion paralieltoeach other, is not observable with the naked eye, and the emergent light appears to be white, Dispersion of white light takes place whenever it undergoes refraction. This is due to the fact that refractive index of the medium depends upon the wavelength of the light rays. There are several examples in our day-to- day life where the dispersion takes place. Dispersion is one of the reasons behind rainbow formation. oem & A rainbow is a natural spectrum formed in the sky wii during or after a rainfall in the presence of sunshine. Q a fromthe gun f ee The tiny raindrops present in the atmosphere act as glass prisms and split the sunlight into its constituent colours. When sunlight falis on the raindrops, it is retracted and split into its constituent colours. These colours (spectrum) undergo total internal Teflection and finally refract out of the Taindrops. They reach our eyes in the form of an arc of seven colours known Total internal reflection of spectrum