Influence of Control Design

on Energetic Performances of an Electric Vehicle

K. Chen"3, P. Delarue13, A. Bouscayrol13, R. Trigui2'3,
L2EP Lille, US]? L, 59 655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
2LTE, INRETS, 69 675 Bron, France
3MEGEVH national project, http://12ep.univ-lillel .fr/megevh.htm
Corresponding Author: Alain Bouscayrol
Tel: 33-3-20-43-42-53, Fax: 33-3-20-43-69-67, E-mail: Alain.Bouscayrol@univ-lillel.fr

Abstract - The influence of the choice of controller design on the a control scheme is systematically deduced from this causal
efficiency of an EV is discussed in this paper. A classical modeling. As previous works have been developed using EMR
2-driven-wheels traction with a Permanent Magnet Synchronous for EV and 1HEV, this tool is extended with models taking
Machine (PMSM) is studied. Energetic Macroscopic Representa- losses into account.
tion (EMR) is used for the modeling of the system with different
losses. A simplified model is used to define the control scheme. In
order to find out the influence of control design on energetic
performance, the model taking losses into account is used to assess 1. MODELING OF AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE CONSIDERING LosSES
this control. Simulation results and comparative studies are pro-
vided.
A. Structure ofthe Studied Vehicle Traction System
Keywords - Electric Vehicle, Modeling, Efficiency, Control
The traction drive is composed of a set of batteries, a Voltage
I. INTRODUCTION Source Inverter (VSI) and a Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Machine (PMSM) (Fig. 1). The shaft of the machine is con-
Presently, with the aim to significantly reduce fuel consumption nected with two driven-wheels through a fixed speed reduction
and exhaust emission, Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid gear and a differential.
Electric Vehicles (lEVs) are more and more developed [1] [2].
EVs can provide emission-free urban transportation and higher i I QwhI
h Tdiffl
efficiency than Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs). V T Tgear
But at the moment, because of the reduced EVs' autonomy and Vbat *
long charging time of battery, HEVs become a compromise T2 wh2Tdjf2
between EVs and ICEVs. However, because of the simple iein
structure of EVs, the study of its energetic performance may be
an interesting step for the HEVs'. Fig. 1 Traction system scheme of the studied vehicle

The efficiency of such systems is thus a key point of their de-
velopment. A lot of previous studies have been made to im-
prove efficiency acting on design of power components [3].
Some optimal controls also have been suggested [4].
This paper is focused on the influence of the choice of con-
troller design on the efficiency of an EV for a given control
scheme. A model taking into account losses is firstly developed
and checked. Then, a control scheme is defined from a simple
model. Finally, influence ofthe control parameters is studied to
improve the efficiency. This study isa preliminary work before
anproextheensiooeVcy.
an extension to H-EV.n
EMR (Energetic Macroscopic Representation) is used for this
study. EMR is a graphical modeling tool to describe electro-
mechanical systems [5] (see Appendix). Using inversion rules,
B. EMR of the Vehicle Traction System with Losses Modeling
The system is described using EMR. Pictograms are defined for
each component in function of their energy property. The
model considering the losses has the same global EMR as the
simple one that is depicted in the upper part of Fig. 4.
Battery Model with losses - The battery is an Electrical
Source (Fig. 4: ES, oval), which delivers the DC voltage Vbat to
supply the traction system. This one reacts by a circulating
current iin,v We choose an electrical equivalent circuit (Fig. 2)
[6]. The open-circuit voltage v0 is a function of
State-Of-Charge (SOC). Two resistances Rd and Rc represent
the difference of charging and discharging efficiency.

0-7803-9761-4/07/$20.00 ©)2007 IEEE 306

 Rd Rd ~~~~inv
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
45
~~~VoI~~tage(V),
Rc ii ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

35

Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit model of a battery 3 A

Vbat Rinv +v 2 =

Charge: R=R (1) v(experimental] +

2 vbat of discharge (experimental)
t Vbat of chare (experimental
=d+ vbat of disc harge (equivalent circuit)
0 vbat of charge (equivalent circuit)
The simulation of one cell is compared by the tests conducted 100 90 so 70 60 50 40 30 20
on 18650
on at the
cells at
18650 cels the 1 IC rate ** [7.
C rate shows that the
[7]. Fig. 3 shws theSOC (%}
Fig. 3 Discharge - charge curves of tests and of Simulation at the 1 C rate
simulation results of one cell are very close to the experimental
results. Our Electrical Source consists of 30 units, which comprises 6
cells (3 groups in parallel of 2 cells in series).

Battery Inverter PMSM Fixed spee1dDfferential Wheels Chasss n I viron.

reduction gear

.2f
_ ~~~~~fg Td,v Fh2 tRo .

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4::
4- 2. : , 4.-/-g--k I'

Else~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 4 EMR and Control structure based on a simple model

VSI model considering losses - The total losses (the switching In one period of sinusoidal AC currents, Is could be calculated
and conduction losses) depend mainly on the AC RMS current by:
Is under the assumption of sinusoidal AC currents [8]. We 1.2 .2
extend this conclusion by a function of the RMS value Aw the A5 = ilah + 1,(4)
DC link voltage Vbat and switching frequencyfSw.
The currents i'a and iA transformed by Concordia matrix:
If IsjO0then Pin 0

p
~~ ~ ~~~lg If modlaio strteg is '['/=
-( -;
KJ
40 11
s2!"i, (5w)
P1,V is the inverter losses froelg fmdlto taeyi
symmetrical, the inverter losses of 3-phase is: f', f2 andf3 are the coefficients in function of DC link voltage
p _ p3 Vbat and modulation frequencyfSw. The general relation forf (t2,
imlV3p imi (3 J 2 orf3) iS:

* The charging or discharging rate of a cell or battery, expressed in terms of its total storage capacity in Ah or mAh. So a rate of 1iC means transfer of all of the stored
energy in one hour.

307
 f (Vbat fsw)= ali a2ifsw+ a3ivbat + 700
w15kHz, t=240V (IPOSIM)
2 2 (6) s w=15kHz, at=240V (Model )
+ a4ifsw + a5ivbat + a6iJswvbat 600 fw=21kHz,Vat=180V1(POS1M)
-__ I=2kK
1zat=1SQlV MVodele1 /
with i E {1,2,3}. The coefficients a11, a21, a31, a4, and a5, are
500
/
written by the form of matrix a as l/
YEs 400 e
ai =a,1,a2 _,a3 _ 1a4 _,a5 i4 (7)
300
The matrix ai could be calculated by Taguchi's Methodology
using manufacturer data or from the results given by manu- 200
facturers.
100
In order to reduce the simulation time, an average converter
modeling is usually used. The relationship between the DC link . l lll
voltage Vbat and AC voltages can be expressed as [9]: 0 50 100 160 200 250 300 350 400 450
Is (A)
S1l -S31 ml7 Fig. 5 Inverter losses of IGBT FF400R06KE3 600V-400A by calculation
U 21 s LI Vbatt=lfbat of IPOSIM and by simulation of our model
S21 -
S23 M2- (8)
PMSM model - The model of PMSM is described in a general
SI e { m e I d-q rotating reference frame (Fig. 4: a square and a rectangle).
A more detailed model considering the losses is depicted in Fig.
Su is switching functions and m is the modulation vector. The EMR. So firstly we need the transformation [T(O)](Fig.
average canbbuilbaseonheenrgycns7
average model can be built based on the energy conservation
model using
7:sur)whcexessstorvlasu
principle. The instantaneous power on the DC side Pdc must be and stator currents
the same as that of the AC side Ps adding the inverter losses: b in the (d, q) frame:
Pdc = Ps + Pinv3p s_pdq = [T((s1d
Vbatlinv = Vslisl + Vs2is2 + Vs3.s3 + Pinv 3p is [T(Os/d s dq
(12)

Vbati/nv = Usl3 sl + Us231s2 + Pinv 3p Fig. 6 shows the d-q axes equivalent circuits of PMSM
= +including the iron loss [11]. Two equivalent resistances are
Vbat inv = m vbat Is + Pinv 3p introduced respectively to represent the hysteresis (k1w) and
The DC current is: eddy-current losses (Rio).
m vbat is + Pinvhs3p
bat
m bat + (d+) q + q +
Li +
Vsd V1T ed Vs n eq
t. 3p (I+ - q k +
'bat -!i?L' + -
e

Vbat
t.
'bat m 1 s + Ip Fig. 6 Equivalent circuits of d-axis and q-axis for PMSM
We introduce a fictive current ip that represent the inverter includingironlosses
losses: Equivalent Park Rs Parallel Magnetic Electromechanical Equivalent
Pn Electrical ransformation (13) Coupling windings conversion Mechanical
i=ffinv 3p (11) Source (12) (14) (16) (17)(22)(24) source

In EMR a converter is depicted by a square (see Fig. 4). Fig. 5

shows the same results of simulation using this model as those _ isd _
calculated by the program IPOSIM that is supplied by eupec for 0
the inverter losses of IGBT [10]. <ILron losses>
(15)

Fig. 7 EMR of PMSM including losses

308
According to these equivalent circuits, the voltage equation is eddy current loss which is proportional to the product of the
expressed as (Fig. 7: square): square of electrical angular velocity and the square of flux
linkage, the third term is the hysteresis loss which is propor-
JVmd Vsd -Rsisd tional to the product of the angular velocity and the square of
{vtmq = v sq -R s i sq (13) flux linkage, and the fourth term is the sum of the output me-
chanical power pu and the mechanical losses pm:
with the stator resistance Rs. The two equivalent iron loss re- T Q = pu + PM (21)
sistances (Rio and k1w) are inserted in parrallel. Thus, the d-q em gear
axes line currents (isd, isq ) are divided into iron loss currents (iid, With the torque equation (Fig. 7: circle):
iiq) and magnetizing currents (imd, imq). So we have a parallel
coupling (Fig. 7: overlapped square): Ter n Pnmq [(De+ (Ld-Lq)lmd] (22)
(isd = imd + ifd The mechanical equation is:
i +i (14) Ten -TT,-T = J d g (23)

These iron loss currents (iid, iiq) are expressed as following (Fig. with the load torque T, and an equivalent losses torque Tp ex-
7: square): pressed as:
C. vmd Vmd Tp =am0Sign(Qgear)+a 1Q gear (24)
d=
|f RkAco
+
amo and amn are the mechanical losses coefficients. And the
d V (15) mechanical losses are:

lifd Rrn + k,w Pm Tp gear (25)

Fig. 8 shows the results of simulation and of tests supplied by
These magnetic windings are presented by (Fig. 7: rectangle): L2ES Belfort [12] for the iron losses and mechanical losses of a
F Vmd d
ed =L dt
. PMSM.
- md 4000

Iv mq q q
d
dImq (16)

with the electromechanical conversion (Fig. 7: circle):

(17) 26
- -1 -7) - 250- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

UeCl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'D
= 1qE00 --------- r-------- r-------- r-------- -------- T------- T-----

where the flux linkages are given as:

wh reth flu in a e ar2iena: 1000 L---------------------------- --------'----I'--------'-I-------'----------
{(Dd Lqlrnq (18) 566 ___ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~simulati
l)q Ldmd
d + 5008
zz
+experimention
w denotes the electrical angular velocity: L I_
6 56 166 156 200 250 300 350 400
a) PO gear (19) Angular Velocity (rpm)
Fig. 8 Iron losses and mechanical losses of a PMSM of L2ES
withp number of pole pairs and Qgear the rotation velocity.
In steady state condition, the input power Pin is expressed as
, m ~~~~~~~~Mechanical transmission system - In order to simplify our
Pin = Vsd isd + Vsq isq problem at this stage, neither the contact law nor curving road
2 (;t d 2+( ) will be discussed. And the lateral motion of the vehicle is not
Pin = Rs(i + q ) +
Rfo
+f q +
(20)
taken into account here. The modeling of this part is classical
modeled as [13]:
w)(1)d 2 + q2) The gearbox (Fig. 4: triangular) leads to the gearbox torque
K1f + Pi1mq {P e +(LdS - Lq )lmd }QS; gear Tgear and the rotation speed .2gear respectively from the machine
torque and the rotation speed of the differential shaft using the
where the first term is the copper loss, the second term is the gearbox ratio kgear:

309
 Tgear kkgearTern measurement. Actually, the velocity controller corresponds to
(26) the behavior of driver.
L Q gear -k
- gear diff
- Coupling elements (overlappedpictograms) require criterion
The differential (Fig. 4: double triangle) leads to an equal dis- inuto inerio.
tribution of the geartribuionotheeartrquegea
speeds of each wheelQ.2h] andQ.2h2:
enablesdiFor
torque Tgea and enables different rotation iptfrivrin
instance, the mechanical coupling of chassis (29) is in-
verted using a distribution input kD [13]:
(Tdih' = Tdih' 2 = 2-Tge>crr (27)1 r_f Dtot ref , (32)
q
1
~~~~~~~~ IF ~
re=~~~~~~~~~~~~~(2
(I-k7) )Ftot_ref
)F
LF~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~wh2f
(k
laQ dig I + Q dif 2 )
-
2 with 0< kD <1 . In order to ensure an equal repartition of
The losses ofthis part are in function of rotation speeds like the forces, kD is set to 1/2 as in most of traction applications.
mechanical losses of a machine.
pdfdif7f-JftV Ao
=

diff I)Af(
IJ + J t
diff if2(8
difl 2J (28)
- Other elements can be directly inverted.
An example is the inversion of the fixed speed reduction gear.
The wheel (Fig. 4: triangle) converts a rotational motion to a The reference torque of the electric machine is obtained by the
linear motion as in [13]. The chassis (Fig. 4: double triangle) direct inversion (26):
leads to the total traction force Ftot from the wheel forces and 1
the wheel velocities from the vehicle velocity vev: T = T f (33)
common v gear

tFt F +F (29) More details of the control structure of an EV can be found in

[13]. The only different is electrical machine: induction ma-
The vehicle velocity vev is obtained using the classical dynamics chine is used in [13] instead of a PMSM here.
relationship (Fig. 4: rectangle) with the traction and resistant
forces, Ftot and Fres:
Ftot Fres =Meq ~d
IV. INFLUENCE OF CONTROL DESIGN
ve (30)
dt
with M the mass of the vehicle. And the environment is a In order to be aware of the influence of the control design on
Mechanical Source (Fig. 4: MS) as in [13]. energetic performance, the model in consideration of losses is
used to evaluate this control established from the simple model
(Fig. 9). For the same control scheme, several studies can be
made by simulation using Matlab-SimulinkTm.
III. CONTROL BASED ON A SIMPLE MODEL
Design ofthe control Evaluation of this control
-I r.------_.
A Maximum Control Structure (MCS) is obtained from EMR
using inversion rules [14] (lower part of Fig. 4). A simplified iicrI
model is used here to define the control scheme. This simple _ i
model has the same global EMR as the modeling with losses.
- An accumulation element (rectangle) is inverted by means of 1 "Inveion"
a controller.
There are two accumulation element elements, so we need two CW" cbmw
I Nieasure i~~I
:msm
m im 40W h~~~~~ib Baed onilie ifi *

controllers: the current controller and the velocity controller eference

(lower part of Fig. 4). For example, the velocity controller has
to define the traction force to produce Fto ref from the
velocity set point vev ref As this element is described by an
vehicle-settiffesent controllers
integral relationship (30), a controller is required to invert it:
[13]:
Ftot = Cont[vev ref -vev_mes] +Fres_mes
- V
where Cont[Xrej-Xmesjis the controller ofvariable X. Moreover,
an explicit rejection of the resistant force is made from its
- ,
Fig. 9 Evaluation of the control based on the simple model by the model
considering the losses
(31)
sFirstly, for this given control scheme, different controllers can
be chosen. We have chosen Proportional Integral (P1) con-
troller (Fig. 10) and Integral Proportional (IP) (Fig. 11). (In-

310
fluence of other controller can be also studied.) The red part the compensation dest or not in ECE 15 drive cycle (Fig. 12 a).
represents a system (Ksy, Tsy) with a disturbance d. The blue We have the same simulation results of losses (Fig. 12 b). And
part represents controller. we have always the total efficiency (0-200s) about 80.510%. So
control design has weak influences for an ECE 15 drive cycle.
d
X+ KSS
velociltr,hkmhi . Vev mes
r r _

u 1 + 1 yS *SYmes s") . . .0Vev ref

60
40
-- -- --
--- -- ---
--------------
-\-- --------
-- .--.
---J .

-- -
I-

dgest +20t --------- -- --- /-'------------- ---

pi I 11+ LLt(s)
| | t

f 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~
'_ s0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Yref (a) Velocity of the ECE 15 drive cycle reference
Fig. 10 PI controller 1500 total io6ses(wJ
1+ I K 1ooo00------0
SYS
1 + sys. iYmes -00 -~~ - ~ ~~ -~~~ ~~-~~6------
----00
I l 0 _ 1 i i i i i i F~~~~~~~~~~0 (s
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
||
dest | (b) Evolution of total losses
N ~+ K
Uref
Kp_i.C Fig. 12 Evolution of total losses for the ECE 15 drive cycle reference
Yref

Fig. 1 IP controller

Secondly, for the same controller, different tuning can be

B. Simulation Results for a Traffic Jam
achieved in order to see if time response has an obvious impact In this case, we use a velocity reference of a trafficjam (Fig. 13).
on the efficiency. For example, it is well known that a sporting There are four possibilities considering IP and PI for both
driving leads to a higher consumption. This will be highlighted control loops (current and velocity). And we vary their setting
by simulation on the velocity loop. Moreover overshoots leads
also to anncreaseofenergy conumption. tmes: tr1 for the current loop from 0.01is to 0.04s and trV for the
velocity loop from 0.6s to 1.2s. Tab. 1 shows all their effi-
Finally the influence of disturbance compensation dest can be ciencies of different designs.
studied. Indeed, explicit compensation yields better dynamic avelocity kmThm
performance for the same controller: the controller has only to l _Ve_|-
' ev ref
ensure the reference tracking. But no study had been provided
---
- -

in terms of efficiency. 40 - . .

We calculate the efficiency by: 20

-v (s___
0 10 20
JPoutddt
30 40 60 60

Efficiency(%) - 0
T (34) Fig. 13 Velocity in traffic jam
JPbat dt Above all, we find the same results obtained if we fix the ve-
0 locity controller: same controller for the velocity loop leads to
with the output power Pout of EV and the battery power Pbat. same results (Tab. 1). So the type of current controller has
weak influences for the efficiency.

A. Simulation Results for ECE 15 Drive Cycle Secondly, we find that the efficiency increases with the setting
time of the velocity loop trV but the setting time of the current
We chose different controllers, vary their setting times and use loop tr, has weak influence for the the efficiency (Tab. 1).

311
 TAB. 1 EFFICIENCY OBTAINED BY DIFFERENT CONTROLLERS AND SETTING TIMES

IP for the velocity loop PI for the velocity loop

Effienc so2Efficiency (%) tr=1
=2s
tr=l1s tr=ls
75- -tr, ts 0 T ---- tr=0 -s
tr=0 6s trv=0s

70 -- --- -- _ _ -

001 002 0_03 0.04 0 01 0 02 0-03 0-04

tri(s} tr (sj
80
Efficien y 0E-h-: 80
- Effi- - 12s
trv=1 E | tr=1 2s

~~~~~~t Fv' SH7

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ t v' S

OGtr=06s tr=0G6s
70 --l---------
o; ------------ -------------- 70

65 6-----

~. 60 60

LI 0
0-01 0!02
trl(s)
003 00
50s 0-01 0_02
tr(s)
0-03 0-04

Then, if we fix the current controller (for example using IP), time and see the influence of disturbance compensation Fres.
chose different controllers for the velocity loop but keep the We find a litter better efficiency (several 0.10% differences)
same setting time (tr, =0,8s) for the velocity loop, we find the obtained without compensation.
different evolutions of total losses (Fig. 14). Using PI controller
for the velocity loop leads to whole efficiency of 66.50% (Tab. C. Simulation Resultsfor a Standardized Disturbed Cycle
1). But using IP controller for velocity loop leads up to whole
efficiency of 69.20% (Tab. 1). Under the actual use disturbed cycle supplied by the INRETS
3000 total losses!(W) 1 [15], we have also an obvious influence of control design on
energetic performances. Using PI controller for the velocity
20 00 -- -
-.-. loop leads to whole efficiency of 58.10%. But using IP con-
K41 troller for velocity loop leads up to whole efficiency of 62.20%.

_______________________________ 1 -2C 1velocity

iJ i kmh) | Vevmes
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 . Vev_ref
(a) Evolution of total losses using IP for the velocity control
total losses'(
:: Ir e d c y

_______----------- ___-----__-----1---0 - --
30 40 -- -0--
0

----___________________________ _________________________ 400

1000 100 200 300 400 Soo600
500 700
(b) Evolution of total losses using PI for the velocity control D. Control Design and Tuning
Fig. 14Evolutions of total losses inFtraffic jam Many tests show how to choose controllers and their setting
Finally, we use IP for the velocity control with the same setting times for an optimal efficiency:

312
- The choice of the velocity controller is decisive. In a more
general case, the controller of external loop is more im-
portant than internal loop's for the efficiency.
- In the case of a traffic jam or with many transients, if the
EV runs the same distance under a same reference velocity,
using IP for the velocity controller (external loop) leads to
a higher efficiency instead of using PI.
- If the disturbance is not compensated, a little better effi-
ciency is obtained. Thus, control without compensation is
suggested if the performance is acceptable.
- Increasing setting time leads a higher efficiency. In the
case of a traffic jam, seeking for higher time performance
iS insignificant since wait iS inevitable.is insgniicnt incwitsievtabe.[7]
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have established the modeling with the dif-
ferent losses of an EV using EMR. This modeling is used to
assess the control established from the simple model. For a
scheme it has been shown that the control designpp.517-526.
givenencontrolcontrol
gfthiv se
REFERENCES
[1] C. C. Chan, "The state of the art of electric and hybrid vehicles",
Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 90, no. 2, Feb. 2002, pp: 247-275.
[2] M. Eshani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, A. Emadi, "Modern electric, hybrid
electric and fuel cell vehicles", CRC Press, New York, 2005.
[3] W. Chen, S. Round, R.Duke, " Design of an auxiliary power distribution
network for an electric vehicle", Electronic Design, Test and
Applications, pp: 257 - 261, Jan. 2002.
[4] A. Haddoun, M. E. H. Benbouzid, D. Diallo, R. Abdessemed, J. Ghouili,
K. Srairi, " A Loss-Minimization DTC Scheme for EV Induction Motors
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 56, Issue 1, pp: 81
88, Jan. 2007.
[5] J. C. Mercieca, J. N. Verhille, A. Bouscayrol, "Energetic Macroscopic
Representation of a subway traction system for a simulation model",
IEEE-ISIE'04, pp. 1519-1524, Ajaccio (France), May. 2004
[6] W. Lee, D. Choi and M. Sunwoo, "Modeling and simulation of electric
vehicle power system", Journal of Power Sources, vol. 109, no. 1, pp.
58-66, Jun. 2002.
P. Nelson, I. Bloom, K. Amine et G. Henriksen, "Design modeling of
lithium-ion battery performance", Journal of Power Sources, vol. 1 10,
pp. 437-444, Aug. 2002.
[8] R. Trigui, F. Harel et J. Scordia, "Implementation and comparison of
Three Approaches for Energy Optimized Strategies of a Synchronous
Machine and its Inverter", Proceeding of EPE'2001, Graz (Austria),
2001.
[9] P. Delarue, A. Bouscayrol, E. Semail, "Generic control method of
multi-leg voltage-source-converters for fast practical implementation",
IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol. 18, no. 2 March 2003,

of this external
ternal
ih bee s
n thatuthe contro
control loop has an influence
[10] Eupec, "Dimensioning program IPOSIM for loss and thermal calcuation
design

on the global of eupec IGBT modules", http://www.eupec.com/(Products &

efficiency, specifically in traffic jams.
In normal operating, the velocity control loop is ensured by the
influence ofLoss Into Account", IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 19,
driver. This result iS obvious, because
driver . This result is
because we know the influence
know the
we
of
a driver. But this method will now be extended to HEVs in
order to study the influence of control design on the fuel con-
sumption. Indeed the control of HEVs is more complex because
of their various energy flows.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been made in the MEGEVH national project
supported by funds of "Region Nord-Pas-de-Calais", of "Re-
gion Franche-Comte" and of Europe (FEDER).
Solutions Simulation Tools), data consulted on the web: Mar. 2006
[1 1] N. Urasaki, T. Senjyu et K. Uezato, "Relationship of Parallel Model and
Series Model for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors Taking Iron
no. 2, pp. 265 - 270, Jun. 2004.
[12] C. Espanet, A. Miraoui, J.-M. Kauffmann, "Optimal Design of an High
Torque DC Brushless In-Wheel Motor", IEMDC'03, Madison,
Wisconsin, USA,vol.3, pp. 1402-1409, Jun. 2003
[13] A. Bouscayrol, W. Lhomme, P. Delarue, B. Lemaire-Semail, S. Aksas,
"Hardware-in-the-loop simulation of electric vehicle traction systems
using Energetic Macroscopic Representation", Proceeding of
IEEE-IECON'06, Paris, France, Nov. 2006.
[14] P. J. Barrre, A. Bouscayrol, P. Delarue, E. Dumetz, F. Giraud, J. P.
Hautier, X. Kestelyn, B. Lemaire-Semail, E. Semail, "Inversion-based
control of electromechanical systems using causal graphical
descriptions", IEEE-IECON'06, Paris, France, November 2006.
[15] M Andr6, European Development of hybrid technology approaching
efficient zero emission mobility (HYZEM), Rapport INRETS N`: LEN
9709. 1997.

APPENDIX: SYNOPTIC OF ENERGETIC MACROSCOPIC REPRESENTATION (EMR)

_ Source of energy Electromechanical Control block

converter (without without
energy accumula- controller
tion)
Electrical con- Mechanical Control block
verter converter (without with
(without energy energy accumula- controller
accumulation) tion)
> > ~Element with __ :~ Electrical ___ Mechanical cou-
1 ~energy accumula- _ coupling device _ __ Fpling device

L ~~tion - (nrydistribution) +- (energy distribution)

313